methamphetamine: review of the problem igor koutsenok, md assistant professor of psychiatry...
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Methamphetamine: Methamphetamine:
Review of The ProblemReview of The Problem
Igor Koutsenok, MDIgor Koutsenok, MDAssistant Professor of PsychiatryAssistant Professor of PsychiatryUniversity of California San DiegoUniversity of California San Diego
Associate Director,Associate Director,Center for Criminality & Addiction Research, Training & ApplicationCenter for Criminality & Addiction Research, Training & Application
www.ccarta.ucsd.eduwww.ccarta.ucsd.edu
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• Powerfully addictive stimulant thatdramatically affects the central
nervous system
• Made easily in labs with OTC ingredients
What Is Methamphetamine?What Is Methamphetamine?
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The active ingredient in making The active ingredient in making methamphetamine is ephedrine or methamphetamine is ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, commonly found in over pseudoephedrine, commonly found in over the counter cold remedies.the counter cold remedies.
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CH2CH
CH3
NH CH3
Methamphetamine
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Ephedrine and MethamphetamineEphedrine and Methamphetamine
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Forms of MethamphetamineForms of Methamphetamine
Methamphetamine PowderMethamphetamine PowderIDU Description: Beige/yellowy/off-whiteIDU Description: Beige/yellowy/off-whitepowderpowder
Base / Paste MethamphetamineBase / Paste MethamphetamineIDU Description: ‘Oily’, ‘gunky’, ‘gluggy’ IDU Description: ‘Oily’, ‘gunky’, ‘gluggy’ gel,moist, waxygel,moist, waxy
Crystalline MethamphetamineCrystalline MethamphetamineIDU Description: White/clearIDU Description: White/clearcrystals/rocks; ‘crushed glass’ / ‘rock salt’crystals/rocks; ‘crushed glass’ / ‘rock salt’
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SpeedSpeed
Methamphetamine powder ranging in color from white, Methamphetamine powder ranging in color from white, yellow, orange, pink, or brown. yellow, orange, pink, or brown.
Color variations are due to differences in chemicals Color variations are due to differences in chemicals used to produce it and the expertise of the cooker. used to produce it and the expertise of the cooker.
Other names: shabu, crystal, crystal meth, crank, tina, Other names: shabu, crystal, crystal meth, crank, tina, yabayaba
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IceIce
High purity High purity methamphetamine methamphetamine crystals or coarse crystals or coarse powder ranging from powder ranging from translucent to whitetranslucent to white
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Methamphetamine Lab SeizuresMethamphetamine Lab SeizuresA small percentage of labs are labeled “Super Labs” and A small percentage of labs are labeled “Super Labs” and are capable of producing over 10 lbs per batch. are capable of producing over 10 lbs per batch.
Super Labs are operated by Mexican National Drug Super Labs are operated by Mexican National Drug Trafficking Organizations (MNDTO’s), and supply the Trafficking Organizations (MNDTO’s), and supply the majority of meth to the market.majority of meth to the market.
