Memory, Thinking, and Language

• Cognitive Level of Analysis (IB)• The products of our biological

machinery can be seen in our cognitive system, which includes our cognitions, emotions, and behaviors

• General Learning Outcomes (IB)• Outline principles that define the

cognitive level of analysis• Examples: mental representations

guide behavior, mental processes can be scientifically investigated

• Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research

• Cognitive Processes (IB)• Evaluate schema theory with reference to

research studies• Evaluate models or theories of cognitive

processes (perception can be included in this as well)

• Explain how biological factors can affect cognitive processes

• Discuss how social or cultural factors affect cognitive processes

• Cognition and Emotion (IB)• To what extent do cognitive and biological

factors interact in emotion• Evaluate different theories of how

emotion can affect cognitive processes

• Memory- A system that encodes, stores and retrieves information.

• The storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced.

•While we are learning more about memory every day, those in the field of psychology are still unsure exactly what parts of the brain are involved and where it is all stored.

• Memory’s Three Basic Tasks• According to the information-processing

model, the human brain takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns.

• It does this through three steps:•Encoding•Storage•Retrieval

• Encoding• Encoding- the modification of

information to fit the preferred format for the memory system.

– In most cases, encoding is automatic and happens without our awareness. Other encoding, however, like these notes, require extra encoding effort called elaboration to make the memory useful.

– Elaboration involves connecting a new concept with existing information.

When we are exposed to stimuli and encode information, we do it in three ways:

1. Semantic Encoding•encoding of meaning•including meaning of words

2. Acoustic Encoding•encoding of sound•especially sound of words

3. Visual Encoding•encoding of picture images

Processing a word by its meaning (semantic encoding) produces better recognition of it lat a later time.

• Storage• Storage- the retention of encoding

material over time.

– In terms of storing material, we have three stages of memory

–Sensory Memory–Working Memory (short-term memory)

–Long-term Memory

• Synaptic Changes and Storage• One physical change in the brain during

memory storage is in the synapses. • Memories begin as impulses whizzing

through the brain circuits, leaving a semi-permanent trace.

• The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potentiation.

• Long-term potentiation- A biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is believed to be the neural basis for learning and remembering associations

• Strengthening LTP• Research suggests that the best way to

remember things is to study them and then sleep!

• Once LTP has occurred, even passing an electrical current through the brain will not erase well stored memories.– More recent memories will be wiped out

•People who have a concussion and cannot remember what happened just before or after the injury have not had a chance to “consolidate” their memories to the long-term

• Retrieval• Retrieval- The locating and recovering of

information from memory.• It takes only a split second to access a

properly encoded memory.• As marvelous as the human memory

system is, it sometimes makes errors, distorts information or fails us completely.

• Eidetic Imagery (photographic memory)• Eidetic imagery is an especially clear and

persistent form of memory that is quite rare.

• Eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute detail and portray the most interesting and meaningful parts accurately.

• These images can last as short as a brief moment, or as long as days.

• Eidetic imagery tends to be more common in children, and seems to decline as a person’s language abilities increase.

• Eidetikers report that their vivid imagery can clutter their minds and interfere with other thoughts.

• Three Stages of Memory• We encode information and store it in one

of three types of memory, depending on what we need the information for.

• Our memory works like an assembly line, and before information can make it to our long-term memory, it must first pass through sensory memory and working memory.

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Sensory input

Attention to importantor novel information

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieving

• Sensory Memory• Sensory memory is the shortest of the three

stages of memory and generally holds sights, sounds, smells, textures and other sensory information for a fraction of a second.

• It’s the job of sensory memory to hold the barrage of incoming sensation long enough for your brain to scan it and decide which stream of information needs attention.

• George Sperling suggested that sensory memory holds a large amount of information, far more than ever reaches consciousness.

• Sensory memories last just long enough to dissolve into the next one, giving us the impression of a constant flow.

• Sperling’s Test• George Sperling flashed a

group of letters for 1/20 of a second. People could recall only about half of the letters

• When he signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters disappeared with a specific tone, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy.

• Thus, Sperling found that the storage capacity of sensory memory can be 12 or more items even though only 3 or 4 actually enter consciousness.

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• Not all sensory memory consists of images, each sensory receptor has its own sensory register.

