medieval castles: preservation of cultural and natural heritage by environmentally friendly...
TRANSCRIPT
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Medievalcastles:Preservationofculturalandnaturalheritageby
environmentallyfriendlyrestorationstrategies
ManuelJonasSteinbauerAndreasGohlkeChristineMahlerAndreasSchmiedinger
CarlBeierkuhnlein
M.J.Steinbauer([email protected],phone:+49921552211fax:+49921
552315),A.Gohlke([email protected]),C.Mahler([email protected]),A.
Schmiedinger([email protected]),C.Beierkuhnlein
([email protected]),Dept.ofBiogeography,UniversityofBayreuth,D
95447Bayreuth,Germany
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Abstract
Largehistoricbuildingsareimportantforculturalhistoryandprovideavarietyofhabitatsfor1
animalsandplants.Thespecialqualityofthesehabitatsisthelongtimeofexistenceandthe2
lowdisturbancefrequency.Inaddition,manyoldbuildingssuchascastlesarelocatedina3
matrixofnaturalsitesoratleastparks.Inculturallandscapes,historicbuildingsoffer4
extraordinarymicroclimatesandstablehabitatsforremnantpopulationsofrarespeciesthat5
haveestablishedonancientwallsinthecourseofcenturies.6
Nevertheless,intraditionalapproachesgoalsofbiodiversitypreservationandmonument7
restorationareperceivedtointerfereandtobemutuallyexclusive.Asaconsequence,priority8
isoftengiventoconstructionalrestorationacceptingthelossoflocalpopulationsand9
biodiversity.10
Atwallsofmedievalcastles,includinganexperimentalrestorationprojectwhere11
conventionalandlessintensiverestorationtechniqueswereapplied,werelatespecies12
compositionandrichnesstowallproperties.Thestudyfocusesonlichens,mossesand13
vascularplants.14
Boostedregressiontreeanalysesandnonmetricmultidimensionalscalingtechniquesare15
appliedtodetecttheinfluenceofabioticsiteconditionsonbiodiversity.16
Wefindspeciesrichnesstobepromotedbywallsurfaceheterogeneity.However,species17
compositionismoreaffectedbyrestorationapproachesthanspeciesrichness.Lichen18
compositionvariesconsiderablywhilevascularplantsandmossesarelessaffectedbywall19
properties.20
Wesuggeststrategiesthatarecombiningbothsocietaltargets,thepreservationofhistoric21
monumentsandofspeciesdiversity.Carefulrestorationiscapableofsupportingboth,the22
maintenanceofculturalheritageandofrareanduniqueanthropogenichabitats. 23
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Keywords:biodegradation,biodeterioration,Franconia,Germany,historicbuildings,1
monuments,natureconservation,protection,wallvegetation2
3
ListofAbbreviations:4
BRT:Boostedregressiontreeanalysis5
NMDS:NonmetricMultidimensionalScaling6
7
8
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Introduction1
Thepreservationofhistoricmonumentsandbuildings,whichrepresentacountryscultural2
heritage,constitutesahighsocietalpriority.Futuregenerationsmusthavetheopportunityto3
witnessformersocialstructures,theendeavour,aestheticsentimentsandarchitectural4
achievementsoftheirancestors.5
Anothersocietalpriority,evenaffirmedininternationalcontracts,istheconceptof6
maintainingbiodiversity.Manyrareandprotectedspeciesareboundtonutrientpoor7
habitatswithspecificmicroclimaticconditionssuchasrocks.Othersdependonlow8
disturbancefrequencyandlongtermstablesiteconditions.Bothpreconditionsarerarely9
foundinculturallandscapesbutgivenatcastlesandruins.InCentralEurope,manyofsuch10
anthropogenichabitatsexistsincecenturies.11
Wheneverbothsocietalambitionsmeetatthesameobject,likeanoldcastleorcitywall,they12
tendtoexcludeeachother.Frequently,prioritisationleadstowithdrawalatthesideofnature13
conservation.Itisawidelyheldbutunprovenbeliefthatallplants,fungi,lichensoranimals14
arecausingdamagetohistoricmonuments.15
Besidestheaestheticsurplus,whicholdcastlesorcitywallscangainthroughplantcover16
(Pacini1994),oldmonumentsoftenprovidehabitatsforhighlyspecialisedanimalsandplants17
(Gilbert1992,Picketal.2002).Aninfluenceofthesurfacestructureofwallsonbiological18
diversityisdocumented(Prietoetal.1999,Duchoslav2002).However,approachesarerare19
thatquantifytheinfluenceofstructuralpropertiesonbiologicaldiversity(butseeDarlington20
1981).Asoundstatisticalproofforalinkagebetweenbioticdiversityandheterogeneityof21
wallsurfacesisstillmissing.22
Modernbuildingtechniquesareavoidingopenjointsandnichesthatserveforinstanceas23
protectedhidingplacesforanimalsbutalsoasgerminationsiteforplants.Specificmural24
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vegetationishencerestrictedtooldconstructions.Despitethis,itissurprisinglyuncommon1
toseebuildingsasvaluablehabitatsforbiotathatrequireprecautionduringrestoration2
processes.3
Duringthecourseofconstructionalrestorationat(historical)buildingsdrymasonrywallsare4
oftenjointed,cracksarefilledwithgroundingmortarandthesurfacesarecleaned.In5
consequence,thecharacteristicmuralvegetationaswellashabitatsofmanyanimalspecies6
(e.g.birdsandbats)arelost.7
