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MeasuringAttitudesinScience:WhatExactlyareweMeasuringandWhy?JaneJohnston

DepartmentofPrimaryEducation

TheNottinghamTrentUniversity

PaperpresentedatB.E.R.A.1997.

ABSTRACT:

Thispaperanalysestraditionaltoolsusedtomeasurescientificattitudesinsecondaryschoolchildrenandconsiderstheirusewithyoungerchildrenandadults.Itthendescribesthedevelopmentofalternativetoolstoelicitandmeasureattitudes,focusingonfiveaffectivedimensionslookingatindividuals'beliefsabout,

theiradoptionofscientificattitudes,theirattitudetoscientificinquiry,thesocialimplicationofscience,therelevanceofsciencethenatureofscienceandscientists.

Oncerigorouslycomparedwithmoretraditionalmeasuresandtheirvaliditythusconsidered,possiblefuturedevelopmentscanbediscussedinanswertothequestion'Whyarewemeasuringattitudes?'.

Introduction

Studyofthecomplexandnebulousareaofattitudesandsciencehasbeenontheincreaseinrecentyears,althoughhinderedbyimportantresearchquestionssuchas'Whatisanattitude?'and'Howcanwemeasureattitude?'.

Attitudescanbedescribedasposturesorpositionsadoptedorexpressionsofviewsorthoughtsthathaveaneffectonbehaviour,ideasoremotions.Thishasledtoatripartiteviewofattitude,arisingoutofHovland'sLearningTheoryModel(Hovland,Irving&Kelly,1963)whichseparatesaffective,cognitiveandbehaviouralaspectsofattitude.Thisdivisionhasbeenbothusefulandconfusingandtheredoesappeartobeasmuchoverlapasdivision,withinteractionoccuringbetweenthewayanindividualfeelsandthewaytheythinkandact.Indeed,wecanarguethataffectiveattitudesaretherootofbothcognitiveandbehaviouralattitudes,sothathowwebehaveisaresultofhowwethinkandaninterrelationofhowwefeelandthink.

Inscienceandscienceeducation,themajordivisionhasbeenintermsofscientificattitudes,thatis

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cognitiveandbehaviouralattitudesnecessarytoundertakescientificinquiry,tobescientific,andattitudestowardsscienceoraffectiveattitudes(Gardner1975,Johnston1996).

Educationhasgenerallyfocusedonchangingscientificattitudeswhicharerootedinbehaviourandcognition(e.g.Harlen,1977a&b).Research,ontheotherhand,hasconcentratedonidentifyingaspectsofaffectiveattitudes(Fraser1978)andtheeffectsofaffectiveattitudesonbehaviourandcognition(Fraser1982,Shrigley1990),oftenbasedonAjzen&Fishbein's(1980)theoryofreasonedaction.

Theimportanceofaffectiveattitudesisgenerallyaccepted.Theyarethoughttoinfluencepersonalandsocialdecisionmaking(Millar,1997)aswellasaffectperformanceinschoolscience(NCC1989,Johnston,1996,Harlen1996)andespeciallyuptakeofscienceathigherlevels(Sears1992,Havard1996).IntheUK,therecentinterestindevelopingthepublicunderstandingofscience,throughtheworkoftheRoyalSocietyandtheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandmostparticularlytheNationalWeekofScience,EngineeringandTechnology,hasbeencriticizedforfocusingon'flagwaving'(Thomas,1997)addressingsuperficialaffectiveattitudesratherthantherootcausesofattitude.

Botheducationandresearchhashighlightedthecontinuedneedforthedevelopmentofaffectiveattitudestoscience,notonlyinchildrenbutteachersandinitialteachertrainingstudents(Johnston,Ahtee&Hayes1996,Watters&Ginns,1994),aswellasparents(ASE,1992Johnston,1995).Someprojectse.g.parentalinteractiveworkshops,describedbyElandetal.(1995)andSEARCH(ScienceEducationandResearchforCHildren)describedbyBruceetal(1997),advocatecollaborativemethodsofattitudechange.Thisisinrecognitionthatdevelopmentofattitudewilloccurthroughearlyinteractionswithfamily,teachersandpeers,beinginfluencedbyunconsciousprejudices,interestsandideas.

