memoirs of an aeronautical engineer flight tests at ames research center 1940-1970

8/8/2019 Memoirs of an Aeronautical Engineer Flight Tests at Ames Research Center 1940-1970

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Figure 5 1 . Multiple fences on F-86A wing reduced f low separation outboard with less roll-off at stall. Additional

fences strongly reduced wing maximum lift. (Nov. 1952) A- 1773399


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Figure 56. Ames-designed, double-hinged horizontal tail mounted on the O S 2 U - 2 Kingfisher provided increasedlift for maneuvering and landing (Vultee BT- 13 in background). (Feb. 1945) A-743 7

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Figure 60. The F-94Cs rear fuselage was modified in the Ames sheet metal shop to accommodate installation ofAmes-designed thrust reverser. Afterburner equipment used on the F-94C has been removed. (Aug. 7 957) A-22727

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Glossarv

Afterburner Device for augmenting the thrust of a jetengine.

Aileron Hinged section of the airplanes wing that

provides roll control.Angle of attack The angle between the wings chordline and the free-stream velocity vector.

Aspect ratio A geometric parameter of a wing definedas the square of the wingspan divided by the planformarea of the wing.

Boundary layer Thin layer of air near the airplanessurface where the air slows from flight speed to a rest,relative to the airplane. This layer is generally less thanan inch thick on a typical wing, and i s the source ofskin fiction and aerodynamic drag.

Boundary-layer con trol A method of increasing themaximum lift coefficient by controlling the develop-ment of the boundary layer; for example, by supplyinghigh-velocity air through a slot in the airfoil surface.

Camber The rise of the mean line of an a irfoil sectionabove a straight line join ing the extremities of themean line, usually expressed as the ratio of the heightof the rise to the length of the straight line.

Center of gravity The poi nt on the airplane throughwhich the resultant of the gravitational force passes,regardless of the orientation of the airplane.

Chord (or chord line) A straight line connecting theleading and trailing edges of an airfoil. The chord ofthe airfoil is the length of the chord line.

Coefficient of lift Nondimensional value derived bydividing lift by the free-stream dynamic pressure andby the reference win g area.

Compressibility effects Changes in the properties ofair fl ow as the flight speed approaches the speed ofsound. This ultimately accounts for the formation ofshock waves and a rapid increase in aerodynamicdrag.

Dihedral The angle between an airplanes wing and ahorizontal transverse line.

Drag A component of the total aerodynamic forcegenerated by the fl ow of air around an airplane thatacts along the direc tion of flight.

Elevator Hinged section of the rear of the horizontalstabilizer that provides pitch control.

Flameout Unintentional loss of a jet engines thrust.

Flaps Hinged parts of the leading or trailing edge of awing used to increase lif t at reduced airspeeds (usedprimarily during takeoff and landing).

Flutter A self-excited vibration of the airplanesaerodynamic surfaces in which the external source ofenergy i s the airstream and which depends on theelastic, inertial, and dissipative forces of the system inaddition to the aerodynamic forces.

Ground effect Change in the airplanes aerodynamicforces and moments when in proximity to the ground.

Horizontal stabilizer Horizonta l part of the tailassembly.

Lift A component of the total aerodynamic forcegenerated by the flow of air around an airplane that

acts perpendicular to the direct ion of flight.Mach number Ratio of the speed of the airplane w ithrespect to the surrounding air to the local speed ofsound i n air. Because the speed of sound varies wi thair density, the Mach number varies wi th altitude andtemperature. Thus, Mac h 1 represents a higher speed atsea level than at altitude.

Pitch Rotation of the airplane about its lateral axis(positive nose-up).

Pitot tube An open ended tube, usually mounted onan airplanes wing or nose so its opening is exposed tothe relative wind . It acts to measure stagnation pres-sure for use in cockpit instruments (e.g., airspeedindicator).

Radian A unit of angular measurement. A radian i s anangle which if placed at the center of a circle wou ldintercept an arc equal to the radius i n length (since thecircumference of a circle contains 2p radians, 1 radianequals 360/2p degrees).