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Chemical IngredientsChemical Ingredients
Trichloroethane (Gun Scrubber)Trichloroethane (Gun Scrubber)EtherEther (Engine Starter)(Engine Starter)
TolueneToluene (Brake Cleaner)(Brake Cleaner)
MethanolMethanol (Gasoline Additive)(Gasoline Additive)
GasolineGasoline
KeroseneKerosene
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MethamphetaminesMethamphetaminesA Brief HistoryA Brief History
18871887
19191919
19321932
Amphetamine developedAmphetamine developed
Methamphetamine developedMethamphetamine developed
Amphetamine & Amphetamine & methamphetamine used as methamphetamine used as decongestantdecongestant
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MethamphetaminesMethamphetaminesA Brief HistoryA Brief History
WW II Extensive use by:WW II Extensive use by:
- Fighter pilots- Fighter pilots
- German Panzer troops- German Panzer troops
- Japanese workers - Japanese workers
- Kamikaze - Kamikaze
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MethamphetaminesMethamphetaminesA Post-War EpidemicA Post-War Epidemic
FACTORSFACTORS
Large quantitiesLarge quantities
Social disorganizationSocial disorganization
““Work pills”Work pills”
500,000 addicts500,000 addicts
JAPAN
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MethamphetaminesMethamphetaminesEpidemic in SwedenEpidemic in Sweden
FACTORS FACTORS
Large supplyLarge supply
3% are users3% are users
Preludin use Preludin use widespreadwidespread
Mostly oral useMostly oral use
SWEDEN
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MethamphetaminesMethamphetaminesFactors Related to EpidemicFactors Related to Epidemic
Over supplyOver supplyOpportunity to experienceOpportunity to experienceWidespread knowledgeWidespread knowledgeA reliable marketA reliable marketNo need for injections (in most No need for injections (in most cases)cases)Many “speed labs”Many “speed labs”
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Worldwide Trends of Worldwide Trends of Methamphetamine UseMethamphetamine Use
WHO 2005 data estimates 42 million meth WHO 2005 data estimates 42 million meth users worldwide; 15M- heroin; 12M- cocaineusers worldwide; 15M- heroin; 12M- cocaine
Areas of very heavy use: Thailand, Areas of very heavy use: Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia, SE Asia, Eastern Philippines, Indonesia, SE Asia, Eastern Europe, Russia, ChinaEurope, Russia, China
Areas of increasing use; Northern Mexico, Areas of increasing use; Northern Mexico, USA, Canada, South Africa, EuropeUSA, Canada, South Africa, Europe
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The Eastward Spread of The Eastward Spread of Methamphetamine EpidemicMethamphetamine Epidemic
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Total Number of Primary Total Number of Primary Methamphetamine Admissions:1998-2002Methamphetamine Admissions:1998-2002
0
2,000
4,0006,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,00016,000
18,000
20,000
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Nu
mb
er o
f A
dm
issi
on
s
SAMHSA, Treatment Episode Data Set: 1992-2002.
50% Increase
from 1998-2002
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Methamphetamine: A Growing Problem Methamphetamine: A Growing Problem in Rural Americain Rural America
In 1998, rural areas In 1998, rural areas nationwide reported nationwide reported 949 methamphetamine 949 methamphetamine labs. labs.
In 2003, 9,385 were In 2003, 9,385 were reported. reported.
Source: El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC), Source: El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC), U.S. DEAU.S. DEA, 2005, 2005
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Methamphetamine/Amphetamine TreatmentMethamphetamine/Amphetamine TreatmentAdmissions, by Route of Administration: Admissions, by Route of Administration:
1992-20021992-2002
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A Major Reason People Take Methamphetamines
is they Like
What It Does to Their Brains
A Major Reason People Take Methamphetamines
is they Like
What It Does to Their Brains
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Dopamine Pathways
Functions•reward (motivation)•pleasure,euphoria•motor function (fine tuning)•compulsion•perseveration
Serotonin Pathways
Functions•mood•memory processing•sleep•cognition
nucleusaccumbens
hippocampus
striatum
frontalcortex
substantianigra/VTA
raphe
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Methamphetamine: Neurochemical Methamphetamine: Neurochemical MechanismsMechanisms
Methamphetamine enters the brain through Methamphetamine enters the brain through dopamine transporters dopamine transporters
Enters dopamine vesicles Enters dopamine vesicles
Vesicles deplete themselves of dopamineVesicles deplete themselves of dopamine
Free-floating DA produces “free radicals” Free-floating DA produces “free radicals” (neurotoxins). (neurotoxins).
The synapse is flooded with dopamine, The synapse is flooded with dopamine, producing a profound sense of pleasure producing a profound sense of pleasure
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00
5050
100100
150150
200200
00 6060 120120 180180
Time (min)Time (min)
% o
f B
asal
DA
Ou
tpu
t%
of
Bas
al D
A O
utp
ut
EmptyEmpty
BoxBox FeedingFeeding
Source: Di Chiara et al.Source: Di Chiara et al.
