MENFRI Forestry in the Mediterranean Guide

www.menfri.eu 1

MENFRI Forestry in the Mediterranean Guide

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 2 Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 3 Process......................................................................................................................... 4 Analysis of the situation of the forestry sector in the Mediterranean .............................. 6

www.menfri.eu 2

Abstract

The Forestry in the Mediterranean (FM) open access guide is an assessment of the

current situation of the forestry sector in the Mediterranean region. It is required for the

creation of the Mediterranean Forestry R2I Neighbourhood Policy Guide and is a public

document to be offered as part of the available toolkit to be found in the Mediterranean

Network of Forestry R2I. Therefore the information is presented in a comprehensive,

interesting and useful way. Based on the analysis of the compiled information

presented in the Mediterranean Forestry Assessment (a report for the members of the

consortium on the forestry sector organization and development throughout

Mediterranean EU and Partner countries drafted through the results and main

conclusions obtained during the different meetings held in the northern and southern

Mediterranean), it offers guidelines and shows principal bottlenecks to forestry

innovation in the Mediterranean Region. CREAF, helped by WG and the entire

Steering Committee, was in charge of the present document.

www.menfri.eu 3

Purpose

During the first part of the project, stakeholders from research centres, associations,

SMEs, owners and politicians related to the forestry sector throughout the

Mediterranean (especially in Spain, Italy, Tunisia and Morocco) were invited to actively

discuss and generate a realistic overview of the current situation of the sector and how

to access the market. Their opinions, discussions and a series of relevant reports were

used with the main objective of assessing organization and development of the forestry

sector in the European Mediterranean and the Maghreb countries. This was principally

in order to:

Promote scientific-innovation cooperation among the Mediterranean countries and to

support the economic and technological development of its members with the use of

scientific knowledge and by exploring the capacity and collaborative efforts of

Mediterranean forestry stakeholders.

Bridge the gap between ecological research and forest management innovation by

better aligning both research and economic objectives to societal needs.

Provide guidance in the progress towards forestry innovation.

www.menfri.eu 4

Process

One of the objectives of the project was to obtain a realistic overview, identify concrete

opportunities and potential bottlenecks, of the current situation of the forestry sector in

the Mediterranean Region by assembling an advisory group of experts.

This Stakeholders Advisory Group (SAG) was invited to actively discuss with the goal

of assessing the forestry sector organization and development (how to access to the

market) in two European (Spain, Italy) and two Maghreb (Tunisia and Morocco)

representative Mediterranean countries.

Specifically, the SAG was in charge of the drafting, together with the MENFRI Steering

Committee, of the Mediterranean Forestry Assessment (MFA), a report on the forestry

sector organization and development throughout Mediterranean EU and Partner

countries. This assessment was composed of the compiled CVs of the SAG experts,

the questionnaires prepared by WG and CREAF and filled by most of the SAG

members about the forestry sector organization and development throughout the

Mediterranean, and the three SAG meetings minutes, which contains the principal

needs and problems of the sector while a series of ideas and suggestions in order to

solve the principal barriers to innovation.

Such information is the basis of the present Forestry in the Mediterranean guide, which

includes the analysis of the compiled information in order to offer guidelines and show

principal bottlenecks to forestry innovation in the Mediterranean Region.

In the end, our aim is to offer useful facts, outline the needs and problems and, most of

all, suggest potential solutions to support and improve the forestry sector in the

Mediterranean Region.

www.menfri.eu 5

Several specialists coming from scientific, innovation & development, and government

institutions of the participant countries (stakeholders from research centres,

associations, SMEs, landowners and politicians related to the forestry sector) who were

concerned by the effects of global change on Mediterranean forests, kindly accepted to

share their experiences by answering questionnaires, offering reports and attending

the meetings organized by MENFRI. These honorific contributors are listed as follows:

Juan L Abián (Catalonian government Forest Property Centre), Habib Abid (Tunisian

government Forest General Directory), Mohamed Benzyane (BETAF Consulting,

Morocco), Christophe Besacier (FAO Silva Mediterranea), Jose A Bonet (Catalonian

Forestry Technological Centre), Mhammed Bouhaloua (Agronomy Institute Hassan II,

Morocco), Rahhal Boulgoute (ETUR company, Morocco), Antonio Brunori (PEFC

Italy), Piermaria Corona (Italian Agricultural Research Council), Sassi Dey (Tunisian

government Forest General Directory), Gloria Domínguez (Development agency in

Catalonia), Stephanie Druguet (Cooperation, EC Embassy Morocco), Gaston Franco

(European Parliament), Jordi Gené (Catalonian Wood Institute), Abdelhamid Khaldi

(INGREF, Tunisia), Gaetano Ladisa (Medical Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy), Dalila

