Methodology in research(Philosophical approaches)

Ann Winter

Research

The aim of a research project is the researcher’s intention to find out something about a phenomenon in a particular way in order to answer the research question

Holloway I (1997) Basic concepts for interpretive research 1997 Blackwell Science. Oxford

Why discuss philosophy?

Helps to clarify research designs

Recognise which designs will work

Identify and create designs

Easterby-Smith M et al (2002) Management research SAGE. London

Early 19th & 20th C. European philosophical position- the social world exists externally, and that its properties should be measured through objective methods

Comte (1853) ‘….there can be no real knowledge but that which is based on observed facts’

Positivism is Comte’s

Implications

Systematic observation of facts World can only be known through

direct experience (empiricism) Science can solve mankind’s

problems Experimentation and manipulation

What positivism has come to mean

Positivism = quantitative - 1950’s Exemplified by the structure of journal

articles and research reports1. Hypothesis2. Method3. Data collection – numbers/stats4. Analysis5. Results

Activity

Consider the structure/layout of a research paper

Gain the following information:

1. Why was the study conducted

2. What exactly were the researchers investigating

3. How was this done

4. The conclusions drawn

Strengths and weaknesses of positivist research

Wide coverage of a range of situations Fast Economical Relevant to policy decisions – large

samples Inflexible Not effective at understanding

processes

Positivism and evidence based healthcare

A scientific approach to healthcare management

Consideration of evidence, values and resources in decision making

Ebh + quality management = maximum health benefit @ lowest cost & risk

Managed care/guidelines/pathways/protocols Introduce evidence hierarchy- strength of

evidence

Grading best evidence Originated Canadian task Force late 70’s RCT – considered to have highest internal validity and

reliability VALIDITY - the best available approximation to the truth

relationships, causal relationships and generalisation RELIABILITY- In research, the term reliability means

"repeatability" or "consistency". A measure is considered reliable if it would give us the same result over and over again – measured between 0 and 1…..0.5 = 50 % truth

Focus on effectiveness ie does it work? Differing grading systems Useful as a guide/framework

Classification of strengths of evidenceSIGN classification for grading evidence

1++ High-quality meta-analyses, systematic reviews of RCTs, or RCTs with a very low risk of bias

1+ Well-conducted meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or RCTs with a low risk of bias 1– Meta-analyses, systematic reviews, or RCTs with a high risk of bias 2++ High-quality systematic reviews of case-control or cohort studies High-quality case-control or cohort studies with a very low risk of confounding or bias and a high probability that the relationship is causal 2+ Well-conducted case-control or cohort studies with a low risk of confounding or bias and a moderate probability that the relationship is causal 2– Case-control or cohort studies with a high risk of confounding or bias and a significant

risk that the relationship is not causal 3 Non-analytic studies; for example, case reports, case series 4 Expert opinion

RCT: randomised controlled trial; SIGN: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network

http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/

Positivist research position on the hierarchy Meta analysis Systematic reviews RCT Cohort Case control

Alternatives to positivism

Interpretive (Habermas, 1970)

A group of approaches Reality is determined by people rather than

objective/external factors Appreciate different constructions and

meanings that people place on their experience

What individuals and people collectively are thinking & feeling

Habermas J (1970) Knowledge and interest in D.Emmet & A Mcintyre (eds) Sociological Theory and Philosophical Analysis London:Macmillan

Approaches to research on Stress

Interpretivist Aspects of work

considered stressful How people manage

stress Interview people

about stressful factors & gather stories of incidents

Data = text

Positivist Stress exists Measure stress on a

large sample Identify external

causes Data = numbers

Applications of interpretive research in health services Where it is important

to understand the meaning and interpretation of human social arrangements such as clinics, management and decision making

To convey to policy makers the experiences of individuals, groups or organisations who may be affected by policies

? Social marketing

Strengths and weaknesses of interpretivist research

Understand people’s meanings Contribute to new theories Natural data Time consuming Costly Data interpretation is difficult Untidy subjective

Matrix of research designs

DETACHED

INVOLVED

POSITIVIST INTERPRETIVIST

Case method

Ethnography

Grounded theory

Action research

Experimental

Survey

Postmodernism

Stresses plurality and diversity of values and beliefs

Relativism – mixed method Subjectivity Reflexivity Go across boundaries of art and science

perceptions of the world are achieved through representations and images rather than reality