Here,westudyfourmedievalcastlesaccordingtoimpactsofdifferentrestorationtreatments8
onplantcommunitiesinordertoevaluatetheimpactsofrestorationtechniques.Toassesbest9
practicerestorationtechniquesforbiologicaldiversityweinvestigatedtheinfluenceofwall10
structuresonfloristicdiversity.11
12
MaterialandMethods13
Studyareaandcastles14
Thestudyarea(Figure1)islocatedinUpperFranconiaandischaracterisedbylowmountain15
ranges.ThestudiedfortressFestungRosenbergandthecastlesGiechburg,Burg16
WaischenfeldandBurgRabensteindifferinregardtohistory,climateandlandscapetraits.17
Asthemonumentswereconstructedwithstonesfromlocalparentmaterial,thebuilding18
materialischaracteristicforthelandscapematrixofthemonuments.Table1providesan19
overviewonabioticfactorsandhistoriccharacteristicsoftheexaminedcastles.20
21
Vegetationdataandsampledesign22
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Vegetationandrelatedenvironmentalparametersweresampledonsevenwallsofthefour1
selectedcastles(table1)summarisingavarietyofdifferentmonumentrestorationtreatments2
(table2).OfspecialinterestisFestungRosenberg,wheredifferentrestorationtechniques3
wereappliedonthreepartsofthefrontwallofWaffenplatzPhilippin2001(Figure2).4
Impactsonwallflora,feasibilityandcostsofconservationaredepicted(Box1).5
Temperatureandwateravailabilityonawalliscloselyrelatedtoitsaspect(Werneretal.6
1989).Thus,speciescompositionofvascularplants,mossesandlichensoftenvariesstrongly7
betweennorthandsouthfacingwalls(Segal1969,Weber&Bdel2001).Evenifsome8
studiesdidnotfindaspecttosignificantlyinfluenceplantcover(Bellinzonietal.2003),inour9
studytheexaminedwallsaremicroclimaticallystandardizedtosouthorsouthwest10
orientation.11
12
Theappliedplotsizeof1misregardedtorepresentanadequateplotsizeforwallvegetation13
(includingmossesandlichens)(Darlington1981).Viastratifiedrandomsamplingthreeplots14
wereplacedontheupperandlowerpartsofeachcastlewall,respectively.Thisapproach15
enabledaseparatesamplingoftheupperwallpartthatischaracterisedbyextremedrought16
stress,aswellasofthelowerwallpartswithhighdisturbanceintensityandnutrientinputs17
(Gilbert1992).Altogether42plotswereestablished(6oneachwall)andrecordedin200618
and2007(Lichensonly2007).Speciesfrequencieswereassessed.Eachplotwasdividedin2519
subplotsof0.04m2size(Figure3)andspeciespresence/absenceforvascularplants,mosses20
andlichenswererecorded.Plantrecordsof2006and2007weresummarisedtakingthe21
meanfrequencyofaplantspeciesinaspecificplotofbothyears.Nomenclaturefollows22
Oberdorfer(1990)forvascularplants,Frahm&Frey(1992)formossesandWirth(1995)for23
lichens.24
25
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Abioticvariables1
Whileexpositionwasheldconstantatallsamplingsites,otherabioticinfluences,namely2
wateravailability,thequalityofsubstrate,andsurfacestructureofthewallwereanalysedin3
detail.4
Qualityofbuildingmaterial(stonesandmortar)isinfluencingthevegetationonwallsfor5
instanceviapH,nitrateorcalciumavailability(Segal1969,Liscietal.2003).Therefore6
substratesamples(ca.12cm)wereanalysedforeachplot.Withionchromatographythe7
contentofsodium,potassium,calcium,magnesium,ammoniumaswellasfluoride,chloride,8
nitrate,phosphateandsulphatewasmeasured.9
Toestimatetheavailablewaterelectricconductivitywasmeasuredfourtimesperplot.In10
addition,highresolutioninfraredphotosweretaken.However,detailedanalysesofthe11
resultingestimatesofmoistureindicatedthatbothmethodologiesarenotprovidingreliable12
resultsandwerethusnotincludedinfurtheranalyses.13
14
Wallstructure15
Toquantitativelyrecordthestructureofwallsurfaceagridofprofiledrawingscomparableto16
elevationprofilesinlandscapeswasfoundtobemostsuitabletoelaboratemetricsthatcould17
quantifythestructureofthewall.Theprofilesweregainedviaacontactbasedcontour18
measurementsensor(Figure4a).Thisapproachisnotbiasedbyinsolationandshadow19
(Pavlidisetal.2007).Foreachplotthreedirectionandcrossdirectionprofilesof90cmlength20
wereconductedinastandardisedprocedure.Theprofilesweredigitalisedwitharesolution21
of1mm(Figure4a,b).Basedontheseprofilesavarietyofdifferentparametersthat22
adequatelyresemblethestructuralheterogeneityofthewallsurfacewerecalculated(Table23
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3).Ifnotmentioneddifferently,themeanvalueofthoseparametersperplotwastakenfor1
furthercalculations.2
3
Calculations4
Environmentalvariableswerestandardised(scaledtozeromeanandunitvariance).All5
analyseswereperformedinthestatisticalprogramR(RDevelopmentCoreTeam2010)6
Boostedregressiontreeswereusedtodetectdriversofspeciesrichnessforallgroups7
(vascularplants+mosses+ferns)jointlyaswellasseparately.Allenvironmentalvariables8
wereincludedaspredictors.Boostedregressiontreeswerecalculatedusingfunction9
gbm.step(gbm1.63)asprovidedinElithetal.(2008).Modelsettingsaswellassummary10
statisticscanbedepictedfromtable4.11
