Chapter - Iv

METEORIC UP AND

DOWN OF NAYARs

CHAPTER - IV

METEORIC UP AND DOWN OF NAYARS

Until the first decade of the 19th

Century, the Nayars held a

pre-dominant position in Kerala. In the dawn of that century the entire

community was terrifically shattered from its preeminent position. But

paradoxically no-body made any attempt to unravel the mystery behind

this abrupt annihilation of that mighty community. All the historians and

scholars dates from the period of P. Shungoonny Menon discarded it

either by cognition or by ignorance. Recently the decline of the Nayar

Dominance became a subject of much discussion among the scholars in

Kerala and abroad. But there was no change in the obscurity of the

problem, because they are still under the mask of the early writers. But

this chapter an attempt is made to portray a graphic picture of that

miserable fall.

Views of Scholars

From time immemorial onwards the course and destiny of

human history was regulated and decided by the might of the martial

forces. A sound military force constituted an important factor in the rise

of all great kingdoms in the world. There could not be land empire without

a sufficient armed force. The neglect of defence would ultimately result in

the sudden collapse and disintegration of that respective kingdom. Thus

the existence of a state is largely depended upon its military force. A well

96

organized, well disciplined and well trained regular militia formed an

integral part of every state. In Travancore, before the origin of the police

force and the formation of state military force, the defence of the kingdom

was looked after by the Nayar Bridge. They maintained law and order

within the kingdom. The Nayars constituted the bulk of the militia.

Unlike any other community the Nayar community dedicated itself to the

cause of the king and the kingdom from its very beginning. Most of them

were intensely patriotic and freedom loving. They derived perpetual

satisfaction only through their steadfast and sincere service. An ordinary

soldier received 61/2 rupees only per mensem.1 They were satisfied with

that meager amount. The foreigners who visited this part of India were

highly impressed with the chivalrous and adventurous spirit of the Nayar

soldiers and wrote about the same K.P. Padmanabha Menon beautifully

narrates all these opinions. According to him the Nayars were born

soldiers.

Durate Barbosa wrote that : "in these kingdoms of Malabar

there is another set of people called Nayars, who are the gentry and have

no other duty then to carry on war, and they continually carry their arms

with them".2 According to Varthema, an European scholar, "The Nayars

____________________________________________________________

1. Foreign Secret Consultations Proceedings, 17 May 1804, F.15276. (Hereafter it

will be referred as For. Sec. Cons. Proc.)

2. Duarte Barbosa, A description to the coast of East Africa and Malabar in the

beginning of 16th

century, London, 1970, p. 118.

97

are the same as the gentle folks amongst us, and are obliged to bear sword

and shield or bows and lances. When they go through the streets, if they

did not carry arms they would no longer be gentlemen". In 1563 Garcia

described the Nayars as the knights in the Kingdom". Castenheda referred:

"The Nayars were the men of war whom the king of Calicut and other

kings, have ……….. They are all gentlemen who follow no office of

employment but that of fighting when needed". In 1583 Linschotten said:

"of these Malabares there are two manner of people, the one noblemen or

gentlemen called Nayars, who are soldiers, that do only wear and handle

arms". He adds "They are very good and stout soldiers and would setupon

a man very fiercely". In 1611 Johnson in his book on "Early Relations of

the most famous kingdoms of the world- he mentioned "it is strange to see

how ready the soldier of this country is at his weapons they are all

gentlemen and termed Nayars". In 1609 Phrad Laval stated " they were

the lords of the land - the best soldiers in the world and courageous

extremely skilful in the use of arms with limbs for agile and supple that

they can throw themselves into every imaginable posture, and thus avoid

or cunningly carry every possible stroke whilst at the same time they

spring upon the foe". In 1623, Della Vella commenting upon the Nayars

observed that the "Gentiles of the race of Nairi, for the most part by

profession soldiers sufficiently swashing and brave". The Dutch Captain

Nieuhooff (1653-70) expressed the view that "The Nayars are the

98

descendants of noble families and brought up to the war and very bold and

brave. They are the best wrestlers in the world and are very nimble on

foot". Col. Wilkes observed: "The Nayars or military class of Malabar are

perhaps, not exceeded any by nation on earth in a high spirit of

independence and military honour; but like all persons stimulated by that

spirit without the direction of discipline, their efforts are uncertain,

capricious and desultory".3

The general criticisms in comparison with the warm tributes

had little weight. For instance Col. Macaulay stated: "the principal Nayars

and Malabares of this coast seem to possess very little discrimination of

character in general, they are selfish, cold, blunded, avaricious, narrow-

minded and meanly vindicative grafting the basest hypocrasy upon the

most disgusting pride".4

The Social Pyramid

In the social pyramid of Kerala, the Nayars occupied a

prominent place. They were counted along with the savaranas or the

privileged section of the society. They were often treated as the Kashtriyas.

They enjoyed all the paraphernelias of a luxurious and extravagant life.

The key posts of the state were occupied by them. They were respected

____________________________________________________________

3. Padmanabha Menon, K.P., A History of Kerala, Vol. III, New Delhi, 1924,

pp. 338-339.

4. For. Sec. Cons. Proc., 17 May 1804, F. 15291.

99

by all. The kings were mostly guided by their advise. The Nayars even

enjoyed the right to kill an Avarna without penalty, if he unfortunately

happened to cross him in the way.5

They enjoyed all these vast powers

only due to their prominent position in the army.

