MemoryMemory

Considering memory…Considering memory…Be prepared to interpret, or share your Be prepared to interpret, or share your

perspectives on the following quotesperspectives on the following quotes..1.1. ““Whereas all living species have a past, only Whereas all living species have a past, only

humans have a history.” humans have a history.” 2.2. ““One never steps into the same stream of One never steps into the same stream of

consciousness twice.” consciousness twice.” 3.3. ““Most of our memories are really about the Most of our memories are really about the

future.” future.” 4.4. ““We are the sum of our memories…Change We are the sum of our memories…Change

your memory and change your identity.” your memory and change your identity.” 5.5. ““A memory is more atmospheric than accurate, A memory is more atmospheric than accurate,

more an evolving fiction than a sacred text.”more an evolving fiction than a sacred text.”

The Memory ProcessThe Memory ProcessThree StepsThree Steps

EncodingEncoding Processing of info into memory system (typing Processing of info into memory system (typing

on a computer)on a computer)

StorageStorage Retention of encoded material over time (to Retention of encoded material over time (to

hit save)hit save)

RetrievalRetrieval Getting the info out of storage (opening a file)Getting the info out of storage (opening a file)

Encoding, storage or retrieval??Encoding, storage or retrieval??

Continuing to pronounce nuclear as Continuing to pronounce nuclear as nucular…nucular…

A failure of which?A failure of which?

Three Stage Processing ModelThree Stage Processing Model(one of two major theories on memory)(one of two major theories on memory)

Sensory Memory: Sensory Memory: Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Immediate recording of sensory infoImmediate recording of sensory info ““Split second holding tank”Split second holding tank” Most stimulus not encoded- Why?Most stimulus not encoded- Why?

Selective AttentionSelective Attention

Sensory Memory registered as:Sensory Memory registered as: Iconic (split second vanishing photograph)Iconic (split second vanishing photograph) Echoic (4 second sounds)Echoic (4 second sounds)

Short-Term MemoryShort-Term MemoryAKA AKA WorkingWorking Memory Memory

Memory that holds a few items briefly.Memory that holds a few items briefly. Limit: Limit: Seven digits/ items (plus or minus 2)Seven digits/ items (plus or minus 2) Info is stored into long-term, or forgotten.Info is stored into long-term, or forgotten. Lasts 3-12 secondsLasts 3-12 seconds

Short-Term, or Working MemoryShort-Term, or Working Memory has 3 parts: has 3 parts: Acoustic codesAcoustic codes Visual CodesVisual Codes Semantic CodesSemantic Codes

Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.storehouse of the memory system.

Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb MemoryException to 3 Stage theoryException to 3 Stage theory

An extreme An extreme emotional moment emotional moment or eventor event

Somehow branded into Somehow branded into Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

Where were you when? 1. You heard about 9/11? 2. You had your first kiss? 3. You had your first car

accident?

EncodingEncoding We encode info in two ways:We encode info in two ways:

Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing

EncodingEncoding

Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing Unconscious encoding Unconscious encoding Location, time and frequencyLocation, time and frequency

Retracing steps to find your keys…Retracing steps to find your keys…

Also becomes automatic with practiceAlso becomes automatic with practice Driving to a friends house…Driving to a friends house…

EncodingEncoding

Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing Attention / conscious effortAttention / conscious effort Studying for a testStudying for a test Through rehearsal, Effortful can become Through rehearsal, Effortful can become

automaticautomatic

Ways of Encoding (activity 9.3)Ways of Encoding (activity 9.3)

SemanticSemantic: : encoding of meaningencoding of meaning

AcousticAcoustic Encoding of soundEncoding of sound

VisualVisual Encoding of picture imagesEncoding of picture images

Which is most effective?Which is most effective?

