memory: information processing. information processing model 1. encoding - getting information into...
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Memory:
Information Processing
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Information Processing ModelInformation Processing Model
1. Encoding - getting information into the memory system
2. Storage - retaining the information over time
3. Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage
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Encoding
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Two Types of Encoding
Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing
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Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding info; without effort
Place information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)
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Effortful Processing
requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort
example: studying for a test
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Processing Trends & Strategies
How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?
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Rehearsal
repeating information to encode it
one of the most important processing strategies
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Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) did memory studies w/ three-
letter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi)
conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain
developed the forgetting curve (a.k.a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)
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Rehearsal and Retention(From Baddeley, 1982)
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Poodle Tree Dance House Airport Sugar Child Ground Watch Squirrel Truck Building Hospital Pencil Terrace Lamp
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Serial Position Effect
primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list
recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list
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Primacy/Recency Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
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Spacing Effect
distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time
massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice
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Mnemonic Device
memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
Example:Peg-word System
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Peg-Word System
the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs
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Peg Word System
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Storage
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Three Storage Systems
three distinct storage systems :sensory memory
working memory
long-term memory
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Sensory Memory
brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system
iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second)
echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds)
info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance
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Working Memory holds info briefly before it is stored or
forgotten (conscious, activated)
holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers)
can retain info as long as it is rehearsed
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Long-Term Memory
relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system
holds memories w/out conscious effort
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Memory and the Brain:
How do we get information into long-term memory?
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How are memories constructed?
memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info.
when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces
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How are memories stored? each memory activates a
specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons)
long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)
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The Brain Documentary: Memory
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Retrieval
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Retrieval two forms of retrieval
recall - retrieve information learned earlierexamples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short
answer test questions
recognition - identify items learned earlierexamples: multiple choice & matching
test questions
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How do we get to memories we need to retrieve?
memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues
the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it
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End Class Notes – Fall 2015
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Overlearning
continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned
rehearsing past the point of mastery
helps ensure info will be available even under stress
examples: playing musical pieces, sports
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Semantic Encoding making the material meaningful
encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall
make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life
How do you make material meaningful?
Self-Reference Effect
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Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
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Mnemonic: Method of Loci
person associates items to be remembered with familiar places
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Storage:Explicit & Implicit Memories
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Explicit Memory memory of facts & experiences
examples:At what temperature does water freeze?What is your mother’s middle name?What did you eat for dinner last night?
must consciously retrieve and declare
processed through the hippocampus
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Implicit Memory
memory of skills & procedures examples:
how to walk how to read how to button your shirt
retrieved without conscious recollection
processed through the cerebellum
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Memory and the Hippocampus
damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories
the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains
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Memory and the Hippocampus
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Think about this…
What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day?
Answer:
He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time.
But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.
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Context Effect
enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info
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State Dependent Memory
retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info.
physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine
mood examples: happy, depressed