NonmetricMultidimensionalScaling(NMDS)wasusedtovisualisethesimilarityinspecies12
abundanceandcompositionoftheplots.TheappliedBrayCurtisindexisindependentfrom13
thedatadistributionandthusidealfornonnormaldistributeddata(McCuneandGrace14
2002).ByusingNMDSthenumberofdimensionsintheordinationspacehastobedefineda15
priori.Twodimensionswerechosentofacilitatevisualisation.QualityofaNMDScanbe16
estimatedbythestressvalue.Lowstressvaluesindicateagoodfitofthedistancesbetween17
thesamplestothedissimilaritiesofspeciesassemblages.Stressvaluesbelow20are18
consideredtoyieldacceptableresults(McCune&Grace2002).Stressvalueswere15forall19
vegetation,13forvascularplants,12forbryophytesand11forlichens.Theappliedfunction20
metaMDS(vegan1.171)choosesastartingconfigurationclosetoalocalstressoptimum.21
Iterativelynewconfigurationsarecalculatedandcomparedtopreviousresultsusing22
Procrustestesttoobtainanoptimalvalue(Oksanenetal.2010).Correlationbetween23
measuredenvironmentalvariables(abioticandstructural)andthefirsttwoNMDSaxeswas24
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assessedwithsquaredcorrelationcoefficientasthegoodnessoffitstatistic.Apermutation1
testwith10,000iterationswasappliedtoassesssignificance.Onlyrelevantvariables(p2
0.01)werevisualised.Toevaluatethecontributionofsinglespeciesgroups(vascularplants,3
bryophytes,lichens)totheoverallpatternofcombinedvegetation,NMDSaxesscoresof4
combinedandseparatedanalyseswerecorrelatedusingPearsoncorrelation.5
6
Results7
Environmentalcharacteristicsofwallsubstrate8
Amongtheinterrelationsofvariablesmeasuringwallchemistryandthosemeasuringwall9
structure(Figure:Overviewintheappendix)thePearsonproductmomentcorrelationofpH10
with"surfaceheterogeneity"(r2=0.54***,negative)aswellas"5cmsurfacefluctuations"11
(r2=0.50***,positive)isofspecialinterest.12
ThepHvaluesofthestonesvarybetweenpH6.5andpH9.6.AttheGiechburgandtheBurg13
WaischenfeldvaluesofpH8weremeasured.WhilethepHvalueof8.5atBurgRabensteinis14
slightlyhigher.ThepHvalueatthecastlesbuildfromsandstoneshowedvaluesbetweenpH15
6.7andpH7.9(meanvalue:pH7.2).ThepHofmortarwasaroundpH8.16
TheammoniumconcentrationofconstructionstonescorrelatesnegativelywiththepH17
(r2=0.17**).18
Chloride,sodiumandsulphaterelatetothecorrespondingsaltionsNaSO4andNaCl.The19
correspondingcontentsinmortarandstonesarehighlycorrelatedwithr2upto0.80.The20
highestsaltcontentswerefoundattheGiechburg.Thevaluesoftheothercastlesdidnot21
differsignificantly.22
23
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Speciesrichnessandcomposition1
Ingeneralthespeciesrichnessofallvegetationattheinvestigatedwalls(figure5)ishighon2
surfaceswithahighnumberofjoints(BRTresultsinfigure6,table4forsummarystatistics).3
However,incontrasttoourexpectations,largerirregularitiesareassociatedwithlowspecies4
numbers.Thevascularplantsaremainlyresponsibleforthisresult."5cmsurface5
fluctuations"isoneofthemostimportantpredictorsforthisgroupofspecies.Theindex"56
cmsurfacefluctuations"hasanegativePearson'sproductmomentcorrelationwith"surface7
heterogeneity"(r2=0.37***)andapositivecorrelationwith"finestructure"(r2=0.21**).The8
negativePearson'sproductmomentcorrelationof"5cmsurfacefluctuations"ismuch9
strongerwithcumulativeabundance(r2=0.24***)thanwithspeciesrichness(r2=0.06notsig.).10
Increasing"surfaceheterogeneity"isfollowedbyanincreaseinrichnessofbryophyteswhile11
thenumberoflichensdecreases.12
RichnessofthewholevegetationseemstobeindependentfrompHdespiteasuddendropin13
speciesnumbersbetweenpH7.5and8.Theoppositepatterncanbeidentifiedforcalcium14
andmagnesium,whereanincreaseisalignedwithmorespecies.Hereagainbryophytes15
behavediametricallytolichenswiththelaterincreasinginrichnesswithcalciumavailability16
whilethenumberofmossesdeclines.Interestinglyanincreaseincalciumcontentofthe17
mortar(notshownforlichens)enhancesspeciesrichnessinbothgroups.Sulphateinbuilding18
stonesisconnectedwithlowspeciesdiversity.19
Both,variablesofwallchemistryaswellasthenewdevelopedindicesforwallheterogeneity20
areappropriatetodifferentiatetheinvestigatedcastlesaccordingtotheirspecies21
composition(NMDSinfigure7).Bothvariablegroupscontributealargefractionof22
explainablevariationasrevealedbyvariationpartitioningusingRDAwithconstrained23
predictors(figure8).24
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Vascularplantsandbryophytesaremorescatteredinordinationspace(theirspecies1
compositionislessuniform)andplotsofthedifferentcastlesarenotseparated(figure7).2
Onlyafewenvironmentalvariablesareexplainingthepatternwithinthesegroups.Lichens3
seemtobemostrelevantforthedistinctionintheoverallNMDS.Comparedtotheother4
groups,theydependmoreonstructureandenvironmentthantheothergroups.Thefirstaxis5
oftheNMDSanalysisforthecompletevegetationiscorrelatingwiththefirstaxisoflichens(r:6
0.73),thefirstaxisofvascularplants(r:0.65)andthefirstaxisofbryophytes(r:0.37).The7