Loudyi (Faculty of Science & Technology Mohammedia, Morocco), Nicolas Luigi

(Pro-silva France), Federico Magnani (University of Bologna, Italy), Inazio Martínez

(European Forest Institute in the MEDiterranean), Danilo Monarca (University of

Tuscia, Italy), Xavier Pons (Autonomous University of Barcelona), Sarah Price (PEFC

International), Juan Puigdefábregas (CSIC, Spain), Rafael Rodríguez (MoCo Euro-

Mediterranean cooperation), Youssef Saadani (Tunisian government Forest General

Directory), David Solano (Catalonian Forestry Technology Centre), Ahlafi Zaki

(Agronomy Institute Hassan II, Morocco).

www.menfri.eu 6

Analysis of the situation of the forestry

sector in the Mediterranean

Introduction

Mediterranean forests are diverse and heterogeneous. These forests cover an area of

73 million hectares, which while representing 8.5% of the Mediterranean region and

only 1.5% of the planet surface, are nevertheless located in the points of origin of the

development of the Euro-Mediterranean civilizations. Hot-spots of biodiversity (25000

species of plants, 50% endemics, and more; Blondel et al., 2010), they have the

potential of producing very different products (considering wood and non-timber

products and tourism related benefits), besides essential environmental (principally

biodiversity, regulation of water resources and control of carbon flow and reserves) and

social (employment, food security and rural development, among others) services

(Saket & Hayder, 2010).

The Mediterranean Region will become one of the areas in Europe most vulnerable to

global change. Forested areas in the Mediterranean Basin show great sensitivity to

several drivers of change (climate change, land use change, wildfires, pests and

erosion etc.) and their interaction (Doblas-Miranda et al., 2014). Principally, climate in

the region experiences great sensitivity to global atmospheric changes due to its

transitional nature between arid and humid regions (Moreno & Fellous, 1997).

Connections between extreme climate events and a long history of changes in land use

have been shown to result in more frequent and intense fires, forest disease expansion,

and land degradation, amongst other impacts (Thornes, 2009). Also, socioeconomic

assumptions have an effect on land use, making the Mediterranean Basin a complex

ground of interaction between policies, societies and economic backgrounds (Brauch,

2003).

Important disparities between the northern and southern rims of the Mediterranean are

the result of both different degree of urbanization, industrialization and globalization of

trade and tourism, and distinct population growth rates. In Mediterranean Europe,

where forestland is mostly privately owned, the abandonment of the land, generally

with low production, is the result of marginalization concerning agriculture, but also

economic and social factors. Vegetation has expanded due to land abandonment and

its natural dynamics and the lack of management has increased the risk of wildfires

and pests. The anarchic urban development has also damaged several forest

www.menfri.eu 7

ecosystems. In the South, where forests are mostly publicly owned, human pressure

on forest resources – caused by dense and poor rural forest-dependent populations - is

very high (for example, in Tunisia, up to 90% of forests are public while 10% of the

population inhabit forests). Overgrazing and overexploitation of forest products like

wood fuel are the most frequent pressures causing degradation, or even desertification.

Moreover, women, who take care of livestock, fieldwork, collection and storage of wood,

water and regular household activities, represent 50% of the active rural population,

yet suffer from problems including illiteracy and poverty (only 20% have access to

professional training and 30% have a school education). Several eastern countries are

in transition between these two extreme situations as a result of strong economic

growth over the past ten years (e.g. Turkey, Albania and Croatia).

In this context, it may be assumed that global change will have an impact on both

forest ecosystems and the goods and services they provide in different parts of the

Mediterranean basin, thus posing an enormous societal challenge. Global change is a

matter of concern which has extended to all social scales, even in the face of the

economic crisis that we are still dealing with. Effectively, the defense of regional natural

resources should be part of the aims in the agenda in order to escape from financial

dependency to sustainable development. As stated by the Horizon 2020 societal

challenges, forest management strategies must be directed to promoting mitigation of

the effects of global change, and to guaranteeing the sustainable use of ecosystem

goods and services in order to achieve a resource efficient, low-carbon economy (de

Boissezon, 2011). Working towards the development of a Common Knowledge and

Innovation Space is in fact highlighted as one of the priorities of cooperation between

European and European Neighbourhood Policy countries (HRU-FASP & EC, 2011).