The military training of the Nayar children started from the

seventh year of their age. They were trained in their family gymnasiums

called Kalaris. Even before their adult stage they mastered in the art of

warfare. Just after his arrival in Travancore Col. Macaulay wrote: "each

house inhabited by a Nayar family is bound to hold in readiness and to

furnish armed men at a call one male out of every two or in other words

the half of all the males who have attained the age of twelve years. A

proportion of these are constantly employed and they receive a small

allowance in grain on urgent occasion and all males above twelve years of

age must attend the Rajah's standard when summoned".6

The early history of Travancore furnishes several brilliant

records of their chivalrous action. For instance in 1532 in the battle of

Tamraparni between Udaya Martanda Varma, the king of Travancore and

Accuta, the successor of Krisna Deva Raya of Vijayanagar, the Nayars

gallantly fought and defended Travancore: "on one side were ranged the

____________________________________________________________

5. Duarte Barbosa, A description to the coast of East Africa and Malabar in the

beginning of 16th

century, London, 1970, p. 120.

6. For. Sec. Cons. Proc., 17 May 1804, Ff. 15085-6.

100

resources of the empire (Vijayanagar) and of its Pandyan vassal, and on the

other the gallant Nayars of Travancore. The Nayars in those days were a

peculiarly military race, trained in the exercise of war from their earliest

youth, and taking continued delight in their weapons, persuading

themselves that no nation goeth beyond them in skill and desterity".7

The military forces of nation are products of socio political

environments. Each and every society had their own organized groups

entrusted with the duty of defending national or group interests or of going

into the offensive to protect themselves from similar groupings.

Occasionally some of these tasks were performed by professional clashes

of fighting men organized into regular standing armies. Such professional

organizations are hallmarks of advanced and sophisticated societies. In less

advanced countries (some backward countries) these duties were carried

out by militias' or irregular forces.8

Historians have been able to give some information in the

economy of Kerala during the sangam period.9 Militia acquired the

meaning of a Domestic force for the defence of a nation as distinguished

from regular army. Militia is the name given to fighting men, normally

citizens compelled to be soldiers on call. In Athens, under Pericles, youths

were admitted to manhood by way of military training and the formal

____________________________________________________________

7. Indian Antiquary 1914, Vol. XLIII, p. 217.

8. The Nayar Brigade of Travancore, The Government Press, Madras, 1898, p. 11.

9. The sangam period flourished from 1st century B.C. to 5

th century A.D.

101

acceptance as armed citizens. The true militia system as a legal tradition is

based upon the obligatory of every man to serve his nation. It is

distinguished from the military system of most modern times in that they

maintain substantial standing armies to which the citizen forces are only

supplements.10

It is considered as a defensive force. The Nayar militia in

Travancore was a defensive force of the feudal chieftains, the King and

the state.

Need of the Hour-Nayar Ascendancy

It was a period of a well developed civilization, culture and

way of life. An egalitarian society flourished with monarchical form of

government. Though agriculture was the main occupation of the people,

they followed several other occupations like fishing, hunting, spinning,

weaving, carpentry etc. Martial spirit of a very high order prevailed, and

bows and arrows, spears and swords were the offensive weapons. The

army consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants.

The frequent conflict between the three Tamil kingdoms

Chera, Chola and Pandya - might have stimulated this development.11

Thus the traditional system of warfare which persisted almost until the

beginning of the modern period might have originated in this way. This

social group might have evolved into a caste known as Nayars.

____________________________________________________________

10. Velupillai, T.K., Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandram, 1940, p. 10.

11. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 13.

12. Fuller, C.J., The Nayars Today, Cambridge, 1976, p. 4.

102

In course of time, soldiering became the traditional

occupation of the Nayars especially after the 11th

century AD.12

From the

beginning of the Christian era down to the 12th

century, it was the Nayars

who commanded the army. During the Sangam, under the Cheras, the

'Nagas'13

were the commandants of the army. Other communities like the

Mazhavar and Ayinas14

had also enjoyed important position in the Chera

army15

, but the majority of them were 'Nagas' or 'Nayars'. There was also

no other fighting class superior to the Nayars, and no other caste could

ever rise to the position of a fighting class as the Nayars. The sudras were

the unprivileged classes but the Brahmins elevated them to the position of

privileged classes. The Brahmins had no sufficient body of protectory of

their own. So they had no force to acknowledge as protectors, the original

race i.e. the Nayars - whom designated as sudras, though in reality some of

them were treated as kshatriyas. If their protectors were called sudras

(Servile classes), then the class below the sudras could not have had any

footing in the original Aryan reorganization.

____________________________________________________________

13. The "Nagas' are identified with the Nairs. The term 'Nayar' was originally a

designation meaning, literally, 'commandant'.

14. Kazhakam, SS, Puranams (Tinnevelly, 1964), p. 80, (Mazhavar and Ayinar were

warlike men including commanders of the army under the Sangam Cheras).

15. The Chera army consisted of Vilpade (bow fighters), val-pade (sword-fighters)

and vel pade (Spear fighters). Apart from these, there were also elephants and the

navy. The Chera rulers maintained a standing army at the capital and all other

important places. The Chera rulers had village Kalavis where the youth of the

country were given training in the use of arms. When the standing army was

found in sufficient immediately a new army of trained youth of the country could

be raised, for that purpose the Kalavis were maintained.

103

Socio economic background of the origin of the 'Nayar

Militia'

The Nayar militia may be called a socio-economic - cum

military organization. This feudal military organization of the Nayar

emerged from the socio-economic conditions created by the Brahmins

from the 8th

century AD onwards. The Brahmins also introduced the

matrilineal system among the Nayars, in order to give them greater

freedom from family ties and to bring them into military service. The

Nambudiries collect all these people who were preferred to give them

companies and soldiers, and created the Nayars and established the

matrilineal system among them.16

An egalitarian society which prevailed before the 8th

century

AD disappeared and Society became authoritarian in characters and

maintained distinction based on birth and serve and subordinated the

individual to the caste system and the joint family system.