secondaxisofallvegetationiscorrelatedtothesecondaxisoflichens(r:0.48)andtothe8
firstaxisofvascularplants(r:0.42).Othercorrelationsamongaxesshowedanrbelow0.2.9
10
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Discussion1
Ifcastlewallsaredifferentiatedbasedontheirnaturalcover,thenlichensarethespecies2
groupofchoice.Lichensarecloserassociatedwithbuildingmaterialthanotherspecies(Segal3
1969,Gilbert1992).Theyaredirectlyaffectedbymoistureandchemicalconditionssuchas4
pH(Prietoetal.1999,Weber&Bdel2001,Liscietal.2003,Sparriusetal.2007).5
6
Mossesandlichensadherelikeasecondskintothecastlewallsurfaces.Oftenthefirst7
colonizersonmonumentalwallsarelichensbutdifferonthedifferenttypesofsubstratum8
theyliveon.Weber&Bdel(2001)showthatlichenspecieswhichwherefoundonalkaline9
substratumlikemortararecolonizingonthehabitatfasterthanspeciesonacidicsubstrate.10
Theirgrowthisnotdependentongroutsorcracksbuttheirgrowthspeedvariesconsiderably11
betweenspecies.Somelichenspecieswithbroadecologicalamplitude,suchasCaloplaca12
citrinaorLecanoradispersa,werefoundonallstudiedcastles.13
14
Lichens,especiallycrustoselichens,canpenetratethewallsurfaceandareinveryclose15
contacttothewallsubstrate.Thereforetheycanonlyberemovedwithalastingeffectby16
aggressivemethodsthataffectalsothebuildingmaterials.17
18
TheuseofcalcareousmortarexplainstheoccurrenceofcalcicolelichensatFestung19
Rosenberg(seePrietoetal.1999).Themortarissoftanderodesmuchfasterthanthestones.20
Thusthedilutionofprecipitationandthealkalineerodedmaterialispreferredespeciallyby21
fastestablishingspecieslikeCollemacrispum.22
23
Boostedregressiontreeresultssupportacertaindegreeofinteraction(namelycompetition)24
betweenmossesandlichens,whichcannotbedetectedforvascularplants.Mossesand25
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lichensgrowdirectlyonthestonesurfacewhichisnotsuitableforrootingvascularplants.In1
ourstudy,speciesrichnessinlichensincreaseswithcalciumcontentofthestoneswhilethe2
numberofmossesdecreases.Interestingly,anincreaseincalciumcontentofthemortar(not3
illustratedforlichensinfigure6)supportsspeciesrichnessinbothgroups.4
5
Nitratecontentisexpectedtohaveaneffectonwallvegetation(Werneretal.1989).Wefind6
theammoniumcontentatFestungRosenbergtobemuchhigherthanatothercastles.The7
elevatedvaluesatthe"environmentalfriendly"renovatedpartindicatethattheoriginally8
usedmortarorsubstrateintheopenjointsisstilleffective(compareWerneretal.1989).9
Vascularplantsaredependentonstructureslikejointsorgapswheretheycanroot10
mechanicallyandhaveaccesstoasubstratethatsupportswaterandnutrients(Duchoslav11
2002).Thus,roughsurfacesshouldhostmorespecies.Ingeneralthisexpectationis12
confirmed,butinterestingcasesweredetected.Especiallythedecayinvascularplantrichness13
with"5cmsurfacefluctuations"(largerirregularities)wassurprising.Thenegative14
relationshipwith"surfaceheterogeneity"indicatesthat"5cmsurfacefluctuations"mightbe15
associatedtobuildingstylewithregularandthuslessheterogenicstonearrangementhaving16
morealternations."5cmsurfacefluctuations"areespeciallylowatFestungRosenberg.17
FestungRosenbergis,likepartsoftheGiechburg,buildfromsandstone.Stonearrangementis18
thusmoreregularthanattheothercastles.FestungRosenbergisexceptionalrichinvascular19
plans.Differentiatingtheeffectofbuildingstonesandstonearrangementwillneedthe20
extensionofthestudytofurthercastles.Thereishardlyanydifferenceinspeciescomposition21
betweenFestungRosenbergandBurgRabenstein.Thebuildingmaterialhasonlylittleeffect22
viathepHasplantswillgrowoncalciumenrichedmortar(Werneretal.1989,Gilbert1992).23
SpeciesthatprefercalciumrichhabitatslikeAspleniumruta-murariaarealsogrowingat24
FestungRosenbergasthemortarisproducedfromdolomite.25
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1
Eventhoughthereisnonegativecorrelationbetweenthenumberoflichenandmossspecies,2
theincreaseofmosseswith"surfaceheterogeneity"andthedecayoflichenspeciesrichness3
canbetheresultofcompetitionbetweenbothgroups.Mossspeciesareprobablynotasgood4
adaptedtosmoothsurfacesthanlichens,aninstancethatwouldbeexpectedowingthetight5
spatialarrangementoflichenspeciesonthewallsurface.6
Whatcanwelearnfornatureandmonumentrestoration?Ithasbeenshownthattheassumed7
"environmentalfriendly"restorationreallyresultsindifferentspeciescomposition.8
Dependingonsurfacestructure,buildingstonesand(veryimportant!)thechemistryofthe9
usedmortar,differentspeciesgroupswillbesupported.Thisdoesnotinterferewith10
monumentrestorationgoals.11
Theassumptionthatwallvegetationisdamaginghistoricbuildingsisstillwidelyaccepted12
(Mishraetal1995;Liscietal.2003;LeeandYi2007;Ciceketal.2009).Inthe19thcentury13
wallvegetationhasbeennamed"greenvandalism"(Scheiger1857).Today'swordinghas14
changedto"biodeterioration"andacleaningofthebuildingfromvegetationisarrogated15
(Mishraetal1995;Liscietal.2003;Lee&Yi2007).Infact,thelateralgrowthofwoodyplants16