Roll Rotation of the airplane about i ts longitudinalaxis (positive right wing-down).

Rudder Hinged section of the rear of the verticalstabilizer that provides yaw control.

Shock wave An abrupt change in aerodynamicproperties (pressure, density, etc) as a result of airspeedlocall y in excess of the speed of sound, t ransitioning toa speed less than the speed of sound. Shock waves canoccur even when the flight speed i s less than the speedof sound, owing to local flow acceleration aroundaerodynamic surfaces (see transonic).

Sideslip a ngle Lateral angle between the airplaneslongitudinal axis and the free-stream velocity vector.

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Slat An auxiliary movable airfoil running along theleading edge of a wing. It is closed against the wing innormal flight, but can be deflected to form a slot.

Slot A narrow opening through an airplanes wing forair to flow to improve the wings aerodynamic charac-teristics (e.g. delay flow separation). A boundary-layercontrol device.

Snap roll A rapid full revolution of the airplane aboutits longitudinal axis while maintaining level flight.

Spoilers Panels located on the wings upper surfaceused to change lift, drag, or roll ing moment.

Stall A condition of an airfoil in whic h an excessiveangle of attack disrupts the airf low over the airfoil withan attendant loss of lift. It represents the maximumcoefficient of lift.

Static stab ility Tendency of the airplane to return toand remain at its steady-state flight condit ion.

Thrust Force produced by the airplanes propulsivesystem; in conventional airplanes it acts along thelongitudinal axis .

l i l t - rotor An aircraft equipped with rotors, the axes ofwhich can be oriented vertically for helicopter-likeoperation and horizontally for conventional aircraftoperation; the plane of rotat ion of the rotors can becontinuously varied.

Tractor (airplane) An airplane having the propellersforward of the wing or fuselage.

Transonic The speed range between the high subsonic(-0.8 Mach) and low supersonic (-1.2 Mach) flight.

Trim tabs Relatively small auxiliary hinged control-

surfaces on the ailerons, elevator, or rudder used toprecisely balance the airplane in flight.

Vertical stabilizer Vertical part of the tail assembly.

Vortex A mass of air having a whirling or circularmotion.

Vortex generators Small plates (actually, small wings)protruding perpendicularly from the wing that feedhigh-energy air into the boundary layer to prevent itfrom separating from the wings surface.

Win d tunnel A facili ty that provides means for simu-lating the conditions of an airplane in flight by blowinga stream of air past a model of the airplane (or a part ofit) or, in some larger tunnels, the full-scale airplaneitself.

Yaw Rotation of the airplane about its vertical axis(positive nose-right).

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Index

A-20, 59, 77, 78airspeed accuracy problems, 13calibrating airspeed of, 12-1 3flying qualities evaluation, 13longitudinal stability tests, 13

effectiveness of dive brakes on, 9, 70flying-qualities deficiencies of, 9

A-35, 69

Aerodynamic braking, 19-20Aileron buzz, 10, 1 1Airacobra. See P-39Aircraft size effects on loads and response, 24-25, 101Air Materiel Command, 1 1Airspeed accuracy checks, 12-1 3Airspeed calibration, 10Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, 2, 3

change-over to Ames Research Center, 2flight research facilities, 5

founding of, 1World War I 1 influences on, 6Ames flight research. See Flight researchAmes Research Center, creation of, 2Anderson, Seth B., 40, 104, 1 12, 1 1 3

affiliation with Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, 3-4education of, 3first attempt at piloting, 4at Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 3at United Airlines Cheyenne facility, 3

B-17, 16, 59, 82, 83Ames modifications o, 15-16deicing modifications, 15in establishing handling-qualities criteria, 15-1 6pitch stability deficiencies, 16poor stall characteristics of, 16roll-control power inadequacies, 16with turbocharged engines, 82