The early Nayar includes into the Sudra caste created by the

Brahmins. The word Nayar was used from 9th

century A.D. onwards17

to

mean a 'sundra' 176. upto 9th

Century AD., the Nayar might have been

____________________________________________________________

16. Hamilton, C.J., Trade relation between England and India, Vol.II, Calcutta,

1916, p. 27.

17. Gopinatha Roy, T.K., Traman Arch Souvenir, Vol. IV, Madras, 1910, p. 83.

104

called as 'Nagas'. The 'Nagas' carrying swords in their hands were

respected by all people in the lands.18

Therefore "the original Nayars were undoubtedly a military

body holding land and serving as a militia". Since the Nayars spend all the

time in the battle field it was possible that, they liked the new system of

inheritance. "If a man had no family obligation he would have greater

liking for marital life".19

Nayar militia as a feudal military organization

approved with the emergence of Land Lordism in the state. The land

Lordism or Janmi system originated in Kerala with the establishment of

Brahmin supremacy.20

While the Brahmin ideology of Chaturvarnya (means division

of society into four based on occupation) was successfully working in

society, there broke out the war between the cholas and the cheras in

the second half of the 10th

century A. D. Universal military training in the

Kalaris, early acquisition of skill in the use of arms attacks and counter

attacks, were the important features of the prolonged war between Cheras

and the cholas.21

____________________________________________________________

18. Chattambi Swamigal, Ancient Kerala, cited by Gopalakrishnan, P.K., p. 283.

19. Hamilton, C.J., op.cit., p. 278.

20. Nambutripad, E.M., Sankaran, Kerala, The Motherland of the Malayalis, Trichur,

1966, p. 51.

21. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, P.N., Studies in Kerala History, Trivandrum, 1970, p.235.

Logan, W., Malabar, Vol. 1, Madras, 1887, pp. 596-607.

105

The Jenmi system which puzzled British revenue

administrators evolved partly because of the necessity to relieve the

professional soldiers of their economic burdens. The Nayar nobles engaged

themselves in martial arts while the actual cultivation of their land was the

responsibility of other groups. The commercial field was dominated by

other castes in collaboration with their foreign trade partners. Thus it was

the system of land control that prevailed in Travancore that facilitated the

evolution and survival of the Nayar Militia.22

The Nayars assisted the Nambudiri land Lords in the

collection of revenue. They helped the minor rulers in their innumerable

battles for supremacy. The social customs which buttressed the supremacy

of the Brahmins were enforced by the Nayar Militia.

Nayar Militia and Nayar Nobility

The Nayars willingly dedicated their lives to the Maharaja and

the country. By long standing customs the Nayars served as soldiers and

protected the country. The Nayar battalion was very brave and noted for its

service and sacrifice. In fact, the military forces were the products of socio

political environments. Evidently in all organized societies, there were

organized groups to discharge the duty of defending the state and thereby

____________________________________________________________

22. Krishnan Nadar, G., 1983, Nayar Militia in Travancore from 1729 - 1835,

Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala, p.12.

106

protecting the subjects. Occasionally some of these tasks were performed

by professional classes of fighting men organized into the regular standing

army of the state. Apparently such professional organizations represented

an advanced stage of feudal paraphernalia in the state of Travancore which

in turn set off an impounding impact upon the social life of South

Travancore.23

Nayars fell as the first victim to the cultural imperialism of the

Brahmins in Travancore. From the 12th

century onwards, the Numbudiries

as monopolists of wealth, power, education and drive established their

predominance and became more powerful than the ruling sovereigns. The

Nambudiries probably wanted soldiers and mistresses and therefore

instituted the Nayar caste.24

Subsequently the Nambudiri Jenmis had

become powerful and the Nayars emerged to be suicide squads. It helped

the inauguration of perfect Brahminocracy in Travancore with the solemn

support of the Nayar community. In South Travancore, the Nayars as

madampimars enjoyed vast land control and emerged as the chief

Kudiyans on marayapattam regulation.

The dawn of 11th

century witnessed the birth of Nayar

militia.25

The arrival of the Brahmins contributed to the formation of this

____________________________________________________________

23. Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai, op.cit., p. 346.

24. Ibid., p. 347.

25. The Nayar Brigade of Travancore, The Government Press, Madras, 1898, p. 25.

107

feudal military organization. Further the rise of Nambudiri Brahmin to

power and predominance paved the way for the on-set of feudalism in

Travancore. Consequently the style of standing armies disappeared and the

feudal military organization called Nayar militia came into existence.

Even though the Nayars were Sudras in social hierarchy they were granted

a privileged social status. Intending to exploit the Nayars, the Brahmins

accorded them military service.26

By the Hindu customs, originally the function of military

service was assigned to the Kshatriyas.27

This strange position of Nayar

Sudras of Travancore made them to concentrate on war like activities.