MeasuringAttitudes.

Measurementofaffectiveattitudeshasbeenproblematicastherearequestionsaboutwhatattitudesarebeingmeasuredandhowtheyaremeasuredbutquestionsaboutthequestioningcontextandthevalidityoftheresponse.

Anumberofresearchershaveaddressedtheproblemofmeasuringattitudestosciencebydevisingsemanticdifferentialtests(e.g.Ahtee&Rikkinen1995)orsubjectpreferencestudies(e.g.Havard1996).Whilstthesetestsareeasytoadministerproblemsofanalysisandinterpretationcanoccur,astheyareoftendecontextualizedanddonotmeasureattitudechange.MorecommonmeasurementsinvolvetheuseofLikerttypescales(1932),whichmeasureattitudewithinidentifieddimensions(e.g.NBEET1993).Thesetoo,areoftendecontexualized,butevenifsetwithinaspecificcontexttheycanposedifficultiesbecausegeneralizationscannotbemade(Driveret.al1996).Suchscalescanalsoposeanalyticaldifficultiesbecausetheyarenotnecessarilyunidimensionalandinternallyconsistent(Gardner1995),buteventhosestatisticalsoundscaleshavebeenfoundtobeoflimiteduse,particularlywithgroupsotherthansecondaryschoolchildren.Likerttypescaleswithalargenumberofstatementsmaynotbecarefullyconsideredbyadultswhowillveertowardsthemiddlegroundinresponding,orindicateespousedviews,thusgivinglittleindicationoftheirimplicitviewsorhowtheseviewsaffectdecisionsoractions.Theattitudesyoungchildrenholdtowardsscienceandscientistsareoftengaugedusinga'drawascientist'test(Chambers1983).Morerecentstudies(A.S.E.1997)havefocusedontheespousedviewsofyoungchildreninanswertosetquestions,althoughthefocusremainsprimarilyonviewsofscienceandscientists.

Thereseemstobeaneedforformativemeasures,ofusewithawideagerangeofindividualsfromchildthroughtoadultwhichexplainattitudesandalsoindicateexperienceswhicharesignificantinthedevelopmentofsciencerelatedattitudes.Theuseofthedrawascientisttestandpictureinteractionhasbeenofuseinraisingawarenessofviewsofscientistsandrelevanceofscience(Johnston,1995)inadultsandconsiderationofindividualsciencebiographies(Gray1996)hasbeen

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ofuseinexplainingheldattitudesasaresultofsciencerelatedincidents.

TheDevelopmentofNewTools.

Thisstudyinvolvesthemodificationanduseoftechniquesandstrategies,previouslysuccessfulinraisingawarenessofandexplainingsciencerelatedattitudes,suchaspictureinteractionandcriticalincidentanalysis.Itfocusesonfivedimensionsreflectingtheinterrelationshipbetweenaffective,behaviouralandcognitiveattitudestoscience.ThesedimensionsaretakenfromFraser'sTestofScienceRelatedAttitudes(1981)whichhasbeensubstantiallyusedandvalidated(Schibeci&McGraw1981).Theywerechosenasthemostappropriatedimensionsforusewithawiderangeofindividuals.

StatementsfromTOSRAwhichrelatedtothesefivedimensionswereusedtocreateaLikerttypequestionnaire.Statementswerechosenbecauseoftheirsuitabilityforusewithourchosentargetgroup,adultsattendingprimaryscienceworkshops.

ViewsofScienceandScientists

ScientistsaremorecommittedtosciencethantheirfamiliesScientistsarelessfriendlythanotherpeopleScientistshavediversehobbiesandinterestsYoucanalwaystellascientistbytheirappearanceScientistsareconcernedabouttheirworkingenvironment

AttitudetoScientificInquiry,

IwouldprefertofindoutwhysomethinghappensbydoinganexperimentthanbybeingtoldIliketoquestionscientificideasbecausesciencedoesnotknoweverythingIcanwatchthetelevisiontofindoutallIneedaboutscienceIammorelikelytounderstandscienceifIexperienceitmyselfratherthanbeingtoldIwouldprefertoreadaboutsciencethandoit