B-24, 5B-25, 59, 84

elevator control power tests, 17flying qualities study of, 16-1 7in midair collision, 10-1 1

engine-out flight tests, 1 1- 12B-26, 76

Balloons, free-air, 25Bearcat. See F8F-1Bell P-39 Airacobra. See P-39Bell P-63 Kingcobra. See P-63Bell XS-1, 1 1Bell X-14B VTOL. See X-14BBell XV-3 tilt rotor. See XV-3Berry, Wallace, and Navy balloons, 25Black Widow. See P-61Blimp. See K-21 airshipBlowing-type boundary-layer control, 39-40Boeing 367-80 STOL transport, 30-31, 122

bleed-air lift augmentation, 30, 123noise-abatement analyses of, 30, 122

Boeing 707, 26

Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. See B-17Boundary-layer control, 23-24, 38-40

on Boeing 367-80, 30-31, 122in improving low-speed lift of swept wings, 38-39types of, 39on YC-l34A, 29

wing evaluations, 31

Breguet Aircraft Company, 41, 42Breguet 941 STOL, 151,152

Brewster F2A-3 Buffalo. See F2A-3handling-qualities evaluation of, 41 -42

BT-13modifications to, 8, 68stall tendencies of, 8

Buffalo. See F2A-3Building N-200, 54Building N-210, 1, 3, 50, 52, 53, 54

C-46, 5, 55, 59C-130 STOL transport, 29-30, 119, 120. See also NC-130BCenter of gravity measurements, 1 1, 75Certification specifications for VSTOL aircraft, 2COIN. See Convair Model 48Commando. See C-46Compressibility effects, 18-1 9

on P-38, 18-19Concorde SST, 141

performance characteristics, verification of, 37-38Consolidated 8-24 Liberator, 5Constitution. See XR60-1Convair Model 48 STOL, 30,121Cougar. See F9F-4Crosswind landing gear, evaluation of, 27, 113, 114Curtiss C-46 Commando. See C-46Curtiss C-46A-5 transport. See C-46

Dauntless. See SBD-1

Deceleration on landing, 26-27DeFrance, Smith J. , 9, 9Direct lift control on Boeing 367-80, 30Dirigible. See K-21 airshipDivergent-wall air inlet, 38, 142. See also Engine air inletsDornier Aircraft Company, 42, 43, 44

DO-28 STOL, 43DO-29 STOL, 43

DC-8, 26

DO-27 STOL, 42

DO-31 VTOL, 43-44, 153, 154hover rig, 43, 155

Douglas A-20 Havoc. See A-20Douglas DC-8, 26Douglas F5D Skylancer. See F5D-1Douglas SBD-1 Dauntless. See SBD-1Douglas XBT2D-1 Skyraider. See XBT2D-1Douglas XSB2D-1. See XSB2D-lDO-X Flying Boat, 42, 43Drag measurements on P-51, 9-1 0, 72

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Duct rumble, 10, 11

Eagle. See P-75Edwards AFB, 9. See also Muroc Dry LakeElectra. See Lockheed 12A ElectraEngine air inlets

scoop, 38, 143submerged divergent-wall, 38, 142

Engine-out safety studies of B-26, 1 1-12, 76

F2A-3, 67poor performance of, 5, 8

in landing-approach flightpath control studies, 37, 140ogee wing planform, 37, 139

as modified variable-stability vehicle, 21

F5D-1, 37

F6F-1, 94

F6F-3, 21F8F-1, 90

diving tendencies of, 19

in boundary-layer control studies, 40F9F-4,148

F-24, 8, 59, 100F-86, 23

in boundary-layer control studies, 39, 144in flow-separation research, 22, 97, 98, 99leading-edge modification, 22, 97short-chord fence installation on, 22, 98, 99as variable-stability test aircraft, 21in vortex generator experiments, 23-24, 100

F-93 in engine air-inlet evaluations, 38F-94, 26, 107

aerodynamic deficiency of, 26fuselage modification to, 108hydraulic thrust reverser, 110, 1 1 1thrust reverser damage to, 109in thrust reverser development, 26-27, 107

in boundary-layer control studies, 39-40, 145, 146, 147with rounded engine inlet, 147as variable-stability test vehicle, 21