• Also, sensory images have no meaning associated with them, that is the job of the next stage, working memory.

• Working Memory• Often referred to as short-term memory. It is the place where we sort and encode information

before transferring it to long-term memory, or forgetting it.• Generally, it holds information for about 20 seconds, far longer than sensory memory.• Most research suggest that we can hold seven pieces of information in our working memory,

though it varies slightly.

• Finding your Short-term memory capacity.• You will be presented with letters that will

appear on the screen for about 3 seconds. Write down as many as you can remember after they disappear.

• Z:\Short-Term Memory Test AP.ppt

• Z:\Mr. Short-Term Memory on Yahoo! Video.flv• Z:\My Videos\Finding Nemo - Short Term Memor

y Loss.mp4

• U M• T Z L D• K X C E J O• A V C Y I S E H• L B F Q R P M A U X• Z Q E C T B U M O N R V

• As we have seen working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration.

• We do have coping mechanisms, however:

•Chunking•Rehearsal

• Chunking• A chunk is any memory pattern or

meaningful unit of memory.

• By creating these chunks, a process called chunking, we can fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory.– Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-657-

4100– What are some other examples of

chunking??

• Rehearsal• Another memory technique is called

maintenance rehearsal. This is a process where information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory.– This process does not involve active

elaboration. (assigning meaning to the information)

• Levels of Processing• In working memory,

information can be elaborated on (elaborative rehearsal) or connected with long term memories.

• Levels-of-Processing theory says that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long term memory is easier to remember.

Washington D.C.

• Long-Term Memory• As far as anyone knows, there is no limit

to the duration or capacity of long term memory.

• Long term memory is essentially all of the knowledge of yourself and the world around you. Unless an injury or illness occurs, this memory is limitless.

Structure and Function of LTM

• Procedural Memory (implicit)- the part of long term memory where we store memories of how things are done.

• “how to” skills such as riding a bike, tying shoes, playing a musical instrument.

• Declarative Memory (explicit)- the part of long term memory where we store specific information such as facts and events.

• Requires more conscious mental effort than Procedural Memory

• Example: Driving directions to a specific location.

• Evidence of Declarative Memory can be seen when people roll their eyes or make facial gestures while searching for specific memories.

• Declarative memory has two divisions:– Episodic Memory- This is the portion

of memory that stores personal events or “episodes.”•Storage of things like time and place.

•(recent vacation, car accident, ending relationship)

– Semantic Memory- This portion of memory stores general knowledge, facts and language meaning.•This is specifically where all the information you “know” is stored.

•Like an encyclopedia or database.

• Two parts of the brain that are involved in memory are the hippocampus and the amygdala.

• Most long-term memories make an immediate stop in the hippocampus on their way to their final destination in long-term storage.

• In a process called consolidation, information in the working memory is gradually changed over to long term memories.

• The amygdala seems to play a role in strengthening memories that have strong emotional connections.

• Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia• Anterograde Amnesia- The inability to

form memories from new material.• The inability to transfer new concepts and

experiences from short-term storage to long-term memory.

• The Tragic Case of H.M.• Removal of his hippocampus and

amygdala in order to stop seizures• He has never been able to recognize the

people who have taken care of him for the past 50 years.

• The 9/11 attacks, the moon landings, the computer revolution have left no trace in his mind

• He is always shocked to see an aging face in the mirror

• H.M. is a man caught in the present moment, which fades away without being captured by memory

• Clive Wearing• Z:\My Videos\Man without a memory - Clive Wearing [BBC - Time_ Daytim

e].mp4

• Retrograde Amnesia- The inability to remember information previously stored in memory.

•As memories form, neurotransmitters collect at the synapses, (before absolute threshold is crossed). These are called memory traces.

•A sharp blow to the head, or electric shock can prevent these traces from consolidating, making it hard to recall that information.

• Flashbulb Memories• Out of all of our memories, a few are

exceptionally clear and vivid. We call these flashbulb memories. – These tend to be memories of highly

emotional events. Typically people remember exactly where they were when the event happened, what they were doing and the emotions they felt.

– JFK’s Assassination–9/11

• Can you think of any other examples from your own life?

• Retrieval• When dealing with long term memory retrieval,

there are two types of memory:• Implicit memory- How to skills; muscle memory—

throwing a ball• Explicit memory- Facts and events • General rule: a memory is implicit if it can affect

behavior or mental processes without becoming fully conscious. Explicit memories always involve consciousness.