AdoptionofScientificAttitude

IamcuriousabouttheworldinwhichweliveWedon'tneedtorepeatexperimentstocheckthatwe'vegotthecorrectresultsIenjoyreadingaboutthingswhichdisagreewithmypreviousideasInscienceexperimentsIliketousenewmethodswhichIhavenotusedbeforeIamunwillingtochangemyideas

RelevanceofScience

SciencelessonsareawasteoftimeScienceisimportantsothereshouldbemoresciencelessonsAcareerinsciencewouldbeboringIgetboredwatchingscienceprogrammesonthetelevisionIusemyscienceknowledgeinsomeofmyleisureactivities

SocialImplicationsofScience

ScientificdiscoveriesaredoingmoreharmthangoodToomuchmoneyisbeingspentonsciencewhichcouldbeputtoabetteruseMoneyspentonscienceiswellworthspendingSciencehelpstomakelifebetter

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Moremoneyshouldbespentonscientificresearch

Scoringonthisquestionnairewasincommonwithotherlikerttypescales,withstrongagreementtonegativestatementsscoring1markandtopositivestatements5marks.

Negativeresponses

Strongagreement=1,Agreement=2,Notsure=3,Disagree=4,Strongdisagreement=5

Positiveresponses

Strongagreement=5,Agreement=4,Notsure=3,Disagree=2,Strongdisagreement=1

Thusahighscore()anegativeattitude.

Theaimwastodevelopalternativetoolstomeasureattitudewhichwouldcomparesignificantlywiththequestionnaire,butalsobeoffutureusewithyoungerchildren.Additionally,bybeinginteractive,itcouldraisepossibleexplanationsforthoseattitudesmeasured.Initiallythedevisedtoolswereusedaspartofatwohourinteractiveprimaryscienceworkshopwithadultsandtheresultingscorescomparedwiththequestionnaireresponsesbythesamepeople.

A'DrawandDescribe'ascientistposteraimedtocollectdataonviewsofscienceandscientists.Thesehadpreviouslybeenusedsuccessfullywithadultsandchildrenandwereadaptedtoenablescoringandcomparisonwiththescoresonlikertquestionnaireitems.Marksweredeductedfromaninitialscoreof13foreverynegativeandstereotypicalattributeandaddedforeverynonstereotypicalattribute.

Attitudetoscientificinquiry,adoptionofscientificattitudesandrelevanceofsciencewereassessedusingapictureinteractionsheet.Toascertainattitudetoscientificinquirytherespondentwasaskedtoidentifystatementstheyagreedwith,suchas'Idon'tneedtofindoutnewthings'and'Iusescienceideas'.Markswereagaindeductedforeachnegativestatementidentifiedandaddedforeachpositivestatementahighscorethusindicatingsomeonewhohadapositiveattitudetoscientificinquiry.Toascertaintheadoptionofscientificattitudesrespondentswereaskedtoidentifyfromagivenbankofwordsoneswhichdescribedthemselvesasindividuals.Wordsincludedprecise,logical,openminded,objective.Eachcircledwordwasgiven2marks,sothehigherscoreindicatedanindividualwithmorepositiveviewsoftheirscientificqualities.Relevanceofsciencewasdeterminedbycirclingpicturesofpeoplewhowereusingscientificknowledgeorskillsinanactivitytheywereundertaking(e.g.asnookerplayer,priest,aweatherforecasterandapoliceman).Marksweregivenforeachpicturecircled.Havingcompletedthissheetrespondentswereencouragedtodiscusstheirviewswithothers,raisingawarenessoftheirownideasanddifferencesbetweentheirideasandtheideasofothers.

Participantsattheworkshopswereaskedtoconsiderstatementsrelatedtothesocialimplicationsofscienceandtoindicatewhichstatement,ifany,theyagreedwith.Againtheycoulddiscussthesestatementswithothers,whichwouldaidthesettingoftheviewswithinasocialcontext.

Inadditiontousingthesetools,someworkshopparticipantswereinterviewedwithparticularreferencetothefivedimensionsandwithanadditionalintentionofilluminatingtheexperienceswhichhadbeensignificantinthedevelopmentoftheirattitudestoscience.Inall,responsestothequestionnaireandpictureinteractionswerecollectedfromover100workshopparticipantsin3workshops.