George Wood Cock thinks that the Nayars were the feudal land holders

locally called Sudras but performing functions of Kshtriyas.28

Protecting

the land, and its people being the fundamental duty of the king, the Nayars

were raised to the rank of Kshtriyas by the Brahmins. Hence the pre-

eminence of Nayars in their military services increased their political

authority and social status. No wonder the Nayar militia became an

emerging force in the socio-political culture of the state of Travancore.29

The famous chaver army was believed to have been formed

during the chola-chera war. The distinct feature of the army was lost in the

____________________________________________________________

26. Elamkulam P.N. Kunjan Pillai, op.cit., p. 295.

27. Padmanabha Menon, K.P., History of Kerala, Vol. Ill, Trivandrum, 1924, p. 264.

28. Wood Cock George, Kerala, London, 1967, p. 60.

29. Padmanabha Menon, K.P, op.cit., p. 230.

108

end of the eleventh century A. D. when it was converted into the Nayar

militia. When feudalism came into existence in Kerala the Nayar militia

emerged as an offshoot of this feudalism.30

The Nayar militia was evidently a socio-economic cum

military organization. The feudal military organization of the Nayars

emerged out of the socio-economic conditions created by the Brahmins

from the 8th

century A. D. onwards. The equalitarian society which

prevailed before the 8th

century A. D. disappeared and society became

authoritarian in character and maintained distinction based on birth . Upto

9th

century, the Nayars were called as 'The Nagas'. Therefore the original

Nayars were undoubtly a military body, holding land and performing

service as a militia. The Sudras became a combination of the hereditary

military class called Nayars and the non-military class are non-Nayars.31

The Nayar militia as a feudal military organization appeared with the

emergence of land lordism in the state. Village republics were created

because of the rise of Nayar taravads. For the management of military the

country was divided into Desams under the Desa vizhis.32

There was a

functional connection between the Nayar military organization and their

kinship and marriage system. The military organization shaped the

____________________________________________________________

30. Wood Cock George, op.cit., p. 60.

31. Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India., Vol. V, Madras, 1909,

pp. 152-154.

32. Nambudiripad, E.M., Sankaran, Kerala, the Mother Land of the Malayalis,

Trichur, 1966, p. 56.

109

marriage system of the Nayars and the disbanding of the Nayar armies

during the reign of Marthandavarma, led to the eventual collapse of their

marriage system of talirite. The joint family system as well as taravad and

the emergence of the stable homogenous union brought back Nayars

permanently to their homes. Never again such mechanism developed after

the armies were disbanded". Never again it was heard that, "the Nayars

were born to die for the Nambudiries.33

Thus the socio-economic factors

favoured the origin of Nayar militia. The system continued to exist for

many centuries and finally its collapse became inevitable due to the

disappearance of the old socio-economic order. Conspicuously the

European influence and the modernization efforts of the ruling sovereigns

of Travancore brought about sweeping waves of socio-economic changes

that altogether challenged the traditional systems.

Rule of Marthanda Varma

Until the time of Marthanda Varma, the king depended upon

the Nayar militia of the land. Seeking alternative method of defense

system, Marthanda Varma organized a permanent force as a supplement to

the Nayar militia.34

The traditional system of warfare underwent

tremendous change through out the 17th

and 18th

centuries. The internal

____________________________________________________________

33. Fuller, C.J., Nayars Today, University Press, Cambridge, 1976, p. 251.

34. Elamkulam P.N. Kunjan Pillai, op.cit., p. 325.

110

stability of the Travancore Kingdom and its subsequent military weakness

provided opportunities for the rulers of Madurai and other eastern

neighbours to send maruding marava troops.35

The predominance of European powers like the Dutch and

English also offered threats to the authority of the monarch. Therefore it

was necessary to sub-due the feudal barons, who were the chieftains of

the traditional militia and they safeguarded the independence and integrity

of the Kingdom. It was necessary to take urgent measures when

Marthanda Varma came to power in 1729. His ambition was also to

recover the territories which were once controlled by the Venad rulers.

There was no organized, equipped, trained and disciplined standing army.

He inherited the command over the feudal army which adopted traditional

methods of warfare. More over the Kings authority was very weak and

they had neither financial resources nor man power to create a standing

army because of the influence of the feudal barons and their control over

the land.36

It was under such circumstances that Marthanda Varma decided

to set aside the traditional chiefs of warfare by stages.

The soldiers of new militia used traditional weapons since

there was no revolutionary change effected in the art of warfare Marthanda

____________________________________________________________

35. Velupillai, T.K., op.cit., Vol. IV, p. 127.

36. Nagam Aiya, V., op.cit., Vol. I, p. 334.

111

Varma persumed that the militia was organized in the traditional manner

and that the methods of warfare also were primitive in character.37

Hence

during his reign efficient arrangements were made for the manufacture

of fire arms, swords and guns. The great bulk of army was composed of

Nayar soldier who employed a unique reputation for great military

qualities. After his accession to the throne Marthanda Varma appointed

Kumaraswamy Pillai as commander-in-chief with Thanu Pillai as his

assistance. They formed the army by enrolment of the sons of the soil in

large numbers. The soldiers were supplied with better arms and strict

discipline was enforced. A better sense of loyalty and obedience was

inculcated among different ranks and files of the army segments.

In 1780, the Travancore army consisted of 50,000 men, well

trained by European officers. The state had also at its disposal the service

of 10,000 Nayars and chegos armed with bows, arrows, spears, swords

and battle axis. There were cantonments in different parts of the kingdom.

The soldiers marched up and down the country to enforce the collection of

taxes and to preserve peace and tranquility. The army was paid partly in

money and partly in kind and thus it was feudalized.38

In the militia there were also musketeers who were infantry

soldiers. They took a very sure aim to fire and the first shot generally hit

____________________________________________________________

37. Ibid.

38. Velu Pillai, T. K., op.cit., Vol. IV, p. 122.

112

and inflicted great mischief. The Travancore infantry was always effective.

There were draft elephants but not much of cavalry.39

In 1734, Quilon and

Kayamkulam were attacked by the Maharaja's forces under the joint

command of Kumaraswamy Pillay40

, Thanu Pillai41

and Ramayyan.42

At

this time, the Travancore army was strengthened with the addition of

cavalry and infantry. Furthermore new fire arms were obtained from the

English merchants trading at Anjengo and Edava . Thus at the time when

the Dutch advanced into South Travancore between Colachel and Kottar,

The Travancore army consisted of infantry, artillery, musketeers, elephants

and cavalry, and the cavalry was commanded by Rama lyen Dalavai. In

spite of the fact that there were few fire arms purchased from the

English, the army was not even partly European but mainly native in

character. The native army which was powerful enough to defeat the

European army met at Colachel on 10 August 1741. Marthanda Varma did

not forget to strengthen the infantry stationed in South Travancore by the

____________________________________________________________

39. Churchill's collection of Voyages and Travels, Vol.II, Letters from Malabar,

pp. 235-236.