(rootsandshoots)hasthepotentialtobreakwalls.17
18
However,itisstillunderdebatewhetherbelowgroundpartsoflichens,herbsandgrassesdo19
imposeharmfulpressure(Liscietal.2003)ornot(Honeyborne1998).Detailedanalysesof20
stonemicrostructureconductedatFestungRosenbergbyDrewello&Schmiedinger(2007)21
haveshownthatneitherhigherplants(withtheexceptionofwoodyplants)normosses22
acceleratebiodeteriorationofthesandstone.Thevegetationhaseithernoneoraprotective23
effect.Theabundanceoflichensmaysupportasealingofstonesurfacesandpreventserosion.24
Constructiveandbiogenicinducedcarbonateaccumulationunderneaththesurfaceofthe25
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sandstonehasadecelerationeffectonthecorrosivedegradation.Onlythecrustoselichen1
Lecanoracampestrismaycausepermanentdamagesinsingularcasesatsouthfacingwallsat2
FestungRosenberg.GranitechurchesincoastalGaliciaindicatethatlichencoverprotects3
wallsfromsaltinduceddisaggregation(Carballaletal.2001).Theauthorsproposeadirect4
protectionoftherockagainstsaltoradecreaseinthenumberofharmfulwetdrycyclesbya5
balancinginfluenceoflichens(alsoproposedinHoneyborne1998).Thereareindicationsfor6
chemicalerosionpotentialofsubstances(oxalicacids)emittedfromlichens(Ciceketal.7
2009),whichvariesinrespecttospeciesandsubstrate(Liscietal.2003).However,the8
erosionpotentialoflichensissuspectedtobeminimalincomparisontoabioticerosion9
(Honeyborne1998).10
11
Moistureisapreconditionfortheestablishmentofwallvegetation(Werneretal.1989).Asa12
positivefeedback,vegetationissuspectedtoincreasewallmoisturebyshieldingthesurface13
frominsolation.However,thisisnotnecessarilyaproblemasplantcoveralsopreventsheat14
lossbyradiationanddecreasesthenumberofharmfulfrostevents(Honeyborne1998).15
Theeffectivenessofrestorationworkisquestionedbythespeedoflichenrecolonisation16
whichmayoccurwithinfewyears(Silvaetal.1997,Nascimbene&Salvadori2008,17
Nascimbeneetal.2009).Duetospeciesspecificreactions,thesuccessfuluseofherbicidesis18
notguaranteedandregrowthisnotprevented(Mouga&Almeida1997,Nascimbeneetal.19
2009).Asspeciescompositionvariesbeforeandafterrecollonisation,itmightbepreferable20
toretainamoreoriginalanddiversecommunitiesonwallsthantoapplyonlyshortlasting21
restorationwork(Nascimbeneetal.2009).Theremovalofvegetationis,withtheexceptionof22
woodyplants,questionableformonumentrestoration.Aneffectivecleaningwouldalterthe23
wallsurfaceandisalignedwithaconsiderablelossofmaterialwhilebeingnonsustainable24
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(DrewelloandSchmiedinger2008).Both,natureconservationandmonumentconservation1
goalscanbeachieved.2
ThetypeofhabitatthatisprovidedbyhistoricmonumentshasbecomerareintheEuropean3
culturallandscape.Butdespitethisvaluefornaturepreservation,thespecificvegetationof4
wallsisalsoofculturalandhistoricimportance.Alargefractionoftheplantsstillgrowing5
nearcastleshavealreadybeenusedinthemedievaltimesforfoodorhealing(Dehnen6
Schmutz2004).Othershadamoreornamentalorevenmagicpurpose.Inmanycases7
knowledgeontheoriginalusehasbeenlost.Notwithstandingwallvegetationhas8
characterisedthehistoricpictureofmonasteries,churches,citywallsandcastlesforcenturies9
andtheirconservationisthusalsointheinterestofhistoricconservation(DehnenSchmutz10
2004).11
Spreadingrandomplotsonthesamecastlewallsdoesnotresultintruerepetitions.The12
resultingplotsarespatiallyautocorrelatedandviolatetheassumptionofindependence.The13
aggregatedarrangementoftheplotsbelongingtoonecastleintheNMDSresultsshowsthe14
similaritybetweenplotsbelongingtoonecastle.Outofpracticalreasonsastatisticallyperfect15
samplingdesignisoftennotfeasible.Anindependentdistributionofseveralplotspercastle16
wallisacompromisethatisnotuncommoninpraxis(Leps&Smilauer2003).Extendingthe17
studytofurtherlocationswouldenhancestatisticalcertainty,butiscostlyintermsoftime18
andmoney.Thechosenschematicapproachisreplicableandresultsarecaneasierbe19
comparedandtransferredthansubjectiveassessments.20
Theindicesusedtocharacterisethewallstructurewheredevelopedbasedontheoretical21
considerations.Theaimwastogainmeaningfulvaluesthatcouldbeassociatedtospecies22
richnessandcompositiononthewall.Theindicesshouldmirrorthecharacteristicsurface23
settingsoftheinvestigatedwalls.Untiltoday,nootherinvestigationofhistoricbuildingshas24
includedwallstructureinsuchdetail.Ithasbeenshownthatheterogeneityonwalls(orother25
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surfaces)canbeassessedinarepresentativewaynotonlyqualitativelybutalso1
quantitatively.Thisnovelapproachenabledustorelatesurfaceheterogeneityofwallstothe2
associatedvegetation.Anextensionofthemethodologyfroma2Dlinemeasurementtoa3D3
surfaceassessmentmight(e.g.vialaserscanning)beafeasible(albeitexpensive)taskfor4
futurestudiesinthisdirection.Atheoreticalbaselineforthisapproachhasbeenprovided5
here.6