PreliminaryFindings.

Itwasobviousatafairlyearlystageofresearchandanalysisthatwehadsomeproblemswiththetoolsandthatwewerenotnecessarilymeasuringthesamedimensions.Theinteractionsand

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interviewsdidhoweverilluminateaspectsofattitudeandprovideindicationsofhowwecouldimprovethetools.

Fromthedataitcouldbeclearlyseenthatrespondentswithahighscoreonthequestionnaireandthusamorepositiveattitudetowardssciencealsoscorehighonthepictureinteractiontests.However,therangeofscoresforthequestionnaireweresignificantlygreaterthanthoseforthepictureinteractionandmoreimportantlytherewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweentheindividualitems.Itappearedthatresponsestothepictureinteractionrequiredagreatdealmorethoughtthanresponsestothequestionnaire,whichcanbecompletedwithlittleconsiderationorwiththeintentionofidentifyingespousedviews.Asaresult,whenrespondingtothepictureinteractionssomeparticipantsexperiencedsomeconfusionorconflictbetweentheirespousedviewsandimplicitviewsinmanycasessciencewasnotseenasclearlyasithadbeenpreviously.Itmaybethatinraisingawarenessofotherviews,theinteractionsexposedthefragilityofindividualviewsandbegantofacilitateachangeofideas.Thiswouldcorrespondtosimilarfindingsontheuseofpictureinteractionsinchangingattitudestoscience(Elandet.al1995)andillustratethepossiblepowerofinteractioninattitudeshift.

The'Drawanddescribeascientist'testalmostalwaysresultsinastereotypicalwhite,European,malescientist,unlessthereisaconsciousdecisionmadebytherespondenttoespouseanalternativeview.Insuchinstanceswhereanonstereotypicalimageisdrawnthecorrelationbetweentheresultsonthequestionnaireandthepictureinteractionarestronger.Adultrespondents,unanimouslyassignthecauseofstereotypicalimagestothemediaandwhilstthemediahasanapparentlyprofoundinfluenceonviewsofscienceandscientists,Jarvis'(1994)responsesfromchildrenindicatestheinfluenceofschoolexperiences.Sheprovidesevidencethatchildrenaremorelikelytoindicatetheirimplicitviewsofscienceandscientists,drawingpicturesrepresentingtheirexperiencesofschoolsciencethemselvesasscientists,theirteacherasascientistortheconnectionbetweenscienceandart,asscienceisalwaysrecordedbydrawingapicture.

Thequestionnaireandpictureinteractionresponseswithinthedimensions,adoptionofscientificattitudesandattitudetoscientificinquiry,considerindividualviews(affectiveattitudes)ofbehaviouralandcognitiveattitudes.Inaddition,thepracticalworkshopsallowfortheactualbehaviouralandcognitiveattitudesofsomeindividualstobeascertainedandthedifferencesbetweenespousedviewsandactualbehaviourtobeconsidered.Usingthethreemethodsofcollectingdata,illustratedtheimportanceofcontextinattitudestudy.Responseswithinthepictureinteractionfortheadoptionofscientificattitudesweredecontextualized,beingwordsdescribingscientificattitudes,whilstthequestionnaireresponsesandespeciallytheworkshopactivitieswerecontextualizedandassuchproducedresponseswhichindicatedactualbehaviouralattitudes.Responsestoattitudetoscientificinquiryweresignificantlysimilarinboththequestionnaireandthepictureinteractionsasbothinvolvedresponsetostatementsandwereverysimilarinnature.

Theuseofpicturesinconsideringviewsoftherelevanceofsciencehasbeenuseful(Johnston1995),asnotonlydoesitfirmlysettheviewwithinacontext,butisalsoformativeinillustratingdifferentviewsonthenatureofscienceandscientificattitude.Debatehasoccurredbetweenrespondents,aswithinthescientificcommunity,astowhetherinformalscienceknowledgeconstitutesactualknowledgeandsubsequentlywhethertherecanbescientificallyilliterateindividualsinsociety.ArecentarticleinScienceandPublicAffairs(Richards1996)hasaphotographoftwoyoungboysfishingwiththecaption'Aretheseboysapplyingscienceorsimplecommonsensetotheirfishing?'whichcapturestheessenceofthisargument,althoughpuristswillargue,asWolpert(1992&1997)does,that'commonsensescience'isnotrealscience.Mostadultrespondentsarenotpuristsandareablethroughinteractiontoidentifythescienceknowledgeandskillsnecessarytoundertakeseeminglyirrelevantactivities.Lackofrelevanceofschoolsciencewasstronglyidentifiedthroughinteractionsandinterviewandindeedschoolsciencewasacontinualfocusforparticipants.

