methodology3 classroom management

7/30/2019 Methodology3 Classroom Management

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Catedra de Limba si Literatura englezaMethodology IIB, 2009

3. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Any average person in this country can tell you what teaching is about: a teacherspeaking in front of a large number of pupils who sit in rows at their desks. The pupils listen

or not. If the teacher knew how to make her pupils listen to her, education would be better.In reality, you know that what happens in the classroom is not so simple. You, the

teacher, are trying to achieve several objectives at the same time. First of all, you need toprovide a range of learning experiences to the pupils. Then, you need to cater for individualdifferences by organising activities that make use of various learning resources anddifferent tasks. You need to provide opportunities for the pupils to take responsibility of theirown learning, while you are still managing the classroom activities. In one word, youmanage classroom learning.

Classroom management emphasises the complexity of classroom life and focuses onthe managerial skills that you need to have and on the systematic way in which youcoordinate the classroom variety and complexity. You are the coordinator of a varied andcomplex environment; you set objectives, plan activities, attend to communication andmotivation and evaluate performance. The aim of this unit is to help you improve yourlesson management skills.

After you have completed the study of this unit on classroom management, youshould be able to:

explain what makes a lesson effective

classify patterns of interaction

explain the advantages and disadvantages of various patterns of classroom

interaction

use various patterns of classroom interaction to involve all the pupils in your

lessons

1 Management: Classroom Strategies and Tactics

What is it that makes a teacher successful and respected? Why do such a teacherspupils work with positive and constructive attitudes?

Both teachers and pupils have their own characteristics and habits. These influencethe effectiveness of the lesson. Like a taxi driver who knows every city street, you need todevelop a good understanding of your pupils and of yourself.

Your physical presence, the way you move, sit or stand, the way you are dressed, allhave an effect on your pupils perception. To some extent, these may also affect theeffectiveness of your lesson. You need to be aware of all these details, adapt yourlanguage and your voice, your gestures, your expressions, your mime, your movements,the frequency of eye contact with individual pupils, for all these carry a message for yourpupils.

Prepare your lessons thoroughly: materials, activities, and assessments. When thepupils feel that you are filling time, or when you have to change activities because youcannot find the materials, or if you are unprepared for the problems that may emerge, youmay lose your pupils respect and confidence.

Each lesson has to be carefully prepared, and a good idea is to prepare more thanyou need. It is always good to have a reserve activity ready in case of extra time. As youare planning a lesson, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice ifyou find yourself with too little time for everything.

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During the lesson, keep a watch or clock easily visible, and make sure you are awarethroughout how time is going relative to your plan. It is difficult to judge intuitively how timeis going when you are busy, and the smooth running of the lesson depends to some extenton proper timing.

Try to create a serious impression of purpose by your contributions and by thedemands made on your pupils. This means attention to detail, and an assumption that yourpupils will take their work seriously and with a sense of responsibility.

Long-term strategies can help you build up good standards of personal relationshipsthat result in good classroom atmosphere. Nevertheless, pupils are not always capable ofcoping with all the stresses of their lives and they may react by laziness, insubordination,defiance, aggression, or destructiveness. Such pupil behaviour will undermine the buildingup of good classroom practice, and the effectiveness of your classes. What can you do?

Unfortunately, advice about classroom tactics is less reliable than advice aboutgeneral strategies.

The complexity of classroom life is responsible for many difficult situations.Classroom life is multidimensional, with many different kinds of activities, many differentobjectives, and many people having different needs and different styles. At any one timeyou need to consider what to do next, thinking ahead of the development of the lesson,

watching the pupils progress, looking out for what might disrupt the flow of the lesson.There may be numberless unpredictables, interruptions, unforeseen difficulties, or minorincidents. In such a context your action and reaction are driven by intuition more than bydeliberate thinking about alternative courses of action. Moreover, advice from otherteachers may not be reliable, as different teachers use different tactics with equal(in)success.

1.1 Getting Organised

You need to develop clear routines for monitoring and controlling, for regularorganisational tasks such as taking the roll, distributing materials, clearing away at the end

of the lesson, forming pairs and groups, using equipment.Adopt a supervisory role at regular intervals throughout the lesson. All gestures and

signals can be effective: a finger to the lips, a hand signal to sit down, a finger to beckon, anod to approve something to happen, a head shake to signal disapproval, etc. If it is reallynecessary to speak, approach the pupil and say it quietly, not to disturb the rest of theclass.

Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly and decisively. If you are uncertain ofthe cause of a disruption (which is very common), approach the disruptive pupil in a non-critical way, asking her/him to report what progress has been made or what problems havebeen encountered. Where the misbehaviour is overt, remove the pupil from any possibleaudience. Set the pupil to work in a different part of the room, making it clear that s/he may

return when s/he has finished the task. This helps the pupil to accept the arrangement.Avoid confrontation, which is public and emotionally charged, and can result in conflictescalation.

1.2 Getting Started

A first impression is always important. Pupils tune in to the image which you presentto them from the first appearance. Make sure you arrive in time and with everything youneed for the class. Your leaving the classroom, or sending pupils to fetch forgotten itemsbreaks the continuity and gives an opportunity for the pupils minds to wander.

Glance around to make sure the classroom and resources are in a state of

readiness, with windows open or shut (as they suit you and your pupils) and the boardclean. If not, ask the pupils to help. Then look around to see where the pupils are sitting andif their seating arrangement suits you. You may also need to ask pupils to put away thingsfrom their desks.

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Make sure you are ready before beginning the actual lesson. Arrange your books,papers, etc. so that you can pick them up easily as you need them. Keep calm and do notrush to start. The time you take to get organised may seem shorter to the pupils than youmay think. Allow your pupils to continue to talk quietly, while remaining in their seats, untilyou announce that you are ready to begin the lesson. This prevents you from being underpressure and also makes it clear that when you require silence the lesson will begin.

Make a clear and definite start. You can declare yourself ready by saying clearly and

quite loudly Good morning / afternoon, everybodyand waiting for silence before going on.Then, say briefly what the plan for the lesson is, so that your pupils can be aware of theway they are progressing through the work, e.g. Today were going to learn. Well beusing Unit in our books. Ive brought for you to Well do some pair work, too Butfirst of all, I want to ask you

When your way of beginning will become familiar to your pupils, they may even getprepared for the lesson without you having to ask. The routine nature of this part of thelesson establishes a secure environment. It sets up an atmosphere that is friendly butpurposeful and conducive to serious and organised work.

1.3 Moving From One Activity to Another

During a lesson, the class moves from one activity to another. You may also want tochange the pattern of interaction from time to time, so that for some part of the lessonpupils are working with each other, in pairs or in groups. The activities you choose must suitthe objectives you have for the lesson, and many of them will be based on material in thetextbook. There is a wide range of activities which you can use:

all pupils listening to recorded material

pupils repeating individually or chorally

individual pupils responding to you

pupils reading silently (e.g. sections of the coursebook)

pupils completing written exercises individually pupils working in pairs to complete written exercises

pupils doing oral practice in pairs

pupils solving problems in groups

pupils preparing material (stories, questions, etc.) in groups

group discussion of a topic

pupils completing tests individually, etc.

For all pupils, but especially for the weaker ones, a change of activity is motivatingas it gives a new chance to those who have not enjoyed or not done well in the last activity.

1.4 Transitions

It is a good idea to mark transition moments, using transition signals, e.g.: Right.Weve finished, so well leave our books for today and go on to I want you to listen toand decide There is little point in beginning a new activity while some pupils are still tryingto work out what they must do. For this reason, it is well worth checking and confirming thateveryone has understood.

Always try to move from one part of the lesson to another without allowing a gap tooccur. It is quite difficult to regain the attention of a class, particularly a large one.

Sometimes you can prepare for the next activity while the pupils are busy finishing

the previous one(e.g. you can write something on the board). It is important not to reveal allthe idea for a lesson at the beginning of the period. For instance, if you intend to use apicture, do not put it on show from the beginning of the class: pin it up and cover it with alarge sheet of paper that can be removed easily. When you show it to the class, the pupils

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will have something fresh to focus on and their motivation will be helped. In the same way,if you are going to use handouts, keep them until the time they are to be used arrives.Overhead projectors are especially useful in this respect because you can prepare thematerial in advance and reveal it to the class bit by bit.

Pictures and handouts should be made visible or available to all the pupils as quicklyas possible. When you have handouts or other papers to distribute to a large class, do nottry to give every paper yourself to each pupil. A number of handouts can be given to pupils

at different points in the class, asking them to take one and pass the rest on. Then waitquietly for a few moments so that the pupils have time to look at what they have received. Ifyou begin speaking at once, many pupils will simply not listen as they will be preoccupiedwith what they are looking at. Do not forget that for most people the eyes almost alwaystake precedence over the ears.