FOODFOOD
100100
150150
200200
DA
Co
nce
ntr
ati
on
(%
Bas
elin
e)D
A C
on
cen
tra
tio
n (
% B
asel
ine)
MountsMountsIntromissionsIntromissionsEjaculationsEjaculations
1515
00
55
1010
Co
pu
latio
n F
req
ue
nc
yC
op
ula
tion
Fre
qu
en
cy
SampleNumberSampleNumber
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 1010 1111 1212 1313 1414 1515 1616 1717
Female 1 PresentFemale 1 Present Female 2 PresentFemale 2 Present
Source: Fiorino and PhillipsSource: Fiorino and Phillips
SEXSEX
Natural Rewards Elevate Dopamine LevelsNatural Rewards Elevate Dopamine LevelsNatural Rewards Elevate Dopamine LevelsNatural Rewards Elevate Dopamine Levels
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00100100200200300300400400500500600600700700800800900900
1000100011001100
00 11 22 33 44 5 hr5 hr
Time After AmphetamineTime After Amphetamine
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
DADADOPACDOPACHVAHVA
AccumbensAccumbens AMPHETAMINEAMPHETAMINE
00
100100
200200
300300
400400
00 11 22 33 44 5 hr5 hrTime After CocaineTime After Cocaine
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
DADADOPACDOPACHVAHVA
AccumbensAccumbensCOCAINECOCAINE
00
100100
150150
200200
250250
00 11 22 33 44 5hr5hrTime After MorphineTime After Morphine
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
AccumbensAccumbens
0.50.51.01.02.52.51010
Dose (mg/kg)Dose (mg/kg)
MORPHINEMORPHINE
00
100100
150150
200200
250250
00 11 22 3 hr3 hr
Time After NicotineTime After Nicotine
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
% o
f B
as
al
Re
lea
se
AccumbensAccumbensCaudateCaudate
NICOTINENICOTINE
Source: Di Chiara and Imperato, 2004Source: Di Chiara and Imperato, 2004
Effects of Drugs on Dopamine LevelsEffects of Drugs on Dopamine LevelsEffects of Drugs on Dopamine LevelsEffects of Drugs on Dopamine Levels
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Dopamine Reward Pathway Activation
without drugs
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The brains of people addicted to methamphetamine
are
different than those of non-
addicts
Methamphetamine Addiction
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Axon
Neurotransmitter
Synapse
Dendrite
Receptors
Reuptake
МАО
Signal
storage
G-protein
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Prolonged Drug Prolonged Drug Use Changes the Use Changes the
Brain In Brain In Fundamental and Fundamental and
Long-Lasting WaysLong-Lasting Ways
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Comparison Subject METH userComparison Subject METH user
Dopamine Transporter Loss After Heavy Methamphetamine Use
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Partial Recovery of Brain DopaminePartial Recovery of Brain DopamineTransporters in Methamphetamine Abuser Transporters in Methamphetamine Abuser
After Protracted AbstinenceAfter Protracted Abstinence
Normal control Meth abuser Meth abuser
(1 month detox) (24 month in recovery
Volkow, ND, Journal of Neurscience, 21, 2001
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MethamphetamineMethamphetamine
Cognitive Cognitive
and and
Memory EffectsMemory Effects
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Executive Systems FunctioningExecutive Systems Functioning
Deficits on executive tasks associated with:Deficits on executive tasks associated with:
– Poor judgment.Poor judgment.– Lack of insight.Lack of insight.– Poor strategy formation.Poor strategy formation.– Impulsivity.Impulsivity.– Reduced capacity to determine consequences Reduced capacity to determine consequences
of actions.of actions.