• But what about studying??? What are the best methods??? What will help us store and more easily retrieve information from our classes???

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• Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 4 of 5_ _Putting Principles for Learning into Practice_.mp4

• Z:\How to Get the Most Out of Studying_ Part 5 of 5_ _I Blew the Exam_ Now What__.mp4

• Retrieval Cues• Retrieval cues are the search terms we

use to activate memory—think of a Google search. The more specific you are, the better the results will be.– Some memories are easily remembered,

while others are much harder to bring up. For example, if you draw a blank on a test, it may be a result of the wording on the test not being the same as the wording you used while studying.

• Recall and Recognition• Memories can be cued in two ways:

– Recall- a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented material.

– Ex. Essay test; police sketch of a suspect

– Recognition- a retrieval method in which one must identify information that is provided, which has previously been presented.

– Ex. Multiple choice test; police line-up

• I will show you an old school photo of a celebrity and ask you to identify who it is with no hints. – This is testing your recall – I am asking you to

recall all of the celebrities you’ve ever seen that could possibly fit your impression of the picture. You’ll find that this is probably pretty tough.

• Next, I will offer you a list of possible celebrities to choose from that might belong to that photo (like a multiple choice test).– This is testing your recognition – by asking you to

choose the answer from a list of possibilities, you will probably find that when you have the opportunity to recognize the individual in question, it is easier to come up with a match.

• Ready?

Recall

• Who is this?

Recognition

• A. Brad Pitt• B. Gordon Ramsay• C. Ryan Seacrest• D. Mike “The Situation”

Sorentino

Recall

• Who is this sweet-looking girl?

Recognition

• A. Madonna• B. Katy Perry• C. Jenna Elfman• D. Jennifer Aniston

Recall

• Who is this fine young man?

Recognition

• A. Eminem• B. David Schwimmer• C. Johnny Knoxville• D. Taylor Lautner

Recall

• Who is this gorgeous gal?

Recognition

• A. Jennifer Lopez• B. Eva Longoria• C. Fergie• D. Nicole "Snooki" Polizzi

Recall

• Who is this lovely lady?

Recognition

• A. Lisa Rinna• B. Julia Roberts• C. Kim Kardashian• D. Megan Fox

So which do you think is easier? Recall or

Recognition?

Why?

• Other Factors Affecting Retrieval• Encoding specificity principal- the more closely

the retrieval clues match the way the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered.

•Taking an exam in the classroom where you learned the information vs. in the Gym or Manor

• Mood-congruent memory- a theory which says we tend to selectively remember memories that match (are congruent with) our current mood.

• Has an affect on how people are treated for medical conditions.

• Doctors assess what to do with you based on your complaints and how much you complain

• Depressed people often receive different treatment than those who are upbeat when both suffer from the same problem.

• Selective Attention• “tune in” and “tune out”• Cocktail Party Syndrome• we evaluate the importance of information• There is a limit to what our brain can

process at any given time• It needs to be selective in what it chooses

to focus on• Z:\The Awareness Test.mp4

• Memory Construction• We often construct our memories as we

encode them, and we may also alter our memories as we withdraw them– We infer our past from stored information

and what we assume• By filtering information and filling in missing

pieces, our schemas (understanding of specific settings) direct our memory construction

• Misinformation• As memory fades with time following an

event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier.

• Misinformation Effect- the distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation

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Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Misinformation Effect

• Schema Theory• A cognitive schema is a mental

representation of knowledge stored in the brain

• It’s a network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world

• (Blueprints or plans for knowing)• Z:\Schema Theory Example.mp4• Schema processing is mostly automatic

– Includes Bottom-up processing (input from the sensory system)

– Also includes Top-down processing (information from stored in memory, used to interpret incoming information)

• Bartlett (1932)• Conducted one of the most famous memory

studies, “War of the Ghosts”• He asked participants (British) to hear a story

and reproduce it after a short time, and then repeatedly over a period of months or years

• The story was an unfamiliar legend, “The War of the Ghosts”

• Participants remembered the main idea of the story, but changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations

• Bartlett concluded that memories are “reconstructions” and not copies of the actual experience