1.5 Ending a Lesson

Keep an eye on the time so that you are not in the middle of an activity when thelesson should be ending. Give the homework towards the end but not in the last fewseconds of the lesson. If homework is given too early, some pupils may try to do it during

the lesson. If it is given too late, there may be no time to sort out any difficulties. It is often agood idea to tell the class what the homework is and then finish the lesson with an activitywhich helps with the tasks you have set. This gives an opportunity for any problems to beraised and helps to make the pupils feel confident that they will be able to do thehomework.

It is better to finish a little early rather than late, even if you have to say Well have toleave this exercise until another day. Its almost time for the end of the lesson. The pupilswill appreciate your courtesy in finishing on time. Conclude the lesson, rather than just stopby saying something which indicates that you have finished. For instance, refer to what hasbeen done and to what you plan to do next.

When you are not in a hurry to your next lesson, take time gathering up your

materials and books. Then, individual pupils have an opportunity to speak to you informally,and you may have time to say a few friendly words (in English) to some of the pupils. Ofcourse, you must not delay pupils and make them late for their next lesson.

Leave the classroom in good order as you would expect to find it. You can ask thepupils to help you. Even if it is normal in your school for a pupil to be asked to clean theboard, you should ensure that it is clean before you leave the classroom and, if necessary,clean it yourself.

2 Patterns of Interaction

Classroom interaction is central to effective instruction. However, your pupils workbetter in some circumstances than in others: some pupils may prefer a collaborative andconversational style, with interruptions and more than one pupil talking at a time. Otherstend to be less active and yet others more independent.

The most common type of classroom interaction is that known as IRF: Initiation

Response Feedback. The teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a

question, one of the pupils answers, the teacher gives feedback (in the form of assessment,correction, or comment), then initiates the next question, and so on. There are however,alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have to be in your hands. Interaction maybe between pupils, or between a pupil and the material.

Here are some interaction patterns ordered from most teacher-dominated to most

pupil-active:

Teacher talk: the teacher is talking or reading aloud with all pupils listening.

There may be some kind of silent pupil response, such as writing from

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dictation or making notes in notebooks. There is no initiative on the part of thepupils.

Choral response: the teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the

class in chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus.

Closed-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question which can

get only one right response.

Open-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question to whichthere are a number of possible right answers, so that more pupils answereach cue.

Pupil initiates, teacher answers: the pupils think of questions and the

teacher responds. Such an interaction pattern can be found in guessinggames. The teacher decides who asks the question.

Whole-class interaction: the pupils debate a topic or do a language task as

a class. The teacher may intervene occasionally, to stimulate participation orto monitor.

Individual work: the teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and the pupils work

on them independently. The teacher walks around monitoring and assisting

where necessary.

Collaboration: the pupils do the same sort of tasks as in individual work, but

work together, usually in pairs. The teacher may or may not intervene. This isdifferent from group work where the task itself necessitates interaction.

Group work: the pupils work in small groups on tasks that entail interaction,

conveying information or making decisions. The teacher walks aroundlistening and intervenes little if at all.

Self-access: the pupils choose their own learning tasks, and work

autonomouslyThe range of activity patterns is infinite, but we can group them into two main

categories:

1. whole class teacher-led activities2. pupils independent activities

teacher presentationwhole class class dialogue

pupil activitiesTeacher-led activities

briefingtutorial reviewing

discussion

individual work library workcourse workproject workhomework

Independent activities pair work private studydiscussionscollaborative projectsprivate reading

small group work use of audio/video/IT technology

Fig. 2.1 The components of classroom management(after Philip Watehouse, Classroom Management, Network Educational Press,Stafford, 1990, p.13)

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A teachers presentation can be very effective if it is done for short periods and

with sparkle. The pupils can be inspired and stimulated by the charisma of ateacher with good presentation skills.

Class dialogue (also known as the Socratic method) is a very useful method.

By skilful questioning, you can lead the thinking of the class. Class dialogue isbest when it is lively and motivating for the pupils. However, it needs firm andcareful handling, as it can lose its vitality and become mechanical and repetitive.

Pupil activities, that is giving the pupils something to do, help to bring varietyinto whole class teaching. The pupils may all repeat something in the chorus; orrespond to a cue, they may take notes, or write after dictation. The teacherremains in control of what is happening, but the pupils are given opportunities tobe active.