F-100, 26-27, 39

F-104, 21, 21Fairchild F-24. See F-24Fireball. See FR-1Fisher P-75 Eagle. See P-75FJ-3 n boundary-layer control studies, 40, 149Flight research

in complementing wind-tunnel data, 2considerations of, in Ames site selection, 1defined, 2in establishing certification specifications, 2facilities, 5notable results of, 2objectives of, 1-2personnel at Ames, 5, 57

Flight Research Building, 5, 52Flight test engineer, duties of, 5Flight tests at Muroc Dry Lake, 9-1 1Flow-separation control, 22

studies of, 23-24

Flying Boat. See DO-X Flying BoatFlying Fortress. See B-17Flying-qualities evaluation of A-20, 13, 77, 78Flying saucer (VZ-gA), 27-28, 28, 1 1 5,116, 1 17. See also

FM-2, 85

French Breguet 941. See Breguet 941 STOL

40- by 80-foot wind-tunnel tests of, 20lateral stability deficiencies, 20-21wing modifications, 20-21, 93

VZ-9A

flight-qualities tests, 17

FR-1, 9 2 , 9 3

Fury. See FJ-3

General Motors/Fisher P-75 Eagle. See P-75Godfrey, Arthur, 27, 112Grumman F6F-1 Hellcat. See F6F-1Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat. See F8F-1Grumman F9F Cougar. See F9F-4Grumman FM-2 Wildcat (VI). See FM-2

Handling qualities, specifications for, 2, 7Handling-qualities research, 13, 14-1 5Hand1 ng-qua I ties studies

of SBD-1, 7of P-80, 1 1

Hangar construction at Ames, 50, 51Hangar 1, 12-1 3, 12,49, 50Havoc. See A-20Hellcat. See F6F-1Hercules, 8Heyworth, L., Jr., 40Hiller YRO-1 Rotorcycle. See YRO-1 Rotorcycle

Howard GH-3, 8Hughes H-4 Hercules, 8

Icing studies, 6, 15In-flight simulator, Ames development of, 2Instruments, flight data recording, 5

Japanese seaplane. See UF-XS STOL

K-21 airship, 15, 81Ames test program for, 14-1 5excessive column forces of, 15poor handling qualities of, 14

Kingcobra. See P-63Kingfisher. See OS2U-2

Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 3Landing gear, crosswind, 27, 113, 114Leading-edge flaps, in flow separation control, 22Leading-edge slats, in flow separation control, 22Liberator, 5Lightning. See P-38Lindbergh, Charles A., role in Ames site selection, 1Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star. See P-80; YP-80Lockheed F-94 Starfire. See F-94Lockheed NC-130B STOL. See NC-1308Lockheed P-38 Lightning. See P-38

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Lockheed 12-A Electra, 5, 59in icing research, 6-7, 63

Lockheed XR60-1 Constitution. See XR60-1Lockheed YPO-80 Shooting Star. See YP-80, P-80Longitudinal stability tests of A-20, 13

Marauder. See B-26Martin B-26 Marauder. See B-26Maxwell leading-edge slots, 25Mitchell. See B-25Moffett Field selection as site of Ames AeronauticalLaboratory, 1Muroc Dry Lake

flight tests at, 9-1 1P-51 flight tests at, 9-1 1P-80 flight tests at, 10-1 1

Mustang. See P-51

NACA site criteria for new laboratory, 1National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. See NACA

Naval Air Station at Moffett Field, 1Navy carrier aircraft, improvements to, 20-2 1NC-l30B, 29, 119, 120. See also C-130 STOL transportNorth American B-25 Mitchell. See 8-25North American F-86 Sabre. See F-86North American F-1 00 Super Sabre. See F-1 00

North American 0-47A. See 0-47ANorth American P-51 Mustang. See P-51North American T-6 Texan. See T-6North American YF-93. See YF-93North Base, Muroc Army Air Field, 10Northrop P-61 Black Widow. See P-61N-210. See Building N-210

0-47A, 4, 5, 8, 56, 59

North American FJ-3 Fury. See FJ-3

in aircraft icing studies, 6, 61, 62in airspeed calibration of P-80, 10

on Concorde SST, 37-38, 14 1on F5D-1, 37, 139

Ames-modified double-hinged horizontal tail for, 25, 104handling-qualities studies, 25, 103Maxwell leading-edge slats, 25pitch-control improvements on, 25

