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Mechanics of flight

AIRCRAFT STABILITY AND CONTROL

AND ROTARY WING AIRCRAFT(ASSIGNMENT)

1/14/2011Farnborough college of technologyMeshkath ibne sayed


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Mechanics of flight 2011

Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION:.....................................................................................................3

EFFECTS FROM PILOT INPUTS TO THE ELEVATOR ,AILERON AND RUDDER

CONTROLS:............................................................................................................4

Elevator :............................................................................................................4

Aileron :..............................................................................................................5

Rudder:...............................................................................................................5

HOW LATERAL STABILITY MAY BE ENHANCED :.....................................................6

FULL,CLEAN ,POWER STALL :.................................................................................7

Stalling Characteristics:......................................................................................9

STATIC STABILITY IN PITCH:...................................................................................9

HOW AERODYNAMICS FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE PRODUCED IN PITCH AND

YAW:....................................................................................................................10

LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY:.......................................................................11

Positive Stability:..............................................................................................12

Neutral Stability:...............................................................................................13

Negative stability:............................................................................................14

SINGLE ROTOR AIRCRAFT: (BELL 206 )................................................................14

Advantages:.....................................................................................................15

Disadvantages:.................................................................................................15

TANDEM ROTOR AIRCRAFT:(Boeing CH-47 )........................................................15

Benefits:........................................................................................................15

Disadvantages:..............................................................................................16

ROTOR LAYOUT:...................................................................................................16

ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM:.....................................................................................17

CONTROL AND STABILITY:................................................................................18

BLADES SHAPE AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFT :...........................................................20

REFERENCES :......................................................................................................22

REFERENCES :

TABLE OF FIGURES:

Meshkath ibne sayedID:20068604


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FIGURE 1:FORE FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFTERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

FIGURE 2: ELEVATOR.........................................................................................................4

FIGURE 3: AILERON............................................................................................................5

FIGURE 4: RUDDER............................................................................................................6FIGURE 5: DIHEDRAL WING................................................................................................7

FIGURE 6:SWEEP-BACK WING............................................................................................7

FIGURE 7: ANGEL OF ATTACH............................................................................................9

FIGURE 8: THREE TYPES OF STATIC STABILITY.................................................................10

FIGURE 9: A NASA DIAGRAM DEPICTING THE THREE DIFFERENT FORMS OF STATIC

STABILITY AS THEY APPLY TO AIRCRAFT...................................................................12

FIGURE 10: POSITIVE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY..............................................................13

FIGURE 11: NETURALLY SABLE AIRCRAFT........................................................................13

FIGURE 12: NEGATIVE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.............................................................14

FIGURE 13: BELL 206 HELICOPTOR..................................................................................15

FIGURE 14: FRONT ,TOPAND SIDE VIEW OF BELL 206 HELICOPTOR................................17Figure 18: front ,topand side view of Bell 206 helicoptor

INTRODUCTION:

An aircraft is a complex man made system .It has been a very

hard work by mankind to make dream come true. Which was flew through the air

.Hard work of decade after decade, century after century which given us

modern days aircraft .Still engineers around the world everyday spending their

days and nights for the sake of development, of new ideas and inventions to

make it very efficient than ever before.



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EFFECTS FROM PILOT INPUTS TO THE ELEVATOR

,AILERON AND RUDDER CONTROLS:

Elevator :

At the rear of the fuselage of most aircraft one finds a horizontal stabilizer and

an elevator. The stabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stabilityfor the aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The horizontal stabilizer prevents up-and-down, or pitching, motion of the aircraft nose. The elevator is the smallmoving section at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to the fixed sectionsby hinges. Because the elevator moves, it varies the amount of force generatedby the tail surface and is used to generate and control the pitching motion of theaircraft. There is an elevator attached to each side of the fuselage. The elevatorswork in pairs; when the right elevator goes up, the left elevator also goes up.This figure shows what happens when the pilot deflects the elevator.

The elevator is used to control the position of the nose of the aircraft and theangle of attack of the wing. Changing the inclination of the wing to the localflight path changes the amount of lift which the wing generates. This, in turn,causes the aircraft to climb or dive. During take off the elevators are used tobring the nose of the aircraft up to begin the climb out. During a banked turn,elevator inputs can increase the lift and cause a tighter turn. That is whyelevator performance is so important for fighter aircraft.