40. Pappu Tambi and Raman Tambi rose for the throne in 1730. The insurrection

proved the immediate necessity for taking measure to strengthen the position of

the Maharaja. So Marthanda Varma appointed Kumaraswami Pillai as

commander in chief.

41. Thanu Pillai was the Dalava of Travancore during the period between the death of

Arumugam Pillai in 1736 and the appointment of Ramayyan as Dalava in 1737.

42. Ramayyan was the Dalawa of Travancore (1737 - 1757).

113

addition of new Nayar soldiers.43

The timely reorganizations brought

by Marthanda Varma to his army and the martial quality of Travancore

helped him to win battle after battle including the battle of Colachel. The

war with the Dutch revealed him the superiority of the trained infantry

over the feudal levies when the country grew in size in consequent to

conquests.44

Marthanda Varma was wise enough to realize the necessity of

keeping men in a permanent military service to ensure safety and peace in

the conquered provinces He also realised that the time was most suitable

for the adoption of European warfare. In order to ensure victory, Hyder

Ali and Nizam of Hyderabad had employed European generals. A squad of

600 men of Travancore army were defeated at Quilon by the Dutch and

were forced to retreat in 1742.45

This incident caused agony to Marthanda

Varma and he was fully convinced of the fact that a drained and

disciplined standing army on the European model was the need of the hour.

The European weapons became inevitable for the safety of the country.

Marthanda Varma decided to create the standing army under

the guidance and instruction of Delanoy, one of the prisoners captured in

____________________________________________________________

43. Velu Pillai, T.K., op.cit., Vol. IV, p. 343.

44. Selections from the Record of Madras Government, Nayar Brigade of

Travancore, pp. 24 - 27.

45. Velu Pillai, T.K., op.cit., Vol. IV., p. 25.

114

the battle of Colachel.46

Thus for the first time in the history of Travancore

standing army trained on the European model came into existence.

Marthanda Varma appointed captain Delanoy as captain in his highness

service. In order to modernize the army he recruited the sons of the soil in

the country like Nayars, Nadars, Ezhavas and Christians. The conquests of

Marthanda Varma were made with the help of armies composed of his own

subjects. The Matilakom records also prove that the army of Marthanda -

Varma consisted on mainly of his own subjects.47

The best of the soldiers

were Kunchukuttakkar who were picked Nayars.48

Ettuveettil Pillamars

With a view to obtain better loyalty and services, new class of

nobility was created in the place of the old nobility of the eight houses of

Nayars. They were not at all the feudal barons of the country like the Ettu

Vittil Pillamars. He thought that the Chief Military Commanders should

be the natives of the land and thus Delanoy was not made the first in

command.49

Thus by creating new nobility called Annavis and by making

them great men of his kingdom and also by recruiting all other classes of

people into the standing army, he took the first step towards the destruction

____________________________________________________________

46. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 26.

47. Shangoonny Menon, P., op.cit., p.141.

48. Annavi is a tittle of honour given by Marthanda Varma to the new nobility he

created when the cost of support of the old nobility of the Pillamar was high.

Velu Pillai, T.K., op.cit., Vol. IV., p.240.

49. Nagam Aiya, V., op.cit., Vol. II, p. 334.

115

of the traditional feudal army of the Nayar nobility. This first step was

the beginning of the decline of Nayar dominance.

In October, 1744, the King of Travancore received 150 arms

from the Anjengo Government.50

And in December 1744 Travancore

Maharaja received from English 200 small arms.51

Agreements were made

between the company's authorities at Anjengo and the Maharaja for the

ready procuring of gun powder flints, arms and ammunition and

accordingly in 1744 the King of Travancore was supplied with 30 barrels

of gun powder and 2000 flints.

Year after year in accordance with the need of the time arms

and ammunition were supplied to the Maharaja in exchange for pepper.

This regular flow of European weapons helped to Europeanise the army

under the guidance of Delanoy. Then Delanoy made everything that was

required for the defence of the country and brought into the service. The

army consisted of 72 battalians of 200 men.52

Role of Captain Delanoy

Captain Delanoy divided the entire Travancore into three

forces, Eastern, Western and Southern and over these he distributed the

whole army in due proportion. The head quarters of the army remained

at Pooliyurkurichi and the captain Delanoy resided there. All reports were

____________________________________________________________

50. Records of Fort St. George, Anjengo Consultations, Vol. 1, p. 21.

51. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 38.

52. Velu Pillai, T.K., op.cit., Vol. II, p. 343.

116

made to his highness through the native head commandant called Valia

yejamanan. The chief commandants were at Padmanabhapuram,

Trivandrum and Quilon. The trained army was divided into three

categories, infantry, cavalry and artillary. Besides these divisions of the

army, there was also the traditional militia.53

During the time of Marthanda Varma there were two kinds of

armies existed in Travancore. That was regular army and irregular army.

The regular army was the national army of the country trained in modern

methods of warfare and the irregular army followed the old systems of

warfare. But greater importance was given to the irregular army.

Marthanda Varma maintained the irregular army also. In order to reduce

the traditional weapons they utilized men power and colourise the

battatian. Most of the soldiers in the regular army were the Nayars.54

This

helped the Nayars to maintain their military superiority but this supremacy

of the Nayar chieftains or feudal chieftains found a decline in phases.

Descendancy

Hence the decline of the dominance of the Nayars started in

the reign of Marthanda Varma. The rain of feudal system of society began

with the decline of the traditional military power of the Nayar chieftain.55

____________________________________________________________

53. Ibid.

54. According to Menon, Marthandva Varmas army consisted of 50,000 trained troops

of all branches, such as infantry, cavalry, artillery and irregular troops trained and

disciplined.

55. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline of Nayar Dominance, Society and Politics in

Travancore 1847-1908, New Delhi, 1976, p. 3.

117

As a part of the economic reforms, Marthanda Varma

inaugurated modernization works in the army organization of the state. In

fact the reorganization of the army brought about changes in socio-

economic structure of the society of Travancore. The social privileges of

the Nayars as a military class ended and consequently their position in the

society began to decline. Besides, martial spirit of the Nayar nobles also

declined.56

Before the time of Marthanda Varma the strength of the king

depended mainly on his Nayar force. The Nayar soldiers were directly

under the Naduvazhis,57

who were the military chiefs of the provinces.

The reorganization of army disintegrated the feudal social structure. In the

new army, there was no place for feudal barons who had been the

madambimars58

and heads of militia in their respective districts. The

lands of the feudal lords like Ettu Vittil Pillamar were already confiscated

and all Chieftains now had to pay taxes to the government. Thus their age

old economic privileges, as lords of the land as well as the exemption from

taxation, that they enjoyed centuries together came to an end and started

a status of ordinary citizens. William Logan believes that the Nayars

____________________________________________________________

56. Logan, W., op.cit., Vol.I, p. 492.

57. Naduvazhi, a territory made up of a number of desams is called nadu, ruler of

desams is called naduvazhi.

58. In South Travancore the land was divided into 4 categories. The last category

was "Lands of madampimars".

118

occupied so unique and so lasting a position that "but for foreign

intervention there seems to be no reason why it should not have continued

for centuries to come".59

According so George Wood Cock the day of the Nayar as a

fundamental warrier came to an end on the battle field of Ambalapuzha.

The battle of Ambalapuzha on 3 January 1754 was the last fight in the

international style in which the soldiers of Ambalapuzha fought in the old

style against Marthanda Varma's men who fought in the modern style.60

No community in Southern Kerala was more affected by

Marthanda Varma's campaigns and policies than the Nayars.61

The Nayars

were much affected by the reorganization of the army which was effected

under the western influence. The foreign influence was an essential factor

that resulted in the consequent reorganization of the army which

challenged the old feudal system and caused its disappearance. When the

standing army was created the traditional militia became unnecessary and

it existed as an irregular army. The decline of the importance of militia

threw off the Nayars to seek some other occupation for which they had no

previous training. About 1757, 30,000 Nayars in the Nayar Brigade,

____________________________________________________________

59. Logan, W., op.cit., Vol. I, p. 492.

60. George Wood Cock, op.cit, p. 173.

61. Fuller C.J., op.cit., p. 42.

119

(10,000 troops regular and 20,000 troops were irregular Intantry).62

"This

was the fate of Nayars in the conquered countries too, because Marthanda

Varma ended the military career of all the Nayars by demolishing the army

of the conquered chiefs.63

Marthanda Varma also destroyed the feudalism in the

conquered countries by annexing the lands of the chief of the conquered

territories. "He annexed the lands of the former chiefs to his new state.

Many of the chiefs were probably Nayars themselves and the

principal source of their economic power and Marthanda Varma's action

more or less destroyed it.64

The land holders had to pay taxes to the

government and to the Nayar aristocracy. Thus deprived of military and

political power, but they maintained their old traditions and its dignify.

The reorganization of the state ruined the social, economic, political and

military privileges of the Nayars. The 2nd

half of 18th

century witnessed

the political pre-dominance of the Nayars.65

The revolutionary agrarian reforms introduced by Marthanda

Varma transformed the Nayars into a class of Jenmies and Viruthikaars.

The land administration in Travancore was aristocratic in character. The

____________________________________________________________

62. The Nayar Brigade of Tranvancore, Government Press, Madras, 1898, p. 27.

63. Fuller, C.J., op.cit., p. 42.

64. Ibid.

65. Panikkar, K.M, op.cit., p. 408.

120

private property in land owned by Brahmins, Devaswoms, local chieftains

and nobles had been distinguished by the word 'Jenmom'.66

Among the

four categories of Jenmon lands the last category was lands of

madampimars.67

However such Jenmon lands enjoyed by the madampies

lapsed to the state during the reign of Marthanda Varma. In the new

reform Regulations, the Sirkar lands or 'Pandaravagai' were assigned to the

tenants, primarily Nayars. This made the government as the landlord and

extended the Jenmon right to the Nayars.68

The Brahmaswom and Devaswom land tenures were entirely

free-hold and exempted from payment of revenue to the government as

long as they remained unalienated. The Brahmin Jenmies who possessed

large areas of land employed tenants from Nayar community for the

purpose of cultivating the land. The Brahmins referred primarily Nayar

tenants because they believed that the Nayars were brought by Parasurama

to serve them.69

Thus the Nayars became a communal body of tenant and

the Bragmin Jenmies entered into various agreements with them. The

____________________________________________________________

66. The Travancore Land Revenue Manual, Vol. III, p. 24.

67. English Records, Travancore Government, Trivandrum, Legislation, File.No.342,

Dewan Sashia Sastri's Administration Report for 1048 and 1049 M.E., Para.204.

68. Ibid., Cover File. No. 1260, Kunjhiraman Nair's 'Memo on Land Tenures'

Para. 46.

69. Ibid., File. No. 276, 'Ramiengar's settlement memorandum' Para. 53.

121

documents executed between the jenmies and the tenants clearly expressed

the rights and power of land-owners over the Nayar tenants.70

Later on the

Jenmies collected a security from the tenants and inaugurated

Kanapattom. Such contracts between the Jenmies and tenants came to be

known as Marayapattom in South Travancore.71

Such arrangements of

land control reduced the Nayars as Kudiyans.72

Further Marthanda Varma's Policy of annexation and

encouragement led to the emergence of the viruthi73

system in the land of

Travancore. In order to serve the non-malayalee Brahmins, a certain

tenure called 'viruthi tenure' was introduced.74

The Brahmin Prime-

minister of Travancore Ramayyan Dalawa (1736-1756) inaugurating this

viruthi tenure established 21000 tenants chiefly from Nayars.75

As

viruthikaars the Nayars employed slaves and other depressed communities

in their viruthi lands and feudalized the society.