Ogee planform wing design

OS2U-2, 5, 54, 59, 103

P-36, 1P-38, 5, 58, 88diving tendencies of, 18handling-qualities evaluation, 18-1 9high-speed deficiencies of, 18-1 9model tested in 16-foot high-speed wind tunnel, 19shock-wave-induced flow separation, 19

aerodynamic loads measurements, 18vertical tail, structural failures of, 18

handling-qualities evaluations, 19-20propeller used in speed control of, 19-20

P-39, 5, 58, 87

P-47,91

P-5 1, 65, 89Ames modifications to, 7-8, 66diving tendencies, 19, 71with dorsal fin, 66drag measurements of, 9-1 0, 71 , 2horizontal stabilizer failures on, 7

in tow,72

P-61 in P-51 drag measurements, 9-1 0, 72P-63, 5, 58P-75, 86

handling-qualities evaluations, 17poor performance of, 17

center of gravity measurements of, 1 1, 75as first U.S. jet fighter, 10flow separation in aileron buzz, 10-1 1handling-qualities tests of, 1 1, 74instrumented for flight-test programs, 11, 74in midair collision, 10-1 1pitch down tendencies, 22pre-production testing, 10-1 1

pitch up tendencies, 22

P-80, 73, 74, 75, 95

P-84, 96

P1127 Kestel (Harrier predecessor), 31Piper J-4 Cub crosswind landing gear, 27, 113,114Pitch control, 18-1 9Pitch instability studies, 22

Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. See P-47Republic P-84 Thunderjet. See P-84Rodert, Lewis, Collier Trophy presentation to, 7Rotorcycle. See YRO-1 RotorcycleRyan FR-1 Fireball. See FR-1Ryan XV-5A VTOL. See XV-5Ryan XV-5B VTOL. See XV-5Ryan VZ-3RY V/STOL. SeeVZ-3RY

Sabre. See F-86SBD-1, 64

handling-qualities studies of, 1, 7Scoop engine air inlet, 38, 143. See also Engine air inletsSeaplane. See DO-X Flying Boat; UF-XS STOLShin Meiwa Company, 41. See also UF-XS STOLShock-wave-induced low separation, 23-24

in YP-80 aileron buzz, 11Shooting Star. See P-80, YP-80Short takeoff and landing aircraft. See STOL aircraft, VTOL

aircraftSimulator, in-flight, Ames development of, 216-foot high-speed wind tunnel in P-38 evaluations, 19Size effects on loads and aircraft response, 24-25, 101Skylancer. See F5D-1Skyraider. See XBT2D-1Slats, leading-edge, 22Slots, Maxwell leading-edge, 25Sonic booms, 22-23Spruce Goose (Howard Hughes aircraft), 8SST Concorde. See Concorde SSTStall research, 22Stall tests, 16

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Stall warning criteria, 21Starfire. See F-94Static pressure measurements, 12-1 3STOL aircraft, 29-35, 42-43

Ames role in developing, 29Boeing 367-80, 30-31, 122, 123

Convair Model 48,30,121C-130, 29-30, 119, 120

DO-27, 42DO-28, 43DO-29, 43X-14, 3 1-33, 32, 124, 125, 126,1 28YC-134,29, 1 18

STOL seaplane. See DO-X; UF-XS STOLStroukoff YC-134A STOL. See YC-134A STOLSuction-type boundary-layer control, 39Sunnyvale Naval Air Station, 1Super Sabre. See F-lo0

T-6, 59

Texan. See T-6Thrust reverser, 2Thrust reverser development

Ames role in, 26-27F-94 in, 26-27, 26 , 107, 108, 109, 110, 1 1 1

Thunderbolt. See P-47Thunderjet. See P-84Tilt rotor. See XV-3 tilt rotorTruman, Harry, 7