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Reasons for Meth UseReasons for Meth Use
Reasons for using meth were wide-ranging:Reasons for using meth were wide-ranging:– To get high (56%)To get high (56%)– To get more energy (37%)To get more energy (37%)– To cope with mood (34%)To cope with mood (34%)– To lose weight/feel more attractive (29%)To lose weight/feel more attractive (29%)– To party (28%)To party (28%)– To escape (27%)To escape (27%)– To enhance sexual pleasure (18%)To enhance sexual pleasure (18%)
Patterson and Semple (2003) Journal of Urban Health, 80: iii77-iii87
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Meth and WomenMeth and Women
Typical gender ratio of heroin users in Typical gender ratio of heroin users in treatment : treatment : 3 men to 1 woman3 men to 1 woman
Typical gender ratio of cocaine users in Typical gender ratio of cocaine users in treatment : treatment : 2 men to 1 woman2 men to 1 woman
Typical gender ratio of methamphetamine Typical gender ratio of methamphetamine users in treatment : users in treatment : 1 man to 1 woman *1 man to 1 woman *
**among large clinical research populationsamong large clinical research populations
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0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
to g
et h
igh
to e
scap
e
peer
pre
ssur
e
to re
lax
to s
tay
awak
e
to g
et m
ore
ener
gy
to e
xper
imen
t
* to
relie
ve d
epre
ssion
to re
place
ano
ther
dru
g
* to
work
mor
e ho
urs
to c
once
ntra
te b
ette
r
* to
lose
weig
ht
* p< .001
female male
Self-Reported Reasons for Starting Methamphetamine Use
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Methamphetamine and SexMethamphetamine and Sex
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My sexual My sexual drivedrive is increased by the is increased by the use of …use of …
18.1 20.5
43.9
70.6
55.3
11.1
85.3
55.6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% R
esp
ond
ing
"Y
es"
opiates alcohol cocaine meth
Primary Drug of Abuse
malefemale
(Rawson et al., 2002)
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My sexual My sexual pleasurepleasure is enhanced by is enhanced by the use of …the use of …
16.0 18.224.4
38.244.7
11.1
73.5 66.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% R
espo
ndin
g "Y
es"
opiates alcohol cocaine meth
Primary Drug of Abuse
malefemale
(Rawson et al., 2002)
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My sexual My sexual performanceperformance is improved is improved by the use of …by the use of …
19.115.9
24.432.4
18.411.1
58.8 61.1
0102030405060708090
100
% R
espo
ndin
g "Y
es"
opiates alcohol cocaine meth
Primary Drug of Abuse
malefemale
(Rawson et al., 2002)
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MethamphetamineMethamphetamine
IncarcerationIncarceration
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Methamph.
Cocaine
Other
Heroin
Alcohol
Marijuana
Primary Substance Reported Primary Substance Reported by California Inmatesby California Inmates
(N=22,903)(N=22,903)
6
11.5
15
17.4
21.5
28.8
Cartier J, Farabee D, Prendergast M. Cartier J, Farabee D, Prendergast M. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2006;21:435-445. 2006;21:435-445.
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Those who used MA (81.6%) were significantly Those who used MA (81.6%) were significantly more likely than those who did not use MA more likely than those who did not use MA (53.9%) to have been returned to custody for (53.9%) to have been returned to custody for any reason or to report committing any violent any reason or to report committing any violent acts in the 30 days prior to follow-up (23.6% vs. acts in the 30 days prior to follow-up (23.6% vs. 6.8%)6.8%)MA use is significantly predictive of violent crime MA use is significantly predictive of violent crime and general recidivismand general recidivismOffenders who use MA may differ significantly Offenders who use MA may differ significantly from their peers who do not use MA and may from their peers who do not use MA and may require more intensive treatment interventions require more intensive treatment interventions and parole supervision than other types of drug and parole supervision than other types of drug involved offendersinvolved offenders
Cartier J, Farabee D, Prendergast M. Cartier J, Farabee D, Prendergast M. Journal of Interpersonal Violence.Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2006;21:435-445.2006;21:435-445.
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A history of physical or sexual violence A history of physical or sexual violence (controlling for gender) is significantly (controlling for gender) is significantly related to meth use and a number of related to meth use and a number of
negative treatment outcomes. negative treatment outcomes.
These results suggest the importance These results suggest the importance of understanding client background of understanding client background factors before they enter treatment.factors before they enter treatment.
CSAT Methamphetamine Treatment Project 2003CSAT Methamphetamine Treatment Project 2003
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Drug Endangered Children in Drug Endangered Children in California: California:
Methamphetamine Use and Methamphetamine Use and ManufactureManufacture
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Children are Children are notnot small adults! small adults!
Different dietDifferent diet
Growing & developing rapidlyGrowing & developing rapidly
Higher metabolic & respiratory rateHigher metabolic & respiratory rate
Developing nervous systemDeveloping nervous system
Unusual habits (hand-to-mouth behaviors; Unusual habits (hand-to-mouth behaviors; close to floor, contact with many surfaces, at close to floor, contact with many surfaces, at risk for all poisonings)risk for all poisonings)
Biologic & developmental vulnerabilityBiologic & developmental vulnerability
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• Children who live in and Children who live in and around the area of the meth around the area of the meth lab become exposed to the lab become exposed to the drug and its toxic precursors drug and its toxic precursors and byproducts.and byproducts.