The relation between the Jenmies and viruthi-holders

deteriorated similar to that of Jenmi-kudiyans tenure. Evidently the land

____________________________________________________________

70. Ibid., p.7.

71. Ibid., Cover file No. 1260, Kunjhiraman Nair's Memo on Land Tenures, Para.13.

72. Kudiyans were the tenants who occupied the lands of the Jenmies on either

Kanapattom or Marayapattom.

73. Viruthi is derived from the word 'vritti', means service.

74. Ward and Conner, op.cit., p.137.

75. English Records, Trivandrum, Cover File No. 1920, p.19.

122

reforms introduced by Martanda Varma reduced the Nayar Community to

the status of ryots rather than military chieftains. The crippled

madampimars came to occupy the social status as landed aristocrats or

nobles and thereby commanded vast system of untouchability and social

apartheid. Being exploited by both the malayali and non-malayali.

Brahmins the Nayars of South Travancore feudalized the society and acted

as executors of the creed of Brahminocracy.

In the second half of the 18th

century ―a grave political crisis

had gathered momentum, which threatened to annihilate the independent

existence of all local kingdom of South India and Travancore shared in all

the turmoils‖.76

When the fall of the Nayak power was visible the Nawab

of Arcot in 1740 deployed troops under Sabdar Alikhan and Chanda Saheb

to attack the Travancore territory.77

The Arcot forces entered Nanjilnad

and caused huge havoc and extensive damage in places like Kottaram,

Ethankad, Suchindrum, Kottar, Vadasery, Tirupathisaram and

Vimanasseri. Martanda Varma 1729-58, the Travancore ruler deputed his

general Ramayyan Dalaway to negotiate a settlement with Chanda Saheb.

Having succeeded in his mission Chanda Saheb withdraw from Nanjilnad

on receipt of rich gifts. The sporadic attacks of the Nawab again sparked

____________________________________________________________

76. Sobhanan, B., Ramavarma of Travancore, Cover Page, Sandhya, 1977.

77. Nelson, J.H., The Madura country A Manual, Madras, 1868, p. 256.

123

out when Yusufkhan an able general popularly known as khan Saheb,

the Governor of Madurai attacked the columns of Travancore on

14 November 1762.

Within a short period the forces of Travancore marched

towards Aramboly and fought ten bloody encounters with the Nawab‘s

army.78

The invaders educated their posts and retreated in humiliation.

Khan Saheb pursued the retreating army up to Neyyattinkara, where the

Raja made entreaties for peace. In the course of the raids khan Saheb

captured Aramboly, plundered South Travancore, set fire to the villages

and temple chariots and cut off the noses of the prisoners of war. By a

treaty signed on 21 February 1763 both the chiefs agreed on peace and

to render mutual assistance against any external aggression upon their

respective territories. The subsequent course of fierce political conflict

was brought to an end with a settlement reached on 14 December 1766.

Accordingly the Nawab recognized the Western Ghats as his boundary and

accepted to cede Kanyakumari and Shencottah to Travancore.79

The Raja

reciprocated by giving up his claims on Kalakad. In spite of the political

misfortune of the Travancroe king, Cape Comorin again got integrated

with Travancore and become the southern limit of the Travancore kings.80

____________________________________________________________

78. Rajayyan, K., History of Tamilnadu 1565-1982, Madurai, 1982, p.129.

79. Ibid., pp. 356-367.

80. Kareem C.K., Kerala under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan, Cochin, 1973, p. 120.

124

In the triangle of political struggle between the Mysore

sultans, the Nawabs of Carnatic and the English East Inida company for

the mastery of South India, the role played by Ramavarma significantly

helped the English East Inida company to consolidate their power in South

India. With the death of Hyder Ali in 1782, his mission of annexing

Nanjilnad was continued by his son Tipu Sultan (1782-1789).81

As the

Sultan of Mysore adopted an aggressive attitude towards Travancore,

Rama Varma entered into subsidiary alliance with the English Inida

Company in 1788, by which the company sent a subsidiary force of two

battalions at a cost of 1755 Pagodas (about 650 pounds) a month each to be

paid by cash or in pepper. Agitated at the Travancore support to English

during the third Mysore was (1790-92) Tipu attacked Nanjilnad in 1790. It

was a cruel looting and was marked by indiscriminate destruction and

forceful coversion. But throughout the fighting between Mysore and

Travancore, the subsidiary force ―remained as passive spectators of all

these disasters and depredations telling that they received no orders from

Madras government to take part in war‖. The Anglo Nawab encounter

ended with the surrender of Tipu and Treaty of Srirengaptnem that

acclaimed British Paramountcy over Travancore region.82

____________________________________________________________

81. Hunter, W.W., The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol. IX, p. 115.

82. Buchanan, A., Journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara

and Malabar, Vo. II, New Delhi, 1988, p. 131.

125

When political conflicts pervaded through out the country the

alien powers attempted to make it their home and especially British made

their presence felt in the political and commercial fields. The feuds among

the native princes and the weaker postures of the fellow foreigners

established the English preponderance in the political affairs of

Travancore.83

The administration of Martanda Varma inaugurated a period

of its independence on the English. Dr. B. Sobhanan writes ―Travancore

emerged as the mightiest Kingdom on the Malabar coast and it became one

of primier states in South Inida as a result of the vigorous policies pursued

by Martanda Varma.84

Consequently political developments in Travancore

forced the subsequent rulers to accept the directions of the English

overlord, actually the Resident. Confirming the treaty of Srirengapatnam

the company entered into a second treaty with Travancore on 25

September 1795. Accordingly Travancore agreed not to enter into relation

with any European power without the consent of English Company.