Figure 1: effect of elevator



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At the rear of the fuselage of most aircraft one finds a vertical stabilizer and a rudder. Thestabilizer is a fixed wing section whose job is to provide stability for the aircraft, to keep itflying straight. The vertical stabilizer prevents side-to-side, or yawing, motion of the aircraft

nose. The rudder is the small moving section at the rear of the stabilizer that is attached to thefixed sections by hinges. Because the rudder moves, it varies the amount of force generatedby the tail surface and is used to generate and control the yawing motion of the aircraft. Thisfigure shows what happens when the pilot deflects the rudder, a hinged section at the rear ofthe vertical stabilizer.

Figure 3: rudder

HOW LATERAL STABILITY MAY BE ENHANCED :

This is the stability which concerns rolling of the aircraft about the longitudinal

axis. Two ways in which lateral stability can be enhanced are as follows:

Using of dihedral wing this is when the wings are inclined from its

lateral axis, the angle from the horizontal when viewed from the nose or

tail of an aircraft is called dihedral angle. Hence, an aircraft with a dihedral

angle will have higher angle of attack and as such when the aircraft banks,

the tilted lift vector will initiate a side slipping action. Due to dihedral

angle, the airflow meets the lower wing at a larger angle of attack thanthe higher wing, as a result the quantum of lift increases on the lower



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wing thus setting up a balancing movement to correct the bank. However,

excessive dihedral will have an adverse effect on lateral manoeuvring

qualities. The airplane may be so laterally stable that it will resist any

intentionally rolling motion. For this reason, airplanes that require fast rollor banking characteristics usually have less dihedral than those designed

for less manoeuvrability. See figure 2 on next page.

Figure 4: dihedral wing

Using sweepback wings- A slide slip occurs when an aircraft is banked.

In the case of an aircraft with sweptback wings, the lower wing offers a

shorter effective chord with a greater effective camber than the raised

wing thereby resulting in a greater amount of lift on the lower wing which

in turn restores lateral stability. Sweepback wings also contribute to

directional stability in that, when turbulence or rudder application causes

the airplane to yaw to one side, the right wing presents a longer leading

edge perpendicular to the relative airflow. The airspeed of the right wing

increases and it acquires more drag than the left wing. The additional dragon the right wing pulls it back, yawing the plane back to its original path.

Figure 5:sweep-back wing

FULL,CLEAN ,POWER STALL :A stall is a (usually undesired) condition in aerodynamics and aviation.



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possibility of entering a spin. A dangerous stall is one where the nose rises, pushing the wingdeeper into the stalled state and potentially leading to an unrecoverable deep stall .

Figure 7: angel of attach

STATIC STABILITY IN PITCH:

There are three types of static of static stability.

1. Positive static stability:

The tendency of the aircraft to return to its initial condition of stability

after a disturbance2. Negative static stability:

The tendency of the aircraft to increase the disturbance.

3. Natural static stability:

The tendency of the aircraft to remain at its new condition.

Figure 8: three types of static stability



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HOW AERODYNAMICS FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE

PRODUCED IN PITCH AND YAW:

Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics concerned with studying the mot ionof a i r , par t icu lar ly when i t interacts with a moving object .Aerodynamics is a subfield of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, with muchtheory shared between them.

The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces

make an object move up and down, and faster or slower. How much

of each force there is changes how the object moves through the air.

Figure 9: forces acting on a aircraft

Pitch means the movement on lateral axis.



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Figure 10: aerodynamine forces and moment produced inpitch

Yaw an aircraft means the movement on vertical axis.

Figure 11: aircraft movement on three axis



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LONGITUDINAL STATIC STABILITY:

The longitudinal stability of an aircraft refers to the aircraft's stability in the pitching plane -

the plane which describes the position of the aircraft's nose in relation to its tail and thehorizon. If an aircraft is longitudinally stable, a small increase in angle of attack will causethe pitching moment on the aircraft to change so that the angle of attack decreases. Similarly,a small decrease in angle of attack will cause the pitching moment to change so that the angleof attack increases.