• Nationally, over 20% of the Nationally, over 20% of the seized meth labs in 2002 had seized meth labs in 2002 had children present. children present.
• 80-90% of children found in 80-90% of children found in homes where there are meth homes where there are meth labs test positive for exposure labs test positive for exposure to meth. Some are as young to meth. Some are as young as 19 months old.as 19 months old.
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ChildrenChildren
In 2002, a total of 142 children were In 2002, a total of 142 children were present at lab seizures in Riverside and present at lab seizures in Riverside and San Bernardino Counties. San Bernardino Counties.
Most children reported as being present Most children reported as being present during a seizure were school age.during a seizure were school age.
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Methamphetamine Methamphetamine TreatmentTreatment
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Treatment Effectiveness? Treatment Effectiveness?
Common rumors re treatment of Common rumors re treatment of clients with MA problems: clients with MA problems: – MA users are untreatable MA users are untreatable – Negligible recovery rates (5% to less than 1% Negligible recovery rates (5% to less than 1%
have been quoted in newspaper articles)have been quoted in newspaper articles)– The resulting conclusion is that spending The resulting conclusion is that spending
money on treating MA users is futile and money on treating MA users is futile and wasteful, wasteful,
– No data exists that supports these statisticsNo data exists that supports these statistics
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Limitations on Current TreatmentsLimitations on Current Treatments
Training of clinical personnel is essential to Training of clinical personnel is essential to successfully treat MA users.successfully treat MA users.
Training alone is insufficient if the funding Training alone is insufficient if the funding necessary to deliver effective treatment is not necessary to deliver effective treatment is not available.available.
Treatment funding that promote short duration or Treatment funding that promote short duration or non-intensive outpatient services are non-intensive outpatient services are inappropriate for providing adequate care for MA inappropriate for providing adequate care for MA users.users.
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MA Treatment IssuesMA Treatment Issues
Acute MA OverdoseAcute MA OverdoseAcute MA PsychosisAcute MA PsychosisMA “Withdrawal”MA “Withdrawal”Initiating MA AbstinenceInitiating MA AbstinenceMA Relapse PreventionMA Relapse PreventionProtracted Cognitive Impairment andProtracted Cognitive Impairment andSymptoms of ParanoiaSymptoms of Paranoia
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MA Acute WithdrawalMA Acute Withdrawal
DepressionDepressionParanoiaParanoiaFatigueFatigueCognitive ImpairmentCognitive ImpairmentAnxietyAnxietyAgitationAgitationAnergiaAnergiaConfusionConfusion
Duration: 2 Days - 2 WeeksDuration: 2 Days - 2 Weeks
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Psychiatric SymptomsPsychiatric Symptoms
Hallucinations are reported by one-third of MA Hallucinations are reported by one-third of MA users.users.
Majority of MA users entered treatment in a state Majority of MA users entered treatment in a state of severe depression.of severe depression.
Many are suicidal at treatment admissionMany are suicidal at treatment admission
Intense paranoid ideation are very common in MA Intense paranoid ideation are very common in MA users. users.
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MedicationsMedications
Currently, there are no medications that canCurrently, there are no medications that canquickly and safely reverse life threateningquickly and safely reverse life threateningMA overdose.MA overdose.
There are no medications that can reliablyThere are no medications that can reliablyreduce paranoia and psychotic symptoms,reduce paranoia and psychotic symptoms,that contribute to episodes of dangerousthat contribute to episodes of dangerousand violent behavior associated with MAand violent behavior associated with MAuse.use.
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Medication Research for Medication Research for Methamphetamine DependenceMethamphetamine Dependence
Negative ResultsNegative Results UnclearUnclearImipramineImipramine Gabapentin GabapentinDesipramineDesipramine Modafinil ModafinilTyrosineTyrosine Topirimate TopirimateOndansetronOndansetron Disulfiram DisulfiramFluoxetineFluoxetine Lobeline Lobeline
AripiprazoleAripiprazole
Promising EvidencePromising Evidence: Bupropion : Bupropion
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Bupropion: An effective Bupropion: An effective pharmacotherapy?pharmacotherapy?