7
8
Acknowledgements:9
ThisprojecthasbeensupportedbytheDeutscheBundesstiftungUmwelt(DBU)and10
Oberfrankenstiftung.EduardHertelandVolkmarWirthgavevaluablehelpindeterminingthelichens.11
WeappreciatedthecooperationwithRainerDrewello,RolfSnethlage,UrsulaDrewelloandLutz12
Tpfer.WealsothankDieterBrggemannfortheinfraredcamera,AlexUlmerfordatacollectionand13
photosaswellasReinholdStahlmannforgraphicalsupport.14
15
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References 1
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Beierkuhnlein,C.,Drewello,R.,Snethlage,R.,Tpfer,L.,Drewello,U.,Gohlke,A.&5
Schmiedinger,A.(2010):ZwischenDenkmalschutzundNaturschutzLeitfadenzur6
naturvertrglichenInstandhaltungvonMauerwerkinderDenkmalpflegeInitiativenzum7
Umweltschutz,ErichSchmidtVerlag,85.8
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pioneeralgaeandplantcommunitiesInternationalBiodeteriorationandBiodegradation10
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CarballalR.,PazBermdezG.,SnchezBiezmaM.J.&PrietoB.(2001):Lichen12
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CicekA.,AslanA.,YaziciK.&KoparalA.S.(2009):Effectsofenvironmentalconditionson15
historicalbuildings:lichensandNOxgasesEnvironmentalmonitoringandassessment16
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DarlingtonA(1981):EcologyofwallsHeinemannEducationalBooks,London.18
DehnenSchmutzK(2004):Alienspeciesreflectinghistory:medievalcastlesinGermany19
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DrewelloR,SchmiedingerA(2007):ThesandstoneofthefortessRosenberginKronach21
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GesellschaftfrGeowissenschaften158(4):895919.23
DuchoslavM(2002):FloraandvegetationofstonywallsinEastBohemiaPreslia74:125.24
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EckertT,FischerS,FreitagR,HofmannR,TausendpfundW(1992)DieBurgender1
FrnkischenSchweizEinKulturfhrer,GebietsausschuFrnkischeSchweiz,Forchheim2
ElithJ.,LeathwickJ.R.&HastieT.(2008):Aworkingguidetoboostedregressiontrees3
Journalofanimalecology77(4):802813.4
FrahmJ.P.&FreyW.(1992):MoosfloraUlmerVerlag,Stuttgart.5
GilbertO.(1992):RootedinstoneThenaturalfloraofurbanwallsPeterborough.6
HoneyborneD.B.(1998):WeatheringanddecayofmasonryIn:AshurstJ.&DimesF.G.7
(eds)Conservationofbuildinganddecorativestone:part1,2nded.Butterworth8
Heinemann,Oxford.9
KraheF.(1994):BurgendesdeutschenMittelaltersGrundrisslexikon,Verlag10
Weidlich/Flechsig,Wrzburg.11
KremerH.(1974):FhrerdurchdieFestungRosenbergobKronachCarlLinkVerlag,12
Kronach.13
KunstmannH.(1965):DieBurgenderstlichenfrnkischenSchweizKommissionsverlag14
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LeeC.H.&YiJ.E.(2007):Weatheringdamageevaluationofrockpropertiesinthe16
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52(6):11931205.18
LepsJ.&SmilauerP.(2003):MultivariateanalysisofecologicaldatausingCANOCO19
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LisciM.,MonteM.&PaciniE.(2003):Lichensandhigherplantsonstone:areview21
InternationalBiodeteriorationandBiodegradation51(1):117.22
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restoredcalcareousstatueScienceofTheTotalEnvironment407(7):24202426.10
NeundorferB.(1976):DieGiechburg,LandkreisBamberg,BayerischeVerlagsanstalt,St11
OttoVerlag,Bamberg.12
OberdorferE.(1990):PflanzensoziologischeExkursionsfloraUlmerVerlag,Stuttgart.13
OksanenJ.,BlanchetF.G.,KindtR.,LegendreP.,O'HaraR.G.SimpsonG.,SolymosP.,14
StevensM.H.&WagnerH.(2010):vegan:CommunityEcologyPackageRpackage15
version1.170.http://CRAN.Rproject.org/package=vegan.16
PaciniE.(1994)PurposesandmannersofrepresentationofplantsintheEuropeanartof17
13th17thcenturyPactJournal42:172180.18
PavlidisG.,KoutsoudisA.,ArnaoutoglouF.,TsioukasV.&ChamzasC.(2007):Methodsfor19
3DdigitizationofculturalheritageJournalofCulturalHeritage8:9398.20
PickR.,BeyerS.,DrewelloR.FrsterD.,Laber,A.S.,RauhM.,SchmiedingerA.&21
WeimannR.(2002):DenkmalpflegeundkologieInstandhaltungvonkologisch22
bedeutsamemMauerwerkamBeispielderWallmauernderFestungRosenberginKronach23
BayerischesLandesamtfrDenkmalpflege,Mnchen.24
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PrietoB.,RivasT.&SilvaB.(1999):Environmentalfactorsaffectingthedistributionof1
lichensongraniticmonumentsintheIberianpeninsulaTheLichenologist31(291305).2
ScheigerJ.(1857):VondemEinflussederPflanzenaufdieZerstrungderRuinen3
BerichteundMitteilungendesAltertumsVereineszuWien2:16.4
SegalS.(1969):NotesonwallvegetationDr.W.JunkN.V.,TheHague,Netherlands.5
SilvaB.,PrietoB.,RivasT.,SanchezBiezmaM.J.,PazG.&CarballalR.(1997):Rapid6
BiologicalColonizationofagraniticbuildingbylichensInternationalBiodeterioration7
andBiodegradation40(263267).8
SparriusL.B.,AptrootA.&HerkK.v.(2007):Diversityandecologyoflichensonchurches9
intheNetherlandsNovaHedwigia85(35):299316.10