Figure 12: A NASA diagram depicting the three different forms of static stability as theyapply to aircraft

Positive Stability:If an aeroplane has positive longitudinal static stability it will return to straight

and level flight after an external disturbance, e.g. due to air turbulence. Toachieve this, as the aircraft is moved away from straight and level, a reacting

force must be generated to return it to equilibrium. As an example, a glider

flying into a thermal will pitch up on meeting the rising air. The pitching up will

cause the glider to climb until its kinetic energy is dissipated, and it slows down.

As it slows down, the lift generated by the wing and the down force from the

tailplane will both diminish, whilst the effect of the aircrafts weight in front of

the centre of gravity (previously balanced by the downforce of the tailplane) will

remain the same. As a result, the gliders nose will now drop, causing airspeed

to increase and the downforce on the tail to increase again. Eventually the

weight moment will balance the downforce moment and equilibrium will berestored.



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.

Figure 13: positive longitudinal stability

Neutral Stability:

If the centre of gravity acts through the centre of lift, the aircraft is considered to

be neutrally stable. In this case, if disturbed, the aircraft will continue in the

direction caused by its last disturbance. No restoring force will be applied, so the

pilot will have to make control inputs to maintain straight and level flight. On a

sailplane this has the benefit that there is minimal downforce and resultant

induced drag from the tailplane, so the overall lift/drag ratio is maximised. This

configuration results in high pilot workload, so this is only likely to be done in

competition.



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Figure 14: neturally sable aircraft

Negative stability:

Negative stability means the centre of lift is ahead of the centre of gravity, and

any disturbance will be exacerbated by the aircrafts configuration. In straight

and level flight, an upforce is required on the tailplane to maintain an

equilibrium, so if the aircraft pitches down, it will accelerate and the tailplane

upforce will increase with increasing airspeed, pitching it down even further.

This effect makes an aeroplane almost impossible to fly by a pilot, and requires a

computer in the control loop which is fed with data such as airspeed, angle of

attack, attitude and the pilots demanded input. The computer will then apply

control inputs and power demands to meet the pilots control request. This

system is used on modern fighter aircraft to achieve extreme levels of

responsiveness and manoeuvrability.

Figure 15: negative longitudinal stability

The Su-47 Berkut technology demonstrator from the Sukhoi design bureau is a

negatively stable design, totally reliant on its computer interface between the pilot andits three sets of control surfaces to achieve apparent positive stability. 2-D thrustvectoring make it even more agile.

SINGLE ROTOR AIRCRAFT: (BELL 206 )

The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single main rotor helicopters,

manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebc plant. Originally developed

as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Army's Light Observation Helicopter

program, the 206 failed to be selected. Bell redesigned the airframe and



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Benefits:

Ability to lift heavy loads whose position relative to the helicopters centre

of gravity is less critical.

The torque of each single rotor is neutralized because of the opposite

rotation of the rotors.

The blades are generally smaller in diameter and can therefore turn much

faster, with lower torque and thus lower weight of the transmission.

Because there is no anti-torque rotor, full engine power can be applied in

lifting a load.

Disadvantages:

The two rotors are directly behind each other and will therefore work with

as substantially smaller air mass than two laterally arranged

Complex transmission and more drag due to its shape and excessive

weight

Figure 17:chinook CH-47 helicoptor

ROTOR LAYOUT:Bell 206 has got single main rotor and a tail rotor . main rotor blades works a

long rotary wings to small chord to produce lift . it has also two blades trail rotor

which works as a



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Figure 18: front ,topand side view of Bell 206helicoptor

counter torque to keep fuselage straight during the flight .the blades mounted on

engine driven shaft .as they move through the air ,they generates lift same way

as affixed wing .the advantages of rotary wings over a fixed wing aircraft is that

the rest of the aircraft does not need to move relative to the air ,and it can

therefore hover.

Lift in a Chinook ch-47 helicopter is produced by a rotor system consisting of

two fully articulated counter-rotating rotors. Each rotor has three fibre glass

blades. The forward rotor is driven by the forward transmission through the rotor

drive train. The aft rotor is driven by the aft transmission through a vertical drive

shaft. The rotor head consist of s of a hub connected to three pitch varying

shafts by three horizontal hinge pins. These pins permit blade flapping (the up

and down movement of the rotor blade. Stops on the top and bottom of the hub

limit the blade flapping motion. The aft rotor head is equipped with centrifugal

droop stops which provide increased blade flapping angle for ground and flight

operation.