Moreover, innovation in the development of new goods or services is a priority for

economic development (Dagaut et al., 2012). It cannot be denied that there is a

window for business opportunity, as potential forest exploitation is much too high

compared to the current rates and there is a lower rate of management plans

application.

Policy issues

The previous context is accompanied by an idiosyncratic situation of regional and local

governments and, of course, intercontinental initiatives.

Countries in the European Union share a common European Forest Strategy

(http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/forest/strategy/index_en.htm), which recognizes the

multifunctional and sustainability value of forests. However, the initiative implies no

www.menfri.eu 8

political commitment and real competencies remain at the national level. Also, there is

a certain level of overlapping and competition among other sectorial policies related to

rural issues (financial incentives of the Rural Development Programme of European

Union are a good but not sufficient support for sustainable and multifunctional

management), energy issues, and water issues. The forestry sector depends on

agricultural policies and must therefore be supported by different initiatives, such as the

European Parliament Intergroup on Climate Change, Biodiversity and Sustainable

Development.

Fortunately, in most EU regions, forest laws and regulations already meet the

standards of forest certification schemes, even if they are not explicitly recognized. For

example, in Catalonia forest management is promoted by grants which, whilst being

humble are also efficient, as well as tax and insurance benefits (www.cpf.cat). Similarly,

in the PACA Region (Provence, Alpes, Côte d’Azur), the Regional Centre for Forest

Ownership (http://www.ofme.org/crpf/) helps forest owners with common training and

tools. However, on a larger scale, forest policies lose their flexibility and their real

applicability, as happens at the Spanish and French national level. Interesting

examples of public-private partnerships could be however found, such as the

productive but sustainable cork sector in Portugal.

In the Maghreb, although the nations share a common situation in which almost all the

forest is publically-owned, the lack of a common political union results in no common

policies at the regional level.

Since 2013, the EU has been supporting the Moroccan national forest program, which

was developed by the High Commission for Waters and Forests and the Fight against

Desertification (HCEFLCD), by reforming of legal framework, adapting it to new

challenges, territorial approach, social participation and capacity development. The

current National Strategy for the Development and Sustainable Management of forests

and Rangelands in Tunisia (new strategy 2014-2015), supported by different partners

such as BIRD and GIZ, is also moving to integrate aspects of sustainable development.

Moreover, a future Tunisian code of investment may support forest plans, valorisation

and tourism.

Despite the described heterogeneity of situations, which result in unilateral decisions, a

common Mediterranean Regional strategy (including European and Maghreb countries)

may support the development of forestry sector all over the Mediterranean. Valuable

attempts to establish a common Mediterranean forest agenda have been done over the

past few years, both from a scientific point of view (EFIMED-Mediterranean Forest

Research Agenda; http://www.efimed.efi.int/portal/research/mfra/) and also from a

www.menfri.eu 9

forest policy point of view (FAO-“Silva Mediterranea” activities;

http://www.fao.org/forestry/silvamed/en/). Examples of the second point of view are the

State of Mediterranean Forests (http://www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3226e/i3226e.pdf), the

Strategic Framework on Mediterranean Forests (SFMF Rationale;

http://www.fao.org/forestry/36306-0496de1ce9c0218e588fd41ef7353afcd.pdf and

SFMF Strategic Lines; http://www.fao.org/forestry/36307-

08d6b55472cb0b492a9c2fce23e7bece3.pdf) and the Tlemcen Declaration

(http://www.fao.org/forestry/36632-03883494ea162d6695e84f2182b57129f.pdf) which

was adopted by key Mediterranean partners in Algeria during March 2013. Other

initiatives also worthy of mention include Plan Bleu (http://planbleu.org/), INTERREG

(http://www.interreg4c.eu/), MED-SPRING (http://medspring.eu/), the Euro-

Mediterranean Group of Senior Officials in Research and Innovation, ERAfrica

(http://www.erafrica.eu/) and the FORESTERRA Era-Net (http://www.foresterra.eu/).