Factors that Influence EncodingFactors that Influence Encoding

Spacing EffectSpacing Effect Encode info better if in increments over timeEncode info better if in increments over time

Serial Positioning EffectSerial Positioning Effect Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a Tendency to recall best the first and last items in a

list.list. Primacy Effect: Remember first words, itemsPrimacy Effect: Remember first words, items Recency Effect: Remember last items, wordsRecency Effect: Remember last items, words

Next-In-Line EffectNext-In-Line Effect Don’t remember what someone has said if we are Don’t remember what someone has said if we are

next…next… Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect

We encode better when issue relates to usWe encode better when issue relates to us

With a partner…With a partner… List the U.S. presidents.List the U.S. presidents.

WashingtonWashington TaylorTaylor HarrisonHarrison EisenhowerEisenhower

J.AdamsJ.Adams FillmoreFillmore ClevelandCleveland KennedyKennedy

JeffersonJefferson PiercePierce McKinleyMcKinley L.JohnsonL.Johnson

MadisonMadison BuchananBuchanan T.RooseveltT.Roosevelt NixonNixon

MonroeMonroe LincolnLincoln TaftTaft FordFord

JQ AdamsJQ Adams A.JohnsonA.Johnson WilsonWilson CarterCarter

JacksonJackson GrantGrant HardingHarding ReaganReagan

Van BurenVan Buren HayesHayes CoolidgeCoolidge BushBush

HarrisonHarrison GarfieldGarfield HooverHoover ClintonClinton

TylerTyler ArthurArthur FD.RooseveltFD.Roosevelt Bush Jr.Bush Jr.

PolkPolk ClevelandCleveland TrumanTruman ObamaObama

Encoding StrategiesEncoding StrategiesCan enhance memory…Can enhance memory…

Mnemonic Devices: Any learning technique that aids memory

uses imagery, semantics to remember…

Acronyms: Parentheses, exponents, multiplication,

division, addition, subtraction

“Please excuse my dear aunt Sally.”

Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

Peg-Word SystemPeg-Word System

Assign each item to a number or…Assign each item to a number or… Weave a story matching each item / word to a Weave a story matching each item / word to a

number. (Rhyming also helpful)number. (Rhyming also helpful)

Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

ChunkingChunking Organizing items into familiar, Organizing items into familiar,

manageable unitsmanageable units.. Memorize these numbers-Memorize these numbers- 1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

How bout now? 1492, 1776, 1812, 1941

Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices Key Word SystemKey Word System

TermTerm Key WordKey Word Mental PictureMental Picture

Broca’s AreaBroca’s Area Tom Brokaw Tom Brokaw News cast (talking)News cast (talking)

Parietal LobeParietal Lobe Paraná Paraná biting your toebiting your toe

AmygdalaAmygdala AmyAmy Old Psycho Old Psycho girlfriend = Feargirlfriend = Fear

HippocampusHippocampus ???????? ??????????

Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices Loci (Location)Loci (Location) 500 BC.- Simonides 500 BC.- Simonides

Imagine a location (house etc.)Imagine a location (house etc.) Imaginary tour: each location paired with Imaginary tour: each location paired with

specific itemspecific item

Choose any mnemonic device (60 seconds)Choose any mnemonic device (60 seconds)

HamHam PencilPencil turkeyturkey penpen Check bookCheck book detergentdetergent footballfootball glassesglasses globeglobe BrotherBrother LaundryLaundry MapMap ScrabbleScrabble JeopardyJeopardy pizzapizza

Storage and Long-Term MemoryStorage and Long-Term Memory long-term memory: no long-term memory: no

known limitsknown limits Rajan: recited 31,811 Rajan: recited 31,811

digits of pi.(3hrs. 49 min. / digits of pi.(3hrs. 49 min. / or 3.5/second!)or 3.5/second!)

How? Rhythmic memory: How? Rhythmic memory: “melodic or jarring”- taps “melodic or jarring”- taps feet, sways right / leftfeet, sways right / left

At 5 years old, memorized the At 5 years old, memorized the license plates of parents’ guests license plates of parents’ guests (about 75 cars in ten minutes). (about 75 cars in ten minutes). He still remembers the plates to He still remembers the plates to this day.this day.