RDevelopmentCoreTeam(2009):R:Alanguageandenvironmentforstatistical11
computingRFoundationforStatisticalComputing,Vienna,Austria.ISBN3900051070,12
URLhttp://www.Rproject.org.13
WalterE.(2003):1000JhrigesKronachStadtundUmgebungHeimatbeilagezum14
OberfrnkischenSchulanzeiger,Nr.308,Bayreuth.15
WeberB.&BdelB.(2001):Mappingandanalysisofdistributionpatternsoflichenson16
ruralmedievalchurchesinnortheasternGermanyLichenologist33:231248.17
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undihreStandortverhltnisseTuexenia9:5773.19
WirthV.(1995):DieFlechtenBadenWrttembergsUlmerVerlag,Stuttgart.20
21
22
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FIGURELEGENDS1
Figure1:StudyareasituatedinUpperFrankonia.ReinholdStahlmann,adaptedfromBayerischesLandesamtfr2
Umwelt(2007)3
Figure2:TestingwallwiththreedifferentrestorationtechniquesatWaffenplatzPhilipponFestung4
Rosenberg.PhotoAlexUlmer.5
Figure3:Plotof1msizeatcastleRabensteinwith25subplotsforfrequencyassessment.6
Figure4:Surfacestructureofeachplotisgainedviathreedirectionandcrossdirectionprofilesof90cmlength.7
Aframesupportsstandardisedmeasurement(a).Comparisonofprofilesfromaplot(b)attheFestung8
Rosenberg(compromisesolution)andanotrenovatedplotatBurgRabenstein(c).9
Figure5:Speciesrichnessattheinvestigatedsamplingsites.Refertotable2foranexplanationofthe10
abbreviations. 11
Figure6:Boostedregressiontreesforspeciesrichness(vascularplants+mosses+ferns).Percentagesvaluesin12
parenthesesdemonstratetherelativeamountofpredictivevariationexplainedbythesevariablesitselffromthe13
totalvariation.Rugplotsinsetattopofplotsshowdistributionofsitesacrossspecificvariableindeciles(asin14
Elithetal.2008).Soilvariablestendtohavelargerangeofvalueswithoutrepresentationinthedataset(norug15
plotinsets).Thesegapsshouldnotbeinterpreted.16
Figure7:SampledwallsareseparatedbyanNMDSforallspeciesgroups(a).Ananalysisofvascularplants(b)17
andbryophythes(c)revealsmuchmorescattered(dissimilar)speciescomposition.Thepatternforlichens18
indicatesthatthisgroupisprimarilyresponsibleforthecleardistinguishingofsampledwallsintheanalysisof19
allspeciesgroupscombined.Environmentalvariableswerefittedtotheaxisscoresandtestedonsignificance20
usingpermutationtest.Onlyvariableswithp>0.01aredisplayed.21
Figure8:VariationpartitioningusingRDAexplainingvariationinspeciescompositionwithconstrained22
predictors.23
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BOXANDTABLES1
Box1:
DifferentrestorationtechniquesatFestungRosenberg
Inordertoinvestigatethe(dis)advantagesofmonumentrestorationactivities
intermsofimpactonwallfloraandfauna,feasibilityandcostsofrestoration,
threedifferentrestorationtechniqueswereconductedin2001onawallat
WaffenplatzPhilipponthenorthernsideofFestungRosenberg.Waffenplatz
Philippbelongstothepartofthefortressthatwaserectedaround1750.Each
restorationtechniquewasappliedona11x4msizedpartofthewall(Figure
2).
Duringtheenvironmentalsoundrestorationonlywoodyplantswere
removed.Allfascularplants,mossesandlichenswereleftonthestonesand
withingaps.Thehumuslayeronthewallcopingwasliftedandrefittedafter
restorationwork.Wallsurfacewasonlycleanedonthoseplaceswere
restorationwasconducted.Groutingwasreducedtoanecessaryminimum.
Fortheconventionalrestorationallplantcoveronthewallandthehumus
layeronthewallcopingwasremoved.Thewallsurfaceandgapswerecleaned
entirelywithsuperheatstream.Gapslargeronecentimetreweregrouted.
Surfacedefectswereclosedusingepoxideresinwhileimbuedandvulnerable
areaswereclosedusingcommonlimecementmortar.
Thethirdapplicationwasacompromisesolutionbetweenthetwoformer
mentionedmethods.Whilemossesandlichenswereleftinthegaps,woody
plants,herbsandgrasseswereremoved.Thehumuslayerwasliftedand
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refittedafterrestorationwork.Onlythoseplaceswererestorationwas
conductedwerecleanedwithsuperheatstream.Groutingwasreducedtoa
necessaryminimum.(Picketal.2002)
1
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25
1
Table1:Abioticconditionsandsomehistoryoftheexaminedcastles.Sampledwallsare
indicatedinblue.Mapssources:Rosenberg:Walter2003;Rabenstein:adaptedfrom
Kunstmann1965;Giechburg:Neundorfer1976;Waischenfeld:Krahe1994.
Rabenstein(limestone,390ma.s.l.,688mmannualprecipitation,
7.9Cmeantemperature).FirstmentionedAD1188wasfoundedby
theEdelfreienvonWaischenfeldtoprotectthetradingroadscoming
fromthePegnitzvalleyinthesouth(Kunstmann1965).Thecastlewas
heavilydamagedordestroyedandrebuildseveraltimes(Stdtekrieg
of1388,Frstenkrieg146062,ThirtyYears'War16181648)andits
holderschanged.Since1976itisusedasahotel.(Eckertetal.1992)
Waischenfeld (limestone,401ma.s.l.,688mmannualprecipitation,
7.9Cmeantemperature)firstmentionedAD1122,belongedtothe
EdelfreienvonWaischenfeldbeforeitchangedholdersseveraltimes.
Thecastlewasdestroyedin1430(HussiteWars)andplunderedin
1553(MargraveWar)butenduredtheThirtyYears'Warundamaged.