Newton et al. 2005. Newton et al. 2005. – Bupropion reduces craving and reinforcing Bupropion reduces craving and reinforcing
effects of methamphetamineseffects of methamphetamines
Elkashef (recently completed) Elkashef (recently completed) – Bupropion reduces methamphetamine use in Bupropion reduces methamphetamine use in
an outpatient trial, with particularly strong an outpatient trial, with particularly strong effect with less severe users.effect with less severe users.
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Special treatment consideration should be Special treatment consideration should be made for the following groups made for the following groups ::
Individuals under the age of 21 Individuals under the age of 21 Female MA users (higher rates of depression; very Female MA users (higher rates of depression; very high rates of previous and present sexual and high rates of previous and present sexual and physical abuse; responsibilities for children).physical abuse; responsibilities for children).Injection MA users (very high rates of psychiatric Injection MA users (very high rates of psychiatric symptoms; severe withdrawal syndromes; high rates symptoms; severe withdrawal syndromes; high rates of hepatitis).of hepatitis).MA users who take MA daily or in very high doses.MA users who take MA daily or in very high doses.Homeless, chronically mentally ill and/or individuals Homeless, chronically mentally ill and/or individuals with high levels of psychiatric symptoms at with high levels of psychiatric symptoms at admission.admission.Gay men (at very high risk for HIV and hepatitis).Gay men (at very high risk for HIV and hepatitis).
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Treatments for Stimulant-use Disorders Treatments for Stimulant-use Disorders with Empirical Supportwith Empirical Support
Motivational Enhancement StrategiesMotivational Enhancement Strategies
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Community Reinforcement ApproachCommunity Reinforcement Approach
Contingency ManagementContingency Management
12 Step Groups12 Step Groups
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Treatment of MA-Use DisordersTreatment of MA-Use Disorders
No medications currently are available withNo medications currently are available withevidence of efficacyevidence of efficacy
Two approaches - Contingency Two approaches - Contingency Management and Cognitive Behavioral Management and Cognitive Behavioral Treatment have data to support efficacyTreatment have data to support efficacy
MA users appear to respond to otherMA users appear to respond to othertreatment interventions in rates comparable treatment interventions in rates comparable to other types of drug users.to other types of drug users.
MA users are responsive to treatmentMA users are responsive to treatment
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Contingency ManagementContingency Management
A technique employing the systematic delivery of A technique employing the systematic delivery of positive reinforcement for desired behaviors. In positive reinforcement for desired behaviors. In the treatment of methamphetamine dependence, the treatment of methamphetamine dependence, vouchers or prizes can be “earned” for vouchers or prizes can be “earned” for submission of methamphetamine-free urine submission of methamphetamine-free urine samplessamples..
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Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Contingency ManagementContingency Management
CM is an effective treatment for reducing CM is an effective treatment for reducing stimulant use and is superior during treatment to stimulant use and is superior during treatment to a CBT approach alone. a CBT approach alone. CM is useful in engaging substance abusers, CM is useful in engaging substance abusers, retaining them in treatment, and helping them retaining them in treatment, and helping them achieve abstinence from stimulant use. achieve abstinence from stimulant use. CBT also reduces drug use from baseline levels CBT also reduces drug use from baseline levels and produces comparable outcomes on all and produces comparable outcomes on all measures at follow-upmeasures at follow-up..
Rawson, RA et al. Addiction, Jan 2006, Rawson, RA et al. Addiction, Jan 2006,
Roll, JM et al, Archives of General Psychiatry, (In Press)Roll, JM et al, Archives of General Psychiatry, (In Press)
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SummarySummary
Methamphetamine is a significant publicMethamphetamine is a significant publichealth problem in the US and in the worldhealth problem in the US and in the world
It produces significant damage to the bodyIt produces significant damage to the bodyand the brainand the brain
Recovery from methamphetamineRecovery from methamphetaminedependence is possible and most braindependence is possible and most brainchanges are reversible.changes are reversible.
There are effective treatments forThere are effective treatments formethamphetamine dependence.methamphetamine dependence.
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If you have more questions…If you have more questions…
[email protected]@ucsd.edu
858/551 2946858/551 2946
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