3.2 Tutorials

Not as common as whole class teaching, mostly used in private schools, tutorials(extra-class small group work) are also teacher led. Tutorials can make a real difference tothe quality of the pupils learning. During tutorials, you can help the pupils to prepare for

their next assignment, give them guidance, indicate resources, possible problems orstandards. Reviews can also be organised during tutorials to look back at the work whichhas been completed, and to assess it. Tutorials can be organised to encourage the pupilsto talk about their work, and to explore issues and ideas together, or to allow you to helpthem overcome their difficulties. Working in a small group, during tutorials it is easier toidentify problems and to offer pupils more personal and individualised support.

3.3 Teacher Presentation

Whole class teaching is especially favoured when making a presentation meant toinform, to describe or to explain. Such a presentation should not resemble a higher

education lecture. It should be informal and spontaneous, and as short as possible (nolonger than 10 minutes with younger pupils). Such an exposition can be interrupted by othershort activities, such as a dialogue or individual tasks.

If you want the presentation to achieve its objectives, it needs to have a clearstructure that the pupils can grasp. It is always helpful to present at the very beginning thestructure of the exposition. Tell your pupils first what you are going to say, then say it, andthen tell them what you have said! A way of involving the pupils is to ask them to take downnotes. Alternatively, you can give them a handout with a gapped structure of yourpresentation, and ask them to complete it as you are presenting.

A thorough, high quality presentation can motivate and inspire your pupils. However,during the presentation the pupils may want help, especially if a new topic is introduced .

They need to have a vision of the new knowledge, to understand why it is important andrelevant, how it fits in with their previous work and knowledge, how it will contribute to theirmastery of English.

A good presentation will stimulate your pupils intellectual curiosity; it may review,organise and consolidate their previous knowledge of the topic, or it can make the newlearning more personal. Also, it can give guidance to the pupils about the styles andtechniques to be used in doing work on the new topic.

At personal level your pupils may need help in order to see how they may personallyidentify with the new topic, how they can build clear images of what the topic is about.They may feel the need to share the excitement of the discovery with their classmates.

Whole class presentations are particularly valuable at the beginning, at the end andat critical points in the lesson, such as topic changes, or where the concepts that need to betaught are difficult. Also, after a period of time of independent activities (individual, in pairsor in small groups), your pupils will be prepared to work again together as a class for the

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consolidationof their work. At this stage, you should encourage pupil contributions, as theycan report back, discuss the issues raised during independent work, revise and consolidate,assess the quality of the work done and evaluate the topic.

Teacher roles. During presentations, you are the focus of attention, playing anumber of related roles: organiser, information source, or discussion leader. The pupils arerelatively passive, listening, following instructions, responding to questions, and makingcontributions when you invite them to do so.

Here are a few suggestions:

Get the attention of your class before you start. Either insist on their paying

attention to you or give them something to do (e.g. writing a title, an introductoryexample or statement). This will bring the class into the work frame of mind.

Your first sentences must be attention holding. Appeal to their curiosity, surprise

them, intrigue them or move them emotionally.

Keep your voice level to the minimum necessary. A low voice creates a feeling of

expectancy, gives a sense of importance to the occasion, and builds a sense ofmutual confidence, a serious and trusting atmosphere.

Vary the volume and pace to give variety. Occasionally, make appeal to feelings and use a more theatrical language.

Temper your projections of personality with sensitivity.

Do not forget that there is virtue in silence. A pregnant pause in a presentation

can be effective. Offer silence to your pupils so that they can reflect and considertheir responses. Build in pauses in which you invite the pupils to summarise whatyou have said so far.

Be simple, be brief and be human. Start with plenty of examples and then

gradually introduce new vocabulary or more complex statements.

Remember that much communication is non-verbal; how you look, where and

how you stand, how you move are all observed and registered by the pupils.

Remember that no matter how good your presentation is, you cannot use it forlengthy periods, as their span of attention is limited. It is better to introduce variety andmore pupil participation. The most common way of doing this is by using class dialogue.

3.4 Class Dialogue

In class dialogue, you lead the thinking of the class by asking questions and buildingon the responses received from the pupils. Class dialogue should be carefully prepared.You might start with familiar examples, with the presentation of a stimulus (a picture, adrawing, a map, a piece of text, a recording, etc.) which has the aim of rousing the pupils

curiosity. Then your questioning can help the pupils to build upon their existing knowledgeand understanding. Gradually you help them to recognise general principles or rules andfinally give them opportunities to demonstrate their understanding by applying it.

Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within theIRF pattern. A question is a teachers utterance which has the objective of eliciting an oralresponse from the pupils. However, teacher questions are not always realised byinterrogatives, e.g. Well describe what is going on in this picture, Tell me what you can seein this picture, etc. It is often hard to prepare the exact wording of the questions in advance,as the questions need to be adapted to the responses which are received.

Getting the best responses from the pupils calls for patience and skill. In the role ofdiscussion leader you need to exercise a democratic, rather than an authoritarian style.Pupil contributions must be encouraged with reinforcement, prompting and occasionalsummaries as to where the discussion has reached.

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Your motive in questioning is usually to get your pupils to engage with the languagematerial actively through speech. But there are other various reasons why you might ask aquestion in the classroom:

to provide a model for language or thinking

to find out something from the pupils (facts, ideas, opinions)

to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill

to get the class to be active in their learning

to direct attention to the topic being learned

to inform the class via the answers of the stronger pupils rather than through your

input

to provide weaker pupils with an opportunity to participate

to stimulate their thinking (logical, reflective or imaginative) and to make them

probe more deeply into issues

to get pupils to review and practise previously learnt material

to encourage their self-expression

to communicate to them that you are genuinely interested in what they think.

Questions can be classified according to various criteria:

the kind of thinking they try to elicit (plain recall, analysis, or evaluation)

whether they are genuine or display questions (does the teacher really want to

know the answer, or is she simply checking if the pupil does?)

whether they are closed- or open-ended (do they have a single right answer or

many?).

Say to which of the category suggested above do the followingquestions belong? Some questions may belong to more than onecategory.

1. How do most people travel to work in your city or town?..2. Is there a subway in your country?..3. What is the number of Richards house on Linden Street?..4. What topics do you usually talk about with someone you meetfor the first time?..5. Do you like staying in a hotel?

..

(questions from Howard Beckerman, Family Album, U.S.A, Editura Univers,1993)

An effective questioning technique is one that elicits fairly prompt, motivated, relevantand full responses. If your questions result in long silences, are answered by only thestrongest pupils, bore the class, or elicit only very brief or unsuccessful answers, then thereis probably something wrong. Effective questioning should follow a few criteria:

Clarity. The pupils should immediately grasp what the question means, and

what kind of answer is required. The language must be simple, clear and unambiguous.

Learning value. The questioning should start with an invitation to observe oridentify. The question should stimulate thinking and responses that will contribute to furtherlearning of the target material. It shouldnt be irrelevant, unhelpful or merely time-filling. Thekey word is What?

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What are the people in the picture doing?What is the difference between these two animals?What surprised you in this anecdote?What is this?

Interest. The pupils should find the question interesting, challenging, stimulating.

Availability. Most of the pupils in the class should be able to answer the

question. However, allowing a few seconds wait-time before accepting aresponse can make the question available to a larger number of pupils.

Extension. The question should invite and encourage extended and/or varied

answers. Try to eliminate questions which can be answered simply by Yes or No,or by any single word. Questions likely to get fuller answers often start withWhy?, How?, What would happen if?

Grading. The questions should build up to higher levels of thinking.

The way you respond to your pupils answers will affect the way they perform at thetime but also the way they will perform in the future. You will need to respond to content notonly to the language form. If there is no answer at all during questioning, if your pupilscannot think of what to say, prompt them forwards. This kind of help has to be offeredgently, with tact and discretion.

Here are a few suggestions for managing your pupils answers:

Be prepared to waitfor an answer. Refrain from filling the gap immediately if the

question is met with initial silence. During the silence, use non-verbalcommunication, give encouraging nods or raise your eyebrows. You may also trya short prompt. Signal that you are actually enjoying the silence and are not inthe least embarrassed or annoyed.

Encourage pupil answers. Praise the good answers and preserve the self-

esteem of those who give wrong answers. The pupils should be sure that their

responses will be treated with respect, that they will not be put down or ridiculedif they say something inappropriate. Give help if you see it is needed during ananswer.

Try to get answers from as many pupils as possible. Responding only to the

bright and eager tends to focus attention on them at the expense of the others. Areluctant pupil can be helped by being nominated to answer an easy question.