ANTI-TORQUE SYSTEM:

On Bell 206 a tail rotor been placed to overcome the torque . A tail rotor is

situated on the tail of a Bell 206 helicopter. The purpose of the tail rotor is to

reduce the effect of torque and the yaw motions inherit in helicopter flight. The

tail rotor is comprised of mainly two or four small airfoils that the pilot is able to



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control in the cockpit by manipulating the rudder (anti torque) pedals. It also

used as a rudder in this helicopter .

Helicopters that use dual-rotor( Chinook CH-47) systems do not require the useof a tail rotor as the two rotors are designed to spin in different directions

canceling out the yaw created by one another without the need for a tail rotor.

The second way to counteract torque is with a NOTAR (No Tail Rotor) system.

NOTAR is a fairly new form of anti-torque system developed by McDonnell

Douglas. This system removes the tail rotor, which makes it much safer and also

means less noise is generated.

As with any system, NOTAR has advantages and disadvantages. Its advantagesinclude: Reduced noise levels - around 60% of the noise from conventional

helicopters normally comes from the tail rotor. Safety - the tail rotor strikingsomething causes many accidents. By removing the tail rotor you remove thispossibility and there is a significant reduction in the helicopter's vibration.

NOTAR's disadvantages are it isn't as efficient as a tail rotor and helicopters thatuse a NOTAR system will have a loss of manoeuvrability.

The last way to counteract torque is known as a fenestron. This is actually a formof tail rotor commonly known as a Fantail. A fenestron is a tail rotor which isfitted within a housing. In application, a fenestron performs the same as aconventional tail rotor but there are design differences.

A Fenestron has between 8 and 18 blades, compared to a standard tail rotorhaving merely 2-4 blades and offers many advantages and a few disadvantagesover a normal tail rotor. The advantages include: Safety - these are much saferfor ground operations because the tail rotor is enclosed in a housing. Moreprotected - less likely for foreign objects to get into the tail rotor and causedamage and reduced noise.

The disadvantages include: Higher weight and higher air resistance which leadsto increased fuel consumption. Fenestrons are also more expensive to produceand less efficient

Anti torque systems are vital to the safe operation of a helicopter, regardless ofthe type of system used.

CONTROL AND STABILITY:

On simple single rotor helicopter ,direct control of the amount of lift generated

by the main rotor blades is provided by the collective pitch mechanism which

changes the incidence or pitch angle of all of the blades by the same amount

simultaneously .in addition a cyclic pitch mechanism is provided ,this causes the

incidence of the blades to increase and decrease once per cycle .the cyclic pitch

is used to control both the nose up or down attitude of the helicopter ,and theroll motion about the longitudinal axis .the small trail rotor is also provided with a



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mechanism which can be used to vary the incidence of its blades ,thus altering

the amount of thrust produced .this allows it to be used to yaw the aircraft .

Now the tail rotor. Simply just to counter act the torque generated by the mainrotor, shaft and engine. Without it the whole fuselage will spin opposite the

direction of the main rotor blades' rotation. So in Newton's Third Law States that

" For every action, there is an equal an opposite reaction". It will not be possible

to control the helicopter for sure. The pitch of the tail rotor blade is variable in

order to control the degree of pitch. Aside for counteracting the main rotor

torque, it is also used as directional control of the helicopter in the Y-axis

(vertical axis). And for stability, controlling it alone manually to stabilize the

fuselage is almost impossible because the variable conditions that contributes.

To mention a few, the throttle, specially during hovering pilot will tend to adjust

the throtle to compensate for the wind conditions. Tilting the main rotors tobalance the heli will affect the required power, hence constant adjustment to the

throttle is necessary.