Following these great examples, forests should be included in the priorities of the

Union for the Mediterranean. However, at the policy level there are a few mechanisms

with real power to support forestry in the Mediterranean Region. For example, the pan-

Euro-Mediterranean accumulation, which is based on a network of Free Trade

Agreements, is applied to wood products. Unfortunately, more urgent actions like a

common Euro-Mediterranean framework for forest fire prevention and for water

regulation are still in limbo.

The sustainability challenge of the Mediterranean forests

Several experts have agreed on the need for the implementation of a sustainable

management strategy as being the best way to maintain equilibrium between global

and local goals. This should be based on a concise plan including the diagnosis of

vulnerabilities, the identification of scenarios, management directives, testing, and

monitoring. The management plans under this scenario must be multifunctional

(principally based in the provision of ecosystem services, including promoting

biodiversity) and adaptive to change.

Particular techniques needed to carry out this management which were suggested

reducing or other ways to minimize water competition, increasing the structural strength

of forests against fires, drought and pests, assisted migration, reforestation, balanced

fertilization, the use of endemic species and, where appropriate, the potential use of

agroforestry techniques. Furthermore, the use the tools provided by Geographical

Information Science & Technology is recommended (a good example is the SUSOE

project; http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/102543_en.html).

www.menfri.eu 10

Governments should facilitate the implementation of such initiatives, by updating the

necessary legislations, and paying for environmental services (for example by

economic incentives or by considering forest as green infrastructures). In any case, the

implication of the private sector and local populations, by educational campaigns, is

also recommended in order to close the gap between industrial and artisanal

approaches. Women should be the focus of regional development initiatives

(decreasing illiteracy, guaranteeing their access to ground and to trees, providing a

better access to credit, the introduction of new technologies, as well as social

awareness) since they carry out most of the traditional forest usages without any

recognition. In the end, incentives for all of the actors implied in the value chain should

be guaranteed.

In fact, to increase the valorisation (and real value!) of forest land, products and

services have been suggested again and again as being most likely to be the best

strategy against both land abandonment and desertification, two of the most important

challenges of Mediterranean forests. Awareness of the value of forests contributes to

rural development in the same way as business support, infrastructure and access to

services does. Moreover, as it will be explained in the following section, integrated

management could approach this increased value by accessible innovations as non-

wood forest products (NWFP) coming from local biota, ecotourism, agro-forestry, and,

if controlled to local markets, biofuels.

It should be considered that in the Maghreb, the causes of desertification are not only

environmental but also social and economic. Therefore, it is necessary to improve

governance in order to support not only integrated management (including territorial

planning, reforestation and regeneration of oases etc.), but also socio-economic

development (e.g. by considering the creation of employment for local populations).

Potential for innovation

In order to support the forestry sector as an innovative business, capable of generating

employment and new SMEs, the entire body stakeholders have agreed on the same

word: education. As mentioned before, it is necessary to raise awareness in society

about the real value of Mediterranean forests (such as by using famous people or

success stories), but it is also necessary to provide technical training (for example, the

DESIRE project; http://www.desire-project.eu/) in order to increase capacity building

and the creation of community based SMEs. It must not be forgotten, that local

populations can also be provided with innovations coming from traditional management.

www.menfri.eu 11

NWFP from Mediterranean species (and therefore supporting biomass conservation)

were also one of the most mentioned ideas for an innovative forestry program: cork,

pine nuts, argan oil, honey, mushrooms, aromatics, carob tree fruits, etc. should all be

included into current value chains, or newly adapted ones be created. Across all of

these potential and alternative products, it is necessary to bring the plant into forests; in

other words, to share the benefits of the transformed products within the communities

in charge of their extraction. The valorisation of typical Mediterranean wood species,

showing more quality that fast growing species, was also mentioned. Also the

development of new uses was suggested, e.g. cork for eco-building, new chemicals

extracted from wood, wood products such as pellets and pallets, business-to-

consumer biomass, the processing of forestry waste, and especially wood for

cogeneration. However, sustainable production of wood for bioenergy must be carefully

evaluated and regulated, limiting its use to the local level or to the end of the life cycle

of wood (cascade use). Almost all of the experts also mentioned tourism and recreation

related to forests as innovative business opportunities. Other potential innovative

businesses could be related to ecosystem monitoring, genetic resources, ecosystem

services marketing, knowledge transference, cooperation with farming (as agro-forestry)

and water management through forestry. Moreover, although not directly related to

forest, any initiative improving work conditions (efficient ovens) and education (from the

most basic literacy to training in business creation) of Maghreb women will be

translated into reduce foraging and therefore forest pressure.