Incorporating the principles of the subsidiary alliance system of Lord

Wellesly, the British signed with Raja Bala Ramavarma (1798-1810).85

Another fresh treaty on 12 January 1805, it reduced

Travancore hither to an equal ally to the position of a subordinate power.

Travancore agreed to station a permanent British army facing all the

____________________________________________________________

83. Shungoonny Menon, A., A History of Travancore, Madras, 1878, p. 176.

84. Kusuman, K.K., Slavery in Travancore, Madras, 1878, p. 44.

85. Sobhanan, B., Ramavarma of Travancore, Sandhya, 1977, p. 1.

126

incurred expenses and more over the company gained a right to appoint a

Resident to stay at Trivandrum. The Resident gradually transformed

himself from the status of a diplomatic agent representing a foreign power

into an executive and controlling officer of a superior government.86

In 1813 a son was born to Rani Lakshmi Bai who was

proclaimed the king and the Rani became the regent. In 1815 on her death

her sister Rani Parvathi Bai (1815-1829) became the regent.87

The

administration of the Travancore especially Rani‘s that of Umayamma

Rani and Rani Lakshmi Bai formed the most tragic epochs in the annals of

Travancore history. During the reign of Rani Lakshmi Bai (1810-1815)

Col. Munro held the joint office of the Resident and Dewan maintained

complete control over administration. He completely retired the Rani of

all cares and burdens of the state. To Rani Lakshmi Bai he became a

saviour who protected the state.88

Munro’s Contribution

When it was in serious peril, Munro too proved to be an able

administrator, social reformer and devout Christian. Rani Lakshmi Bai

introduced a new era of social progress and reforms in the state.89

She

granted freedom and civic equality to all irrespective of caste, creed and

____________________________________________________________

86. O.C. No. 292, political 25 September 1995, Palace Records. 87. Sobhanan, B., Dewan Velu Thampi and the British, Trivandrum, 1978, pp. 11-12.

88. Sankarankutty Nayar, T.P., Tragic Decade of Kerala History, Trivandrum, 1971, p.77.

89. Sobhanan, B., A Decade of crisis in Travancore, Journal of Kerala studies,

Vol.VI, March-June 1979, Part I and II, p. 422.

127

favoured the missionaries. The domestic turmoil compelled her to abdicate

the throne in favour of the prince Rama Varma who ascended the throne

with the name Swathi Thirunal (1829-1847).90

Swathi Thiunal was a scholar and a musician who undertaken

various development measures for the welfare of his people. His reign

ushered in an epoch of cultural progress and economic properity. After his

death in 1847) Uttram Thirmal Martanda Varma (1847-60) became the

king of Travancore and whose reign witnessed the intense agitation for the

right of upper cloth. This led to the intervention of the Madras government

for the settlement of the agitation and controversy, Uttram Thirunal who

died in 1860 was followed by Ayiliam Thirunal (1860-1880) and Visakam

Thirunal (1885-1924). Upto 1930 only Nayars allowed to serve in the

military of Travancore,91

Regent Sethu Lakshmi Bai (1924-1931) and Sri

Chitra Thirunal (1931-1948) respectively. The accession of Sri Chitra

Thirunal brought with it a change of outlook. With the attainment of

independence the princely state of Travancore was merged with the union.

In the independent era, the state was subject to linguistic State re-

organisation of 1956 and the erstwhile South Travancore became part of

Tamil Nadu as Kanyakumari District.92

____________________________________________________________

90. Agur, C.M., Church History of Travancore, Madras, 1903, p.566. 91. ―The Nayar Brigade of Travancore‖, Government Press, Madras, 1898, p. 121.

92. English Records, Trivandrum, C.S. File No.714, Memorandum on Travancore

Administration, 25 January 1929.

128

The militia was thus an essential part of the social system that

had prevailed until the middle of the 18th

century. The disappearance of

the old elite supremacy and the increasing influence of the militia as a

political factor characterised this period of decline.

However it must be an over-simplification to say that the

absolute decline of the militia merely due to the growth of royal power of

the Travancore government has not signed the subsidiary Alliance, the

militia might have been converted into a modern army and given a new

role. The alliance was virtually unavoidable owing to factors already

described. The futility of reliance on the militia for the defence of the state

was realised by the rulers long before the crisis of 1789. But these fears

were proved quite correct by the rout of the Travancorean army early next

year. The result was the closer alliance between the state and the English

East Indian Company. The treaty of 1795 impose a heavy burden on the

finances of the kingdom. The necessity to maintain battalions of the

English Company‘s forces brought into question the rationale of

maintaining a large native army. Any expansionist ambition was preluded

because the ultimate responsibility for the defence of the state rested with

the company. It is against this background that we have to view the revolts

of the Nair militia in 1798 and 1804. The dissolution of some of their

units was an inevitable consequence of the changed situation which had

129

made them largely irrelevant, for the defence of the state. In fact

historians have tended to under-estimate its importance in comparison with

the revolt of 1809. Naturally the social prestige and influence associated

with the military services also declined. Other communities especially the

old Syrian Christians and the new Christian converts who enjoyed British

Patronage gradually emerged to challenge the old elite.

Thus the transformation of political, social and economic

environments undermined the old elite. The final blow was the revolt of

1809 and the consequent supremacy of the British Resident over the

Government of Travancore. The Nayar military units increasingly

performed ceremonial functions and were reduced to mere parade forces.

It can be seen that the system was brought into the existence to fulfil a

particular need in a particular period. It is true that it fulfilled its role to a

great extent during the hay day of its existence.