Encourage answers which express the pupils personal thoughts or feelings, or

which are bold and imaginative. Even if it is incorrect, such an answer deservespraise.

Encourage respect for the contribution of others. Set a good example of respect,

courtesy and constructiveness and then expect it of the pupils. Do not toleratesarcasm, aggression, or destructive criticism.

3.5 Class Discussion

Effective questioning leads to class discussion. However, an average class may betoo big to operate as a successful discussion group. That is why you have to be in firmcontrol, and the rules for discussion should be clearly established. In the role of discussionleader you need to be neutral and to exercise a democratic style.

A class discussion must be brought to a satisfactory close by summarising the mainpoints made and the conclusions reached. Discussion techniques are particularly useful fortopics involving personal attitudes and in problem solving.

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Can you now list a few disadvantages of whole class teacher-led teaching?

Whole class teaching is an important part of a teachers repertoire of methods, andhas a lot of potential. It relies on teacher talk, which may be more or less inspiring andmotivating. That is why, during class teaching the pupils may become passive as individualdifferences are ignored and their motivation may decrease. However, class teaching has itsplace in the repertoire of a teacher, provided it is not the only method in use!

4 Pupils Independent Activities

Before reading the next section, try to think of a few importantadvantages of pupils independent activities.

Independent learning is characterised by the pupils active and responsibleparticipation in the lesson:

the pupils show study skills (personal organisation and learning skills)

they take active steps to prepare for work

they show initiative in finding the resources they need for the work assigned

they show initiative in getting help form their classmates before seeking help from

the teacher

they offer help to classmates

they contribute to the task in a responsible way

they are often organised in teams

they often follow up classroom work with further investigation

they are so involved or absorbed in their work that the teacher is able to step

back.

Independent learning can take place in various groupings: individual, pair or team /

small group. The pupils need to be thoroughly prepared and briefed for independentlearning tasks and they should be constantly monitored and controlled.

Two modes of independent learning can be distinguished a) supervised study(individual or paired work), and b) supported independent work (individual, paired or smallgroup).

Mode Pupilgrouping

Briefingfor task

Monitoringand control

Supervised learning individual or pairedwhole class

Teacher circulating

Supportedindependent work individual paired orsmall group group Teacher circulating

Adapted after Waterhouse P., 1990, Classroom Management, Network EducationalPress, Stafford, p. 56

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4.1 Supervised Learning

In supervised learning, the teacher sets a task or a series of tasks to be doneindividually, or in pairs. After you give the explanation of what to do and how to do it to theclass as a whole, the individual pupils or pairs then proceed with their tasks. Your role is tomonitor to move around the class, checking that everyone is on task, helping withproblems, making suggestions, giving advice, supervising work and behaviour. During suchan activity, you can find opportunity to talk to individuals or small groups. This system helpsthe pupils to be more active and this can be an important move towards real pupilindependence.

However, when working individually, the pupils may feel deprived of the stimulus ofworking with other people, or they may find out that they are unable to make decisions andare still dependent on your directions.

Here are a few suggestions for how you can reduce the pupils dependence on theteacher:

brief thoroughly before the task

allocate enough time for the task

make sure the task is at the right level and the pupils can cope with it and the

resources necessary for it

encourage the pupils to seek help from each other

spend time listening to individual pupils, encouraging them to expand on their

difficulties and their problems

refrain from answering a pupils question directly; try to get the same pupil to

answer the question or get another pupil to join in

intervene by asking questions of your own to find out how well they have

understood the task

do not revert to class teaching, although this may seem an economical way of

solving problems

keep a low profile, monitoring quietly and unobtrusively

4.2 Supported Independent Learning

The concept of supported independent learning or individualised learning issometimes identified with the provision of a self-access centre, or a full self-access learningprogramme. These offer various kinds of materials, and the pupils may participate in thechoice of materials, and then work on their own, in groups or in pairs.

Individualised learning may have a more modest sense, too: the pupils are given ameasure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at a particular time. This impliesless direct teacher supervision and more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning.Tasks and materials are adapted or selected to suit the individual.

Individualised learning is a serious attempt to provide for different learner needs andto place a higher responsibility for learning on the learners themselves. Individualisedlearning is the opposite of lockstep learning, where everyone in the class is expected to dothe same thing, at the same time, in the same way.