However, innovation does not come only from business opportunities. A favourable

political framework would be necessary to support forestry as a green economy

generator sector. This would include, and by common agreement of the selected

experts, creating fiscal advantages, incentives for mitigation measures and payment for

ecosystem services (as the REDD+ program), accompanied by appropriate

assessments of the services provided by forests and even of populations inhabiting

forests. A great example following such recommendations is a regional project funded

by the Global French Environmental Facility (http://www.fao.org/forestry/82782/en/).

Sustainable management must by normalised and properly paid for whilst training

specialised professionals and providing new tools on the subject. Also, governments

should facilitate public-private partnerships, and mobility and collaboration between

research and enterprises. Another political measure mentioned many times is the

creation of forest clusters, if possible in the Euro-Mediterranean but also between

Maghreb countries, in order to group interesting initiatives that could consider the entire

value chain at the socio-ecosystem level.

www.menfri.eu 12

Finally, many experts coming from science, management, private and policy making

have agreed upon the potential of branding. A Mediterranean certification, based on

sustainability and inclusion principles, may favour the conservation of local biodiversity

while supporting local development (a good example of this is the great work carried

out by PEFC; http://www.pefc.org/).

For all the mentioned innovations, the support of NGOs and environmental foundations

are worth mentioning. They could increase the connection of the entire value chain

from the local populations to the decision making level.

Barriers to innovation

As valorisation of Mediterranean forest products was suggested as the most important

need for forest innovation, the current lack of it has been also mentioned by the experts

as the most likely barrier to the development of the forestry sector. Social

misconceptions criminalize management and the economical use of forest resources.

As far as is known, there is no Regional initiative with the aim of creating a social

understanding and pride of Mediterranean forests. Value recognition could be the way

of facing the competition with large wood producers (and related oligopolies and trusts)

but also consumers. For example, according to the French wood national federation,

around 650000 m3 of wood was exported to China in 2013 in order to be transformed

(and then repurchased!), thereby losing potential employment and money in the

transaction. Similar losses could happen due to the free trade agreement with USA and

Canada.

In general, there is an agreement on the lack of human resources; from problems

related to migration (partially solved by interesting examples such as the Joint

Migration and Development Initiative; http://www.migration4development.org/), to the

ageing of rural populations and the consequent resistance to innovation, passing

through illiteracy. But also structural (lack of tools, capacity building, security), financial

(low investment, no financial incentives at national or regional level and, in many

southern cases, resources are directly invested into debts), technical (no training, short

term thinking), and even scientific means (principally the lack of real application as

explained in the next section).

Of course, there are unreachable environmental factors, such as the characteristic

water scarcity or fire frequency of Mediterranean biomass that results in low

productivity and high risk of losses, respectively. Moreover, the repeatedly mentioned

enormous socio-economic barriers; land abandonment in Europe, and also difficulty in

balancing risks, profitability and liquidity inherent to forest activities, as well as human

www.menfri.eu 13

pressures (including from smugglers!) in the Maghreb due to the unbalanced

application of forest use rights. Also, mountain environments, where many

Mediterranean forests are located, increase harvesting costs.

Such barriers could be surpassed by the commitment of governments. However, there

is no political recognition of both the environmental services and the economic potential

of forests. At the regional scale, the instruments of innovation and scientific-technical

coordination are scarce. At the national level, administrations are generally low,

outdated and, in many cases, they show organizational problems among departments

that result in a lack of coherence between their objectives. Among the administrative

barriers, territorial management is based on political limits, although an environmental

regionalization would be more efficient.

Finally, many of the gathered stakeholders agreed on the lack of collaboration between

the different sectors: the scientific, business, management, owners and decision-

makingsectors. Even owners should be aware that they would be better prepared to

face adversity if they are associated with each other (as demonstrated by the great

example of Pro Silva France; http://www.prosilva.fr/). Only together could they align

common aims. In fact, the identification of the described barriers may be included in

their common priorities to support the Mediterranean forestry.

Management & Science

All the experts agreed on the importance of a collaborative environment between

researchers and managers. Apart from the specific needs of science from

management or vice versa, which will be mentioned right after, cooperation (under, for

example, sectorial platforms as the Association Futaie Irrégulière:

http://www.prosilva.fr/html/afi/afi.htm) may result in the availability of quality knowledge,

common management goals, avoiding unnecessary repetitions and, most of all, a

common message to politicians and decision makers. In any case, there is also a

responsibility at the policy level of supporting such a collaboration.