• Bartlett’s study is criticized by some because it was performed in a laboratory and thus, lacks ecological validity

• In addition, participants did not receive standardized instructions

• Di Maggio (1997)• Suggests that schemas are:• 1. Representations of knowledge

(stereotypes, social roles)• 2. Mechanisms that simplify cognition

(cognitive shortcuts)• He argued that schematic cognition is

shaped and biased by culture (culturally based stereotypes)

• DiMaggio believed that gender schemas are examples of cognitive schemas shaped by sociocultural ideas about what is appropriate for men and women (norms)

Society’s beliefs about the traits of males and females

Gender Schema

Influences processing of social information

Influences self-esteem(Only behavior or attitudes consistent with the gender schema are acceptable

• Possible Ways in Which Schemas Affect Memory

• 1. People tend to remember the meaning (gist) of something, not the actual wording

• 2. people use stored knowledge to make sense of incoming information– If information is incomplete or unclear, they fill in

the gaps using their schemas– This is reconstructive memory and it often results

in distortion

• 3. People tend to ignore information that is not in line with their schemas– This often leads to a bias in information

processing (stereotyping)

• 4. People tend to focus on information that is in line with their schemas (confirmation bias)

• Repressed Memories• During the 1990s, the idea of

repressing painful memories became a big topic. – While some psychoanalysts still support

the idea of repressed memories, most psychologists agree that events that are traumatic are typically etched on the mind as vivid, persistent, haunting memories.

– Z:\My Videos\Child abuse_ false memories part one (of two).mp4

– Z:\My Videos\Child abuse_ false memories part two (of two).mp4

• Improving Memory•Key is making it more

meaningful. How???•Repetition (Maintenance

Rehearsal) not as effective•Mnemonics- techniques for

improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory

• Acronym- word composed of the first letters of a series of words

• KISS- Keep It Simple Stupid• Acrostic- verse or saying where the first or

last letter of each word stands for something else

• EGBDF- Every Good Boy Does Fine (music notes)

• Popular sayings and rhymes• “Fall back” and “Spring forward”• Z:\The House Bunny (Remember people's

names).mp4• Method of Loci- mnemonic technique that

involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

• Example: remembering a grocery list…• Can of tuna on your bed, shampoo spilled

on your desk, box of eggs open on your chair

• Other ways to improve memory:• Pay attention

• Practice, practice, practice• External memory aids (notes, to do

lists, placing objects in specific places)

• Mentally rehearse what you intend to do

• Appropriate study environment• Control stress• Healthy diet and exercise

• Forgetting• As you know, not all the information

you learn will stick in your brain. According to Daniel Schacter, this is the result of one of the “seven sins of memory:”

–Transience–Absent-mindedness–Blocking–Misattribution –Suggestibility–Bias–Persistence

• 1. Transience- the impermanence of long-term memories- based on the idea that memories gradually fade in strength over time-also known as “decay theory.”

•Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

For most memories, there is a sharp decline in memory, followed by declining rate of loss

• 2. Absent-mindedness- forgetting caused by lapses in attention.

•Ex. Forgetting where you parked; losing your keys

• 3. Blocking- when a memory cannot be retrieved because of interference.

– Proactive Interference- When an old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory.

–Ex. Trying to put the dishes away at a new house

–Ex. Calling new girlfriend by an ex-girlfriend’s name

– Retroactive Memory- When a new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory.

–Ex. Driving an automatic after driving a manual

• Milk• Cheese• Butter• Eggs• Flour• Apples• Grapes• Shampoo• Beef• Salmon• Turkey• Cereal• Cookies• Mustard• Beans• Jam• bread

• Milk• Cheese• Butter• Eggs• Flour• Apples• Grapes• Shampoo• Beef• Salmon• Turkey• Cereal• Cookies• Mustard• Beans• Jam• bread

• The serial position effect is a form of interference related to the sequence in which material is presented.

•Generally items in the middle are remembered less.

– Primacy- relative ease of remembering the first information in a series.

– Recency- Strong memories of the most recent information in a series

–Info in the middle is exposed to both retroactive and proactive interference

• 4. Misattribution- Memory faults that occur when memories are retrieved, but are associated with the wrong time, place or person.

• Example: Psychologist Donald Thompson was accused of rape. His alibi was airtight as he was giving a TV interview that the victim had been watching just prior to the assault.