Procedures that allow for individual choice include:

1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged inthe same basic task)

2. Level: tasks may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the

pupil can choose the one that suits his/her level

3. Topic: the pupil will be able to select tasks that vary in the subject or topic, whileall are based on the same language skill or teaching point

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4. Language skill or teaching point: each pupil may choose to work on a differentaspect of language (e.g. listening, grammar, reading, etc).

Try to summarise the disadvantages of pupils individualisedlearning.

5 Pupil Groupings: Pair Work and Group Work

In pair and group work pupils perform a learning task through interaction. Both pairand group work are forms of learner activation that are of particular value in the practice oforal fluency. They have the added advantages of fostering learner responsibility andindependence, of improving motivation and contributing to a feeling of cooperation andwarmth in the class.

Pair and group work can mark a transition from one stage of the lesson to the next.

5.1 Pair Work Organisation

The amount of practice each pupil gets is greatly increased by the use of pair work.The pupils can sit either facing each other for conversation or side by side when looking atthe same book or paper. Pair work can be done simply by some pupils turning round ormoving along a bit to sit with a partner. Young learners tend to prefer to make pairs withtheir special friends and this is often perfectly satisfactory. However, it is a good ideasometimes to vary who sits with whom. It is sensible to be more selective about pairing ifyou are planning an activity which is long, and perhaps difficult for some pupils. You maywish to try to pair a good pupil with a less able one, if this can be done without it being tooobvious.

For quick snippets of oral practice, use random pairing which occurs as a result ofseating. This has the advantage of not interrupting the flow of the lesson too much.

To organise pair work, you need to give a clear directive, e.g. We can do this as pairwork. Will the front row please turn round and work with the people behind them. Pupilssoon get used to the idea of pairing, and a simple Well do this in pairs prompts them to sortthemselves out quite quickly and quietly.

5.2 Group Work Organisation

Group work tends to occur less frequently but pupils who have got used to pair workcan easily be put into groups. One way is to organise them as if for pair work, and then say

Were going to work in bigger groups, so you three pairs make Group 1, you three Group 2 ,and so on. With a class which is used to group work you may say Were going to do thenext activity in groups. So take your notebooks and pens and get into groups of six, please.A few moments of chaos may follow, but once group work has become a normal part of theclass routine, it will not be much trouble. Before you fix the group size, say what resources(books, handouts, etc.) the pupils will need.

Once the groups have been formed, give clear, precise instructions about what youwant them to do. Also, give examples of what you expect and indicate how much time theywill have to complete the task. The instructions given at the beginning are crucial: if thepupils do not understand exactly what they have to do there will be time-wasting, confusion,and lack of effective practice. A preliminary rehearsal or dry run of a sample of the activity

with the full class can help to clarify things.A group of 4 8 pupils is large enough to produce a variety of opinions and

responses, but small enough to give each pupil a sense of belonging. If each groupconsists of an even number of pupils, this allows you to set activities for pairs or for the

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whole team. A common approach is to start an activity with paired work and to take theresults of pair work to the whole group.

Some teachers find that having group leaders (different ones on each occasion)and/or giving each group a name (Group A, Group B, etc. or the Wonder team, the Dreamteam, etc.) helps to make the session run smoothly. At first you will probably want to namethe leaders, but in time each group can choose its own. Every group member should have ajob and be answerable to the group. The jobs should be rotated frequently. Also, every

member of the group should know that help for another member of the group isencouraged.

Select tasks that are simple enough to describe easily. Sometimes it may be cost-effective to explain some or all in Romanian.

You should be able to foresee what language will be needed, and have a preliminaryquick review of appropriate grammar or vocabulary. Also, before giving the sign to start, youshould tell the class what the arrangements are for stopping: if there is a time limit, or a setsignal for stopping. If the groups simply stop when they have finished, then you should tellthem what they will have to do next.

In the table below tick the advantages that characterise pair

work, group work or both:pairwork

groupwork both

increases the amount of pupil speaking time

allows pupils to work and interact independently

promotes pupil independence

allows the teacher time to work with one or two chosenpairs

helps the classroom to become a more relaxed andmore friendly place

helps pupils to share responsibility

can be easily organisedpersonal relationships are less problematic

more opinions and more contributions are made public

encourages cooperation and negotiation skills

more private than whole class work

promotes learner autonomy

pupils can choose their level of participation

5.3 Pair and Group Work in Progress

While the pupils are working in pairs or groups, you have two options: either to go

from group to group, ask and contribute, or keep out of the way. You could stand at thefront, at the back or anywhere else in the classroom, and monitor what is happening, or goround the class observing. You can be acting as monitor or as prompter, resource or tutor.