Thewallanda1754buildpalacehavebeenrestoredwhileremainsof
theoriginalpalacewereremovedin1876.Thecastlenowbelongsto
thecityofWaischenfeldandhostsgastronomyandamuseum.(Eckert
etal.1992)
Giechburg(limestone/sandstone,530ma.s.l.,701mmannual
precipitation,7.6Cmeantemperature)firstmentionedAD1125is
buildonahillalreadypopulatedinprehistorictimes.Thecastlewas
destroyedandrebuildseveraltimes(1430HussiteWars,1525
GermanPeasants'War,1553secondMargraveWar).Thecurrent
wallsandtowersdatebacktofortificationsofFrstbischofJohann
PhilippvonGebsattelin15991609.TheGiechburgtwithstoodthe
ThirtyYearswarbutwasnearlydestroyedaround1800byaroyal
Bavarianinspectorwhowantedtocreatearomanticruinby
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removingtheroof.Now,theGiechburgbelongstothecountyof
Bambergandhostsgastronomyandexhibitions.(Eckertetal.1992)
FestungRosenberg (sandstone,378ma.s.l.,660mmannual
precipitation,7.8Cmeantemperature)wasthenorthwardstronghold
oftheBistumBambergandprotectedthestrategicallyimportant
tradingrouts.FirsttowerswerebuildAD11281130andlateron
fortified.ThenameRosenbergisfirstmentionedAD1249.Itbecamea
bishop`sdistrictcastleinthe14thcentury.Thesecondwallwasbuild
endofthe15thcentury.NeithertheHussits,theenemiesofthe
MargravenortheSwedishforcesintheThirtyYearsWarwereableto
conquerthestronghold.Thepentagonshapedpresentouterwallwas
buildAD16561700.ThefortresswasunderusebyNapoleonsarmies,
Bavarianmilitary,andservedinthefirstworldwar19151918asa
prisonhostingamongothersCharlesdeGaulle.Concreteandsteel
workwasdoneinpartsofthefortressduringsecondworldwar.
TodaytheRosenberghostsayouthhostel,gastronomyandamuseum.
(Kremer1974;Walter2003)
1
2
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1
2
3
Table2:Sizeofsampledcastlewallsandassociatedrestorationtechniques.Oneachwallsix
plotsof1mwhereestablished.
Castle Restorationtype Wallsize Abbreviation
Waischenfeld conventionalrestoration3040
yearsbeforesampling
11x4m Wfd
Giechburg conventionalrestoration 11x4m Gbg
Rabenstein conventionalrestoration 3x2.80m Rsncr
Rabenstein norestoration 11x3m Rsnnr
Rosenberg conventional
restorationrestoration
11x4m Rbgcr
Rosenberg environmentalsound
restorationrestoration
11x4m Rbger
Rosenberg compromisesolution 11x4m Rbgcs
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1
Table3:Thebelowdescribedcoefficientswereusedtomeasurethestructuralheterogeneityofthewallsurface.Foreachplotsixprofilesof90cmlengthweremeasured(threedirectionandthreecrossdirection).Themeanofthecoefficientvaluesofallsixprofilesweretakenastheplotvalueforcalculation.Thelengthsoftheprofilelinewasnotsuitableforacomparisonasmany
smallscalevariationsinsurfacestructureleadtocomparablevaluesasfewlargescalevariations.
name description formula
surfaceheterogeneity
(variation
coefficient)
Thevariationcoefficientindicatesvariationindepths.Itisanormalisedmeasureofdispersion.
Thelargerthevalue,themoredifferentarethedepthsvaluesfromtheirmean.
:standarddeviation:meanvalueofdepths
5cmsurface
fluctuation
(DeltaT5)
DeltaT5measuresthechangeindepthper5
cm:Thelargerthevalue,thedeeperarethejoints,themoreheterogenicisthesurface.
xi:valueofdepthsmaximumjointdepths
Maximumpositivedeviancefromthemean:thedeepestjointorgabinthewall.
xi:valueofdepths
:meanvalueofdepthsJointfrequency
(intersection
points)
Thenumberofintersectionpoints withthefictivemeanline.Aflatwallwithfewjointswillhavelessintersectionpointsthanarubblemasonry.
xi:valueofdepths
:meanvalueofdepthssurfacesmoothness
(autocorrelation)
Theautocorrelationmeasurestheprobabilitythatjoints,gabsandothersurfaceirregularitiesonlyvarywithinacertainrange.Lagvaluesof1,3,5and10cm(seeequation)wereapplied.
xi:valueofdepths(1mmdifference):lagvalue(here1,3,5or10cm)
:meanvalueofdepthsfinestructure
(periodicity)
Slopeofthelogtransformedperiodogram(functioninfrequencyspaceafterFouriertransformation).
Measuresrecurringfineandcoarse
structuresofthewallsurface.Thelargerthevaluethefinerthestructuresandthelesslargescalesurfacefluctuations.
F():Fourierfunctionxi:valueofdepths(1mmdifference):frequence
2
3
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1
Table4:Summarystatisticsofboostedregressiontreeanalysisforspeciesrichness.In
allmodelrunsbagfractionwassetto0.75andtreecomplexityto5.
allvegetation vascularplants mosses lichens
Learningrate 0.0015 0.005 0.0015 0.005
Stepsize 50 50 50 25
Numberoftrees 1850 1700 1550 1600
Meantotaldeviance 8.642 5.812 2.738 1.27
Meanresidualdeviance 2.232 0.269 1.210 0.165
EstimatedCVdeviance 5.389
(se:1.314)
2.761
(se:0.637)
2.429
(se:0.571)
1.120
(se:0.213)
Trainingdatacorrelation 0.905 0.980 0.814 0.953
CVcorrelation 0.670
(se:0.096)
0.789
(se:0.064)
0.424
(se:0.168)
0.420
(se:0.171)
2
3
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1
FIGURES2
Figure1:3
4
5
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Figure2:1
2
Figure3:3
4
Figure4:5
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Figure5:1
2
3
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Figure6:1
2
3
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Figure7:1
2
Figure8:3
4
5