Managers are thirsty for the practical knowledge that scientists can provide, especially

in relation to the best practices to maintain production under global change. From the

basic research in relation to the functioning and resistance (water behaviour, for

example) of different Mediterranean and similar tree species and their community

dynamics, through monitoring techniques and indicators, and right up to the specialized

finds in relation to silvicultural techniques (as the management of genetic resources,

optimal rotation length, fertilization and assisted migration). Multidisciplinary research is

also necessary to develop, in order of importance for the gathered specialists, socio-

www.menfri.eu 14

economic evaluations of forests goods and services (for example, assessments of

carbon sinks and their economic implications), contributing to training and

dissemination, generating global change scenarios, modelization of forest dynamics in

order to create risk prevention tools, and the establishment of policy directives. Finally,

the integration of traditional management techniques in the research community by

participatory approaches on the one hand, and the research and technological

development of new forest products and tools on the other hand, will be welcomed.

Scientists also need the cooperation of managers, principally in order to provide data

on ecosystems, on the applied management and its results, on their personal

knowledge and experience, and even on their needs and perceptions. It is also

imperative to help scientists with the monitoring of ecosystems after management is

applied. Last but not least it is to provide pilot areas for research, with the consideration

of long-term objectives if possible. Managers may be more participative and

collaborative with research projects, with the carrying out of the recommended

directives, attending trainings and meetings, and as with the scientific community, also

be more open to traditional know-how by community forest management. In the end,

the objective is to pass from a hierarchical management model to an adaptive

management model or, in other words, from maximal to optimal production.

The top ten

1) It is imperative to increase the value, 2) by governmental support and incentives,

and recognition, 3) by education and awareness campaigns, of forest land, products

and services.

4) Non wood forest products, 5) new uses of wood and 6) tourism have the highest

potential to transform the Mediterranean forestry sector into an innovative force of the

green economy.

7) Both the scientific community and managers should collaborate on the search for

common management goals; 8) research on practices that are able to maintain

production under global change conditions is needed, 9) while managers must be

provided with data about ecosystems, practices, experience and needs.

10) Multifunctional forest management plans may handle unpredicted environmental

and socio-economic changes.

www.menfri.eu 15

Selected bibliography

de Boissezon B. 2011. Supply of raw materials; resource efficiency and climate action:

current state of play. Stakeholder workshop: Horizon 2020 - Societal Challenges.

Brussels, 15 July 2011.

Blondel J, Aronson J, Bodiou J-Y, Boeuf G. 2010. The Mediterranean Region.

Biological diversity in space and time, 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press.

Brauch HG. 2003. Towards a fourth phase of research on human and environmental

security and peace: conceptual conclusions. Security and the Environment in the

Mediterranean: Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts (ed. by HG

Braunch, PH Liotta, A Marquina, PF Rogers, ME-S Selim), pp. 919–953. Springer.

Dagaut S, Ziane-Cherif A, Menendez A. 2012. Promoting Innovation in the

Mediterranean. ANIMA Investment Network.

Doblas-Miranda E, Martínez-Vilalta J, Lloret F, Álvarez A, Ávila A, Bonet FJ, Brotons L,

Castro J, Curiel Yuste J, Díaz M, Ferrandis P, García-Hurtado E, Iriondo JM,

Keenan TF, Latron J, Llusià J, Loepfe L, Mayol M, Moré G, Moya D, Peñuelas J,

Pons X, Poyatos R, Sardans J, Sus O, Vallejo VR, Vayreda J, Retana J. 2014.

Reassessing global change research priorities in Mediterranean terrestrial

ecosystems: how far have we come and where do we go from here? Global Ecology

and Biogeography 24: 25–43.

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy & the

European Commission. 2011. A New Response to a Changing Neighbourhood: A

review of European Neighbourhood Policy. Joint Communication. Brussels, 25 May

2011.

Moreno JM, Fellous JL. 1997. Report of the Enrich/Start International Workshop on

Global change and the Mediterranean Region. IGBP España.

Saket M, Hayder M. 2010. Forests and range resources around the Mediterranean:

State, functions and knowledge. FAO, RNE.

Thornes JB. 2009. Land degradation. The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean

(ed. by J. Woodward), pp. 563–581. Oxford University Press.

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement no

609542