Questioning and doubting of all methods

Research Pragmatism

Pragmatists consider the research question to be more important than either the method they use or the worldview that is supposed to underlie the method. Most good researchers prefer addressing their research questions with any methodological tool available

Tashakkori A and Teddlie C (1998) Mixed methodology: Combining interpretive and interpretive approaches. Thousand Oaks. California. Sage

Combinationist approach

Examine research questions most usefully answered by various research designs

Leininger (1985) systematic study of relative benefits of quantitative and interpretive methods

Filstead (1970) purposes and outcomes of each method need to be understood and used to advantage

Leininger M (1985) Qualitative methodology Chicago: MarkhamFilstead WJ (1970) Qualitative research methods in nursing Grune & Stratton: New York

Interpretive research as a complement to positivist research

As a preliminary to positivist research To supplement positivist work by

building a wider, deeper, richer picture To explore issues not accessible to

positivist research

Methods/types of non-numerical data collection Observation Interview Focus groups Consensus methods Document searches Case studies

Field notes Video tapes Interview transcripts Interview responses Other text

Bryman (1988) interpretive research can be used to facilitate positivist research

by acting as a precursor positivist research can facilitate interpretive to generalise

findings or to identify groups for in-depth analysis One method can address areas not covered by the other interpretive may facilitate interpretation of relationships between

variables Combining the 2 approaches can lead to a ‘macro’ and ‘micro’

study Allow both structure and process perspectives

Bryman A (1988) Quantity and Quality in social research London: Routledge

Methodological approaches to social science

Science largely constructed and practiced in 1 particular style

Alternative styles are possible Preferred ways of operating Fixed and flexible research design

Reason P (1981)Methodological approaches to social science in Human Inquiry,

Mitroff I & Kilmann R pp43-31

Typology

Preferred information input – internal/external

Information dimension

Preferred way of dealing with information

Decision making dimension

Information dimension

Sensation Information via senses Details Situation specifics Hard realistic facts Here and now The practical

Intuition Information through

imagination Interested in the

whole/gestalt Idealists Interested in

hypothetical possibilities What might be Creation of novel,

innovative viewpoints

Decision making dimension

ThinkingUse reasoning which is: Impersonal Formal Seek truth Interested in abstract

generalisations Theoretical Independent of human

needs and concerns Logical Generalises

Feeling

Interested in: Reaching personalistic

value-judgements which may be unique to the individual

They explain via empathy

Value things in human terms

Individuates

Analytical scientist – thinking & sensation

Certainty Accuracy Reliability Ability to phrase the components of an object,

event, person or situation in a precise, accurate and reliable way

Closer and closer to the ‘truth’ Hypothesis testing Controlled enquiry

Conceptual theorist-thinking & intuition Impersonal and theoretical Imaginative and speculative theory building Hypothesis discovering Exploring Ways of being interesting

hypotheses/theories Creating Inventing multiple representations Large scale differences Grounded theory

Particular Humanist –feeling & sensing

Passionate and personal knowledge Further the development of human growth

and awareness In-depth detailed rendering of the life space

of a single individual or social group Co -participant observation Committed involvement Help the person know himself Case study

Conceptual humanist-feeling & intuition Highly personal Imaginative Holistic Concerned with humanity Science is political Storytelling Maximum co-operation between researcher &

researched so they may both know themselves and one another

Ethnography

Research design

Ensure that the evidence obtained (via data collection strategies) enables us to answer the research question as unambiguously as possible

Given a research question what type of evidence is needed to answer the ? in a convincing way

Research questions

Level 1 when little is known about the topic. Purpose is to describe a situation/generate theory

Level 2 looking for relationships between >2 factors or variables

Level 3 test hypotheses

Brink PJ & Wood MJ 1994 Basic steps in planning nursing research: from question to proposal (4ed) Boston. Jones and Bartlett

Level 1 research questions

Positivist

Survey

Interpretivist

Phenomenological

The lived experience

Interview/narratives

Ethnographic

Description of a culture

Observation/interviewing/document analysis

Level 2/3 research questions

Positivist

Experimental

Hypothesis testing

Causal relationships

Interpretivist

Grounded theory

Clarity of purpose

Identify a narrow and precise area for investigation – focus attention on specific aspects

1. Enables readers to understand the research

2. Crucial for evaluating the research

3. Provides a platform from which to decide a suitable design