Thereisnocorrelationbetweenresponsesinthequestionnaireandresponsesinthepictureinteractionforeitherrelevanceofscienceorsocialimplicationsofscience,indicatingthatwearenotmeasuringthesamedimensions.Insomewaysthisissurprisingforthedimensiondealingwiththesocial

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implicationsofscience,becausebothtoolsrequiresimilarcognitiveresponsestostatementsandbothprovidesomecontradictoryresponses.Withinthequestionnaire,respondentsarelikelytoagreethat'toomuchmoneyisspentonsciencewhichcouldbeputtobetterause'andthat'moneyspentonscienceiswellworthspending'.Thepictureinteractionsheetforsocialimplicationprovidessomecontextthroughthechosenpicturesbuteachstatementcanbeinterpretedinanumberofdifferentways.Respondentshaveindicatedthattheybothagreeanddisagreewiththestatements,dependinguponthedifferentcontextsthattheyapplytothem,forexample,somescientificdiscoveriesdomoreharmthangoodwhilstothersareregardedasbeneficial.

Discussion

Whilstthisstudyisinitsearlystagesandweare,atpresent,nonearertheprovisionoftoolsofuseindiagnosticandformativemeasurementofsciencerelatedattitudes,therearesomedeeperinsightsintoattitudedevelopmentoccurringfromthisstudy.

Theimportanceofinteractioninattitudedevelopmentandchangewasanimportantaspectofthisstudyfromtheoutset,astheformativenatureofinteractionwasrecognized(Elandet.al.1995).Wherecognitiveinnatureinteractionmyhavearoleinattitudedevelopmentthroughidentificationofdifferencesbetweenimplicitandespousedviewsand,wheninconjunctionwithpracticalengagement,byidentifyingconflictbetweenespousedviewsandbehaviour.

Thecontextualizationofsituationswasparticularlypowerfulinlookingatsocialimplicationofscienceandwasusefulinraisingawarenessoftherelevanceofscientificideasindecisionmaking,forasDriveret.al(1996:1345)saythe'abilitytomakesenseofscientificcontroversiesanddisputes'canbeseenas'animportantfacetofpublicunderstandingofscience'.Thishasimplicationsforaschoolsciencedevoidofrelevantcontextoropportunitiesformoralandethicaldebate(Johnston1995b),althoughevenmorecompellingistheevidenceoftheprofoundinfluenceofschoolscienceondevelopingattitudes.Responsestointeractionsandinterviewsprovidedanecdotalstoriesaboutschoolsciencebeingirrelevantanddecontextualized,backingupresearchotherstudieswhichhaveillustratedtheproblemsofschoolscience(Haladynaet.al.1982andWoolnough1994).Moreimportantlyistheevidencethatpositiveexperiencesorcriticalincidents(LaLumia&Baglan1981,Gray1996)aidthedevelopmentofpositivesciencerelatedattitudes

Althoughitismostlikelythatwearemeasuringdifferentdimensionsandthereisaneedtolinkthetwomaintoolsusedinthisstudymoreclosely,thereisalsoaneedtolinktheinterviewmethod,whichdescribesandexplainsattitudetomorequantitativemeasurements.Itissuchstudies,strivingtounderstandandexplainaswellasdeveloporchangeattitude,whichprovidetheanswerstothequestion'Whyarewemeasuringattitudes?'.Thereisaneedtoensurethatbothchildrenandthosewhoinfluencethem,mainlytheirparentsandtheirteachers,supportthepositivedevelopmentofsciencerelatedattitudesthroughpositiveexperiencesinscience.Abetterunderstandingoftheinfluencesonsciencerelatedattitudewillhopefullyaddressthisimportantneedinschool.

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