So the appearance of gyros ( not gyroscopic effect ), a small rotating disk housed

in a casing becames necessary to effectively control the tail rotor. This gizmo is

connected to the tail rotor servo to creates a dampening effect and stabilized the

fuselages rotation. When an external force is applied to the fuselage, either a

gust of wind, main rotor downwash, the tail rotors' will counteract by applying anopposite force. Its like an autopilot. To illustrate further using an example of



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driving a car. The steering wheel is our means of control to steer tha car left or

right. We balance the cars' direction by constantly steering the wheel. If the car

is moving to the right for example, maybe a strong wind is causing it to go to the

right, we will counteract by applying an opposite force. So this is how a gyroworks.

There are some more to consider in the tail rotor's stabilizing effect. We call it

translating tendency. It is the natural reaction of the helicopter to drift either left

or right depending on the main rotors' rotation and tail rotors' thrust. When the

helicopter is in a hovering mode, the tail rotor counteracts the main rotors'

torque to keep the fuselage steady. But the tail rotor is a creating a wind on the

perpendicular side of the fuselage so its' trying to drift the whole aircraft away.

When the helicopter is very close to the ground, the controls are very sensitive

due to the phenomenon called "ground effect" . The rotor down wash hits the

ground which creates a dampening effect.



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BLADES SHAPE AND ITS EFFECT ON LIFT :

A helicopter flies for the same basic reason that any conventional aircraft flies, becauseaerodynamic forces necessary to keep it aloft are produced when air passes about the rotorblades. The rotor blade, or airfoil, is the structure that makes flight possible. Its shapeproduces lift when it passes through the air. Helicopter blades have airfoil sections designedfor a specific set of flight characteristics. Usually the designer must compromise to obtain anairfoil section that has the best flight characteristics for the mission the aircraft will perform.

Airfoil sections are of two basic types, symmetrical and nonsymmetrical. Symmetrical( Bell 206)airfoils have identical upper and lower surfaces. They are suited to rotary-wingapplications because they have almost no center of pressure travel. Travel remains relativelyconstant under varying angles of attack, affording the best lift-drag ratios for the full range ofvelocities from rotor blade root to tip. However, the symmetrical airfoil produces less lift thana nonsymmetrical airfoil and also has relatively undesirable stall characteristics. Thehelicopter blade must adapt to a wide range of airspeeds and angles of attack during eachrevolution of the rotor. The symmetrical airfoil delivers acceptable performance under thosealternating conditions. Other benefits are lower cost and ease of construction as compared tothe nonsymmetrical airfoil.

Nonsymmetrical (cambered) airfoils may have a wide variety of upper and lower surfacedesigns. They are currently used on some CH-47 and all OH-58 Army helicopters, and areincreasingly being used on newly designed aircraft. Advantages of the nonsymmetrical airfoilare increased lift-drag ratios and more desirable stall characteristics. Nonsymmetrical airfoilswere not used in earlier helicopters because the center of pressure location moved too much

when angle of attack was changed. When center of pressure moves, a twisting force isexerted on the rotor blades. Rotor system components had to be designed that wouldwithstand the twisting force. Recent design processes and new materials used to manufacturerotor systems have partially overcome the problems associated with use of nonsymmetricalairfoils.

Rotary-wing airfoils operate under diverse conditions, because their speeds are a combinationof blade rotation and forward movement of the helicopter. An intelligent discussion of thefactors affecting the magnitude of rotor blade lift and drag requires a knowledge of bladesection geometry. Blades are designed with specific geometry that adapts them to the varying

conditions of flight. Cross-section shapes of most rotor blades are not the same throughoutthe span. Shapes are varied along the blade radius to take advantage of the particular airspeedrange experienced at each point on the blade, and to help balance the load between the rootand tip. The blade may be built with a twist, so an airfoil section near the root has a largerpitch angle than a section near the tip.



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Figure 19: cross section of a helicopter blade

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BOOKS:

1.Aircraft flight (RH barnard and DR philpott)

Fourth edition

2.Aircraft Flight: A Description of the Physical Principles of Aircraft

Flight [Paperback]

Dr D.R. Philpott (Author), Dr R.H. Barnard (Author)

3.Understanding Flight, Second Edition

David Anderson (Author), Scott Eberhardt

B002O3VJGU

Scott Eberhardt (Author)

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4.Flightwise: Aircraft Stability and Control v. 2 [Hardcover]

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Chris Carpenter (Author)

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