Numbers only: average Numbers only: average with names, wordswith names, words

Shereshevskii: 1920’sShereshevskii: 1920’s

Short term memory: 70 itemsShort term memory: 70 items Forward / Backward / 15 yearsForward / Backward / 15 years Asylum: went mad: 15 minutes / 5 years: Asylum: went mad: 15 minutes / 5 years:

all memories ran togetherall memories ran together

Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory Remember: There is no one single Remember: There is no one single

compartment for memory in our brain. compartment for memory in our brain.

Long Term-Potentiation (LTP)Long Term-Potentiation (LTP) Leading Theory for LTMLeading Theory for LTM Neural networks strengthen memory Neural connections gradually strengthen through

rehearsal over time (memory strengthened)• Nerve cell’s genes produce synapse strengthening

proteins /enabling LTM formation

Stress and MemoryStress and Memory

Stress can release hormones that assist in Stress can release hormones that assist in LTMLTM

Stress can also inhibit effective encoding Stress can also inhibit effective encoding for memory…for memory…

Types of LTMTypes of LTM

The HippocampusThe Hippocampus Critical to memory (injury = Critical to memory (injury =

impairment)impairment) Left = Verbal memoryLeft = Verbal memory Right = Visual / LocationsRight = Visual / Locations

If Library = our brain…If Library = our brain… Then hippocampus = librarian Then hippocampus = librarian Processes LTM, then stores Processes LTM, then stores

elsewhere in cerebral cortexelsewhere in cerebral cortex

Examples: Examples: Facial recognition = Facial recognition =

temporal lobetemporal lobe Landscapes = parietal Landscapes = parietal

lobelobe Socializing = frontal lobeSocializing = frontal lobe

Parallel processing for rich Parallel processing for rich mosaic of memorymosaic of memory

AmygdalaAmygdala

Emotional memoriesEmotional memories Images, smells, soundsImages, smells, sounds Examples?Examples?

Hippocampus and Hippocampus and Amygdala work together Amygdala work together to form LTMto form LTM Hippo = conscious memory Hippo = conscious memory

of eventof event Amygdala = emotional Amygdala = emotional

memory from the sensesmemory from the senses

RetrievalRetrieval

RecallRecall VersusVersus

RecognitionRecognition

What’s the Difference?What’s the Difference?

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues(Aid memory..)(Aid memory..)

Memory = web of associations Priming: “strand or web of associations

that leads to a specific memory”

Priming Effect (2 types)Priming Effect (2 types)

Repetition PrimingRepetition Priming Semantic PrimingSemantic Priming

A house divided against itself A house divided against itself cannot stand..cannot stand..

Those who deny freedom to Those who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for others, deserve it not for themselves…themselves…

With malice toward none, with With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in…finish the work we are in…

Factors that Influence RetrievalFactors that Influence Retrieval Context effectContext effect Retrieval is more effective when retrieving Retrieval is more effective when retrieving

it in same location as experienced it…it in same location as experienced it…

Tip-Of-the-Tongue Effect (TOT)Tip-Of-the-Tongue Effect (TOT)Temporary inability to retrieve specific name Temporary inability to retrieve specific name

or information.or information.Usually remedied by semantic cues…Usually remedied by semantic cues…

Conditions that Affect MemoryConditions that Affect Memory

Mood-Congruent TheoryMood-Congruent Theory The tendency to recall memories consistent The tendency to recall memories consistent

with our current moodwith our current mood

State-Dependent TheoryState-Dependent Theory Recalling events encoded while in a particular Recalling events encoded while in a particular

state of consciousness.state of consciousness. Example: If you hide money while your drunk, Example: If you hide money while your drunk,

you are more likely to remember where you you are more likely to remember where you hid it when you are intoxicated.hid it when you are intoxicated.