• Misattribution can cause people to mistakenly believe that other people’s ideas are their own.

• This occurs when a person hears an idea and keeps it in memory, while forgetting its source.

• Sometimes, people even remember things that they did not experience at all.

• 5. Suggestibility- The process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion.

»Eyewitness accounts are a large part of our legal system. Unfortunately they can be incredibly faulty.

»With the misinformation effect, memories can be embellished or even created by cues and suggestions.

• 6. Bias- The influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory.

– Expectancy Bias- A memory tendency to distort recalled events to fit one’s expectations.

– Self-consistency Bias- A commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes and beliefs, over time, than we actually are.

• 7. Persistence- A memory problem where unwanted memories cannot be put out of our mind.

•Depressed people cannot stop thinking about how bad their life is and how unhappy they are. It can create a self-fulfilling problem.

– Psychologists think that emotions strengthen the physical changes in the synapses that hold our memories, thus highly emotional memories can be harder to put out of mind.

• Forgetting Isn’t All That Bad• According to Schacter, the “seven sins” are

actually a normal part of human memory, and are the results of adaptive features in our memories.

• According to Schacter, each of the “sins” is for a reason:

• Transience- to prevent memory overload• Blocking- to focus on task at hand• Absent-mindedness- ability to shift

attention• Misattribution/bias/suggestibility- to focus

on meaning and not detail• Persistence- to remember especially

emotional memories

• Problem Solving• When we are faced with a problem,

we have a few options for figuring out a solution.

Algorithms- Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied.

They are designed to solve particular kinds of problems for which you have all the necessary information.

Algorithms can be used to balance checkbooks, figure gas mileage, and calculate grade point averages.

Algorithms cannot solve problems that involve subjective values or have too many unknowns.

Examples: Will you be happier with a red car or a

white car? Which is the best airline to take to

Denver?

Heuristics- Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution.

Examples: When a computer isn’t working,

there are several things that you can check before trying to get help (troubleshooting)

It’s the same with other technical problems.

“Don’t keep bananas in the refrigerator.” “If it’s not working, see if it’s plugged in.” We create many heuristics as we go

through life

Three Useful Heuristic Strategies

1. Working Backward With a maze in a book, you start from the

end and work backwards. This strategy can eliminate many of the

false starts and dead ends that we would otherwise stumble on through trial and error.

Very helpful for problems in which the goal or end-state is clearly specified

2. Searching for Analogies If a new problem is similar to a

previous one that you have faced, then you may be able to employ a strategy that you learned previously.

Example: If you are an experienced cold

weather driver, you would use this strategy when trying to decide if you should put snow chains on your tires.

“Are the roads like they were the last time I put chains on?”

The trick is to recognize the similarity between the new problem and the old one.

3. Breaking a Big Problem Into Smaller Problems

Like breaking up the task of writing a term paper into manageable steps.

Select a topic, researching the topic, creating an outline, writing the first draft, revising the paper.

Tackling big problems in this way makes them more manageable.

This is the strategy that allowed the Wright brothers to develop the first airplane.

How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

Solution to the matchstick problem

Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

Three Jugs Problem

Solution: a) All seven

problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.

b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

Problems With Heuristics

One problem with heuristic are mental sets. When faced with problems, we have

a tendency to approach it in a familiar way.Especially when it’s in a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Mental set- the tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for previous problems.

• Another problem with relying on heuristics is called functional fixedness, a sort of mental set issue.

• Functional Fixedness- The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

• Foot• Cheese• Chair• Slow• Party• Hard• Green• Trick• Paper• finger

• Light• Hand• Stone• Dog• Jack• Man• Floor• Car• Bar• bee

• Judging and Decision Making• Along with mental sets, bias can make

heuristics a faulty decision making tool.• Confirmation bias- Ignoring or finding fault

with information that doesn’t fit with your opinions

• Hindsight bias- Tendency to second guess a decision after the event has happened.

• Z:\RealPlayer Downloads\Captain Hindsight.flv

• Representative bias- the presumption that once people are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category

• (assuming that blondes are dumb, band people are nerds, etc.)

• Availability bias- Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

• If instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common

• People who watch the news or shows about violent crime think that crime rates are actually higher than they really are.

• This is because they have violent images readily available in memory.

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