UF-XS STOL, 41, 150

Valiant. See BT-13Variable-stabi I ty aircraft

development of, 21in lateral handling-qualities research, 2 1

Vengeance. See A-35Vertical and short takeoff and landing aircraft. See V/STOLVertical takeoff and landing aircraft. See VTOLVortex generators

on Boeing 777 transport, 24to control flow separation, 2in high-performance aircraft applications, 24in suppressing low separation, 23-24, 100

Vought-Sikorsky OS2U-2 Kingfisher. See OS2U-2V/STOL aircraft, 33, 41 -44

certification specifications for, 2UF-XS, 41, 150VZ-3RY, 33, 129, 130, 131XV-5, 34-35, 135, 136, 137, 138

VTOL aircraft. See also DO-31 VTOLDO-X flying boat, 42, 43VZ-gAV, 27-28, 28, 115, 116, 117X-14, 31-33, 32, 124, 125, 126, 128XV-3, 33-34, 34, 132,133,134

Vultee A-35 Vengeance. See A-35Vultee BT-13. See BT-13VZ-3RY, 33, 129,130,131

leading-edge slat tests, 33, 130slipstream recirculation, 33, 131

VZ-gAV, 27-28, 28, 115,116,117disk-shaped VTOL, 27-28performance shortcomings, 27, 28propulsion system, 27wind-tunnel tests of, 28, 117

Wildcat (VI). See FM-2Wind tunnel

Amesl6-Foot High-speed, 1940- by 8O-Foot, 54

construction of, 81Wing fences in stall control, 22, 98, 99Wing thickness ratio in compressibility effects, 19World War II influence on early Ames flight research, 2

X-14, 31-33, 32, 124, 125, 126,127,128in pilot training for Moon landing, 32, 128variable stability and control configuration of, 32-33

control deficiencies, 25-26

7- by 10-foot wind-tunnel model tests of, 25-26stall characteristics of, 26with 2,000-lb bomb, 106

XBT2D-l,105

XB-24F, 5XR60-1, in aircraft size effects studies, 24, 101XSB2D-1, 79

control deficiencies of, 13-14crash-landing of, 14, 14, 8040- by- 80-foot wind-tunnel tests of, 14

Ames evaluation of, 33-34, 34, 132, 133,1 34design shortcomings of, 34

fan-in-wing design, 34-35, 135flightpath control studies of, 35, 13 8ground-rig tests of, 34, 137wind-tunnel tests of, 34, 136

XV-3 tilt rotor

xv-5

YC-134A STOL, 118performance limitations of, 29

YF-93, 38, 142, 143YP-80, 10-1 1, 73. See also P-80YRO-1 Rotorcycle, 24-25, 24, 102

control limitations of, 24-25

Zap flap system on OS2U-2, 25

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About the Auhor

Seth B. Anderson had a remarkable career i n aviationresearch and development. With an MSE degree inaeronautics from Purdue University he began his workmore than 50 years ago at Moffett Field, California,

with The National Aeronautics Advisory Committee(NACA) and continued on w ith its successor, theNational Aeronautics and Space Administrat ion(NASA). His experience as flight-test engineer reachedback over most of the modern period during whichflight technology and flight research produced thehistoric breakthroughs and performance enhancementsthat characterized and propelled aviations incredibleadvances. He worked as researcher and supervisor i nmany of the aeronautical disciplines, including flightperformance, flight dynamics, and flight operationaltechniques as they relate to aircraft types that rangefrom fighters and bombers to supersonic transports andvertical- and short-takeoff vehicles. He wrote morethan a hundred technical papers and reports, held acommercial pilots license and a U.S. Hang GliderAssociation Advanced Pilot Rating, was a Fellow of theAmerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, amember of Pi Tau Sigma, a mechanical engineeringhonorary society, a member of Sigma Delta Psi, anational athletic honorary society, and a member ofSigma Gamma Tau, a national honor society inaerospace engineering. H e constructed and flight-tested an experimental Bede BD-5 aircraft that wasmodi fied to accommodate a turbine engine. Seth

passed away on April 3, 2001.The author w ith a model of an early Bede BD-5 aircraft,an airplane that he constructed and flight-tested.

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