methods and techniques of data collection in research

7/22/2019 Methods and Techniques of Data Collection in Research

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Presentation on

Methods and Techniques of DataCollection in Research

Subject Communication and Research Skill

Subject Code 710001N

Presented by :- Guided By :-

Ravichandra Kiritbhai Valand Prof. Bhavesh Rana

ME 1stSemester ( Energy Engineering )

Enrollment No:- 130190739011

Government Engineering College , Valsad.


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Contents

1. Abstract

2. Introduction3. Data collection Methods & Techniques

4. Primary methods : (a) Interview

(b) Observation

(c) Questionnaire5. Secondary methods: Case Study

6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography


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(2). Introduction

In dealing with any real life (research) problem, it is often found that data

at hand are inadequate, and hence it becomes necessary to collect data that are

appropriate.

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ

considerably in context of money costs, time, and other resources at the

discretion of the researcher.

Research differs in many aspects, but they do have few similar aspects.Many components are involved in conducting research. One very essential factor

is collection of data.

Data collection can be gathered from a number of sources, which

includes working environment, web technologies, focus groups, field notes,

questionnaires and recorded social interactions or interviews. This article focuseson various methods and techniques of Data collection.


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(3). Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has

been defined and research design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the

method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep inmind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.

Data Collection Method

Primary Data Secondary Data

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Interview Observation Questionnaire

The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the firsttime, and thus happen to be original in character.

Secondary data on the other hand, are those which have already

been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through

the statistical process.


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(4). Primary Methods:

(a) Interview :Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined

interview as a two-person co nversation , ini t iated by the interviewer for thespeci f ic purpo se of o bta in ing research-re levant inform ation and focu sed by

him on the content speci f ied b y the research o bject ives o f descr ip t ion and

explanat ion.

Functions of interview

Two major functions of the interview techniques arei.Description ii. Exploration

Description

The information received from the respondent provides insight into the

nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the

respondents, he can understand their feelings & attitudes more clearly, and seekadditional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for

him.

Exploration

Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem.


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Types of Interviews

There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the

others in structure, purpose, role of the interviewer, number of respondents

involved in each interview, and form and frequency of administration.

Structured InterviewA structured interview is sometimes called as standardized interview.

Same questions are asked for all respondents.

Corbetta (2003) states structured interviews are in terv iews in

wh ich al l respon dents are asked th e same qu est ions with the same

wo rding and in the same quest ions with the same wording and in the

same sequence.

The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of

questioning.

The strengths of structured interviews are that the researcher has

control over the topics and the format of the interview.

On the contrary, drawbacks of structured interviews are they adhere

too closely to the interview guide and may be the cause of not probing for

relevant information.


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Semi-structured Interviews

In this Semi-structured interviewer the researcher has a list of key

themes, issues, and questions to be covered. Here the order of the questions

can be changed depending on the direction of the interview.

Corbetta (2003) explains semi-structured interviews as follows:

The order in which the various topics are dealt with and the wording of

the questions are left to the interviewers discretion. Within each topic, the

interviewer is free to conduct the conversation as he thinks fit, Additionalquestions can be asked and some may be questions that have not been

anticipated in the beginning of the interview.

The strengths of semi-structured interviews are that the researcher

can prompt and probe deeper into the given situation. For example, the

interviewer inquires about using computers in library. Some respondents aremore computer literate than others are.

The drawbacks are inexperienced interviewers may not be able to ask

prompt questions. If this is the case, some relevant data may not be gathered.


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Unstructured Interviews

This type of interview is non-directed and is a flexible method. It is more

casual than the aforementioned interviews.

There is no need to follow a detailed interview guide. Interviewees are

encouraged to speak openly, frankly and give as much detail as possible.

The strengths of unstructured interviews are no restrictions are placed on

questions.

It is useful when little or no knowledge exists about a topic. So,

background data can be collected.

Unstructured interviews are flexible.

The drawbacks of unstructured interviews are that they can be

inappropriate for inexperienced interviewers. The interviewers may be bias and ask

inappropriate questions.


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Non-directive Interviews

Questions are usually not pre-planned.

The interviewer listens and does not take the lead. The interviewerfollows what the interviewee has to say. The interviewee leads the conversation.

The interviewer has the objectives of the research in mind and what

issues to cover during the interview. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely about

the subject.

The interviewersrole is to check on unclear points and to rephrase the

answer to check for accuracy and understanding (Gray, 2004).

The strengths of non-directive interviews are to find the deep-seated

problem and the subconscious feelings.

On the other hand, the drawbacks are that there are no directions or

issues to explore which can cause some problems in coding and analyzing the

data.


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Analytical interviews

These types of interviews are based on theoretical foundation and

serve to analyze concepts, theories, social relationships and events.

Biographical interviews

A biographical interview is an interview form employed to study the life

history of a respondent. It is often carried out in conjunction with document

analysis,

Focused interviewsThis was developed by R K Merton in the 1940 s in the context of

propaganda research, and analysis of mass communication. it focuses on a

specific topic, which respondents are asked to discuss, thereby providing their

views and opinions on the research question.

Soft interview

Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any

pressure on them.


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Hard interview

The interviewer questions the validity and completeness of the

answers obtained, often warning the respondents not to lie and forcing them to

give an answer when they hesitate.

In-depth Interview

An in-depth interview is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and

an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in

analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995).

It is much less formal than the semi-structured interview. While you

have structured some basic questions on paper, the discussion on the issue is

largely free- ranging. When you intend to collect complex information,

containing a high proportion of opinions, attitudes and personal experiences of

the respondents, you go in for in-depth interview.

For an in-depth interview, the sample is kept small. Only a few

purposively selected people are subjected to a detailed interview.


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Focus Groups

Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participantobservation.Use of the group interaction to generate data.

The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics,discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents behaviors, attitudes,language, etc.

Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share somecharacteristics relevant to the problem.

Focus groups conducted by experts take place in a focus group facilitythat includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual).

Telephone interviews

Telephone interviewing demonstrates the same structural characteristicsas standard interviewing techniques, except that it is conducted by telephone.

These are employed when the interviews are simple and brief, when quick and

inexpensive results are sought, when it is not required to approach the respondent

face to face and when sampling inaccuracies (e.g. non subscribers and unlisted

numbers) are not considered important.


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Interviewing in the computer age

The development of computers has affected many aspects of life of

every Individual and consequently the researcher, the interviewer and the

interviewee. The following are some examples of computer packages that arerelevant to interviewing.

Computer-aided personal interview (CAPI)

This program allows interviews to be carried out through the

assistance of computers, whereby to a certain extent the computer takes theplace of the interviewer. Questioning and control of the responses is done

through the computer.

Computer-driven self completion interview (CODSCI)

The interview is carried out in a computer session in which the

respondent reads