Conditions that Affect MemoryConditions that Affect Memory Pollyanna PrinciplePollyanna Principle

We tend to remember pleasant We tend to remember pleasant experiences over negative onesexperiences over negative ones

Before, more efficiently, more accuratelyBefore, more efficiently, more accurately Why?Why?

We seek out positive experiencesWe seek out positive experiences

Faster fading of negative experiences = healthy Faster fading of negative experiences = healthy coping processes in memorycoping processes in memory

Mild depression = negative and positive experiences Mild depression = negative and positive experiences fade evenlyfade evenly

Forgetting…Forgetting…

““Forgetting isn’t the absence of Forgetting isn’t the absence of remembering: it’s memory’s ally, a device remembering: it’s memory’s ally, a device that allows the brain to stay agile and that allows the brain to stay agile and engaged.” engaged.”

Diane Ackerman, An Alchemy of Mind, p. 89Diane Ackerman, An Alchemy of Mind, p. 89

Three ways we forget…Three ways we forget…

Encoding FailureEncoding Failure

Storage DecayStorage DecayRetrieval FailureRetrieval Failure

Which is the real penny?Which is the real penny?

Encoding FailureEncoding Failure

““Don’t encode what we don’t need.”Don’t encode what we don’t need.” No encoding / no LTM.No encoding / no LTM.

Storage DecayStorage Decay

Memory storage decays over timeMemory storage decays over time Lack of rehearsal accelerates decayLack of rehearsal accelerates decay Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curveEbbinghaus’s forgetting curve

Steep decline of retention over first three Steep decline of retention over first three days, then levels off…days, then levels off…

Ebbinghaus Forgetting CurveEbbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Retrieval FailureRetrieval Failure

2 Types (Be careful here…its tricky..)2 Types (Be careful here…its tricky..)

Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference New info is messed up by the old infoNew info is messed up by the old info

vs.vs. Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference

Old info is messed up by new learningOld info is messed up by new learning

Which type of retrieval failure?Which type of retrieval failure?

If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last years.

Retrieval FailureRetrieval FailureREPRESSIONREPRESSION:: psychoanalytic theory- Freud’s theory of psychoanalytic theory- Freud’s theory of

repressionrepression We push away uncomfortable memoriesWe push away uncomfortable memories Contradicts theory that emotions / stress Contradicts theory that emotions / stress

hormones strengthen memorieshormones strengthen memories

How much of our experience do we remember?How much of our experience do we remember?

The truth about memory..The truth about memory.. Memories bend and change over time, and are Memories bend and change over time, and are

often inaccurate!!often inaccurate!! Youngest and oldest (around 5 and 75) are most Youngest and oldest (around 5 and 75) are most

susceptible susceptible (Frontal lobe: matures slowly and and decays quickly)(Frontal lobe: matures slowly and and decays quickly)

Research studiesResearch studies Elizabeth Loftus (over 200 experiments)Elizabeth Loftus (over 200 experiments)

How wording influences our memoryHow wording influences our memory

Cornell University- Space Shuttle DisasterCornell University- Space Shuttle Disaster Recollections on day after and three years laterRecollections on day after and three years later 2/3 were totally wrong as to who with, where etc..2/3 were totally wrong as to who with, where etc..

Misinformation Effect…Misinformation Effect…Wording affects our memoryWording affects our memory

About how fast were the vehicles going when they smashed into each other?

Or When they ran into each other?

Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia

Forgetting the source of a memoryForgetting the source of a memory (Where did I hear that…?)(Where did I hear that…?) One of the frailest parts of our memoryOne of the frailest parts of our memory

Types of AmnesiaTypes of Amnesia

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde AmnesiaRemember everything before the accident, Remember everything before the accident,

but not after.but not after.Often TBI (part of brain?)Often TBI (part of brain?)

Retrograde AmnesiaRetrograde Amnesia Remember everything after the incident, but not Remember everything after the incident, but not

before.before.

Which type of amnesia?Which type of amnesia?