What can be your contribution during pair and group work?

During pair and group work you have an opportunity to work with individual pupilswhom you feel would benefit from your help. Do not spend too long with one pair or groupas this sometimes leads to other pupils losing interest in the task as they feel you have lost

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interest in them. Pair and group work which goes on for too long causes problems as thepupils get bored.

If you have set a time limit, this will help you to draw the activity to a close at a certainpoint. In principle, you should try to finish the activity while the pupils are still enjoying it andinterested, or only just beginning to flag.

A frequent problem is that some pairs or groups will finish earlier than others, and willwant or need to do something else. When they are tired, some will be happy to just wait for

the others to finish. In other circumstances, you may ask them all to stop the activity afterthe first pairs or groups have finished. This solution removes the problem of boredom, but itmay de-motivate those who have not yet finished. It is wise to have a reserve task plannedto occupy the members of groups who finish earlier than expected.

5.4 Feedback to Pair and Group Work

When pairs and groups stop working together, a feedback session usually takesplace. The pupils need to discuss what occurred during the activity, and you need toprovide assessment and make corrections. Feedback on the task may take many forms:

giving the right solution (if there is one)

listening to and evaluating suggestions

pooling ideas on the board

displaying materials the groups have produced

having a few pairs or groups to demonstrate the language they used, and so on.

Where the task had definite right or wrong answers, you need to ensure that it wascompleted successfully. By comparing solutions, ideas, and problems, the pupils can reacha better understanding of the task or topic.

Your main objective is to express appreciation of the effort that has been investedand its results. Constructive feedback on pupils work will enhance their motivation.Feedback on language mistakes is only one part of the process. Feedback on languagemay be integrated into the discussion of the task, or provide the focus of a separate lessonlater.

The achievements of the group members could be publicised and recorded eitherindividually, or as sum totals for the group. Rewards (and minor sanctions) should be givenon a pair or group basis.

Could you now summarise the disadvantages of group work?.

Some teachers may be hesitant about using pair work and group work with verylarge classes. They fear that they will have difficulty in controlling the pupils. There is nodoubt that collaborative work can lead to a lot of noise if it is not controlled carefully. For thisreason, you may find it useful to explain whyyou want to do pair work and group work andto impress upon the class the need to behave in a responsible way. On the first one or twooccasions when you organise pair or group work, you should be especially firm in dealingwith noisy or troublesome pupils.

Some thinking needs to be given to the life-span of the group. While permanentgroups may not be the best solution, constant changes are not advisable, either.

A group should start with a clearly defined task to be done within a defined time. Thishelps the pupils build a sense of team identity but also removes the fear of being lockedinto a grouping which an individual may feel uncomfortable with. While the pupils are

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working in pairs or groups, you need to observe how well they interact together. You willneed to change the pairs ot groups in future if you notice that some pupils cannotconcentrate on the task and talk about something else (usually in Romanian), that one pupildominates the group, or that some weaker pupils are lost.

The advantages of pair and group work soon become apparent. Questions directedat the pairs or at the teams can anticipate longer, more thoughtful answers, which are theresult of group deliberation. This overcomes the main disadvantage of the class dialogue

which can degenerate into a succession of short questions, with one-word answerssupplied by the bright and eager, and the teacher jumping from one student to another insearch of the right answer. In the collaborative work approach, different solutions can beexplored, and pupils can learn to justify their arguments to their fellow group members.

Summary

Effective lesson management needs careful planning. The cornerstone of effectivemanagement is a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules andprocedures that prevents management problems in all stages of the lesson. These take into

account both the characteristics of the pupils and the physical environment of theclassroom. Lesson rules and procedures are the steps for the routines the pupils follow intheir learning activities.

While in whole class teacher-led activities opportunities for pupil participation arelimited, collaborative learning activities (pair work and group work) relie on interaction topromote cooperative knowledge construction, increased motivation and interest.

Key Concepts

lesson management

patterns of interaction

whole class teacher-led activities

pupils independent activities

class dialogue

questioning

teacher feedback

supervised learning

supported independent learning

pair work

group work

Further Reading

1. Harmer, Jeremy (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman2. Underwood, Mary (1987) Effective Class management. A Practical Approach ,

Longman3. Ur, Penny (1996) A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory,

Cambridge University Press

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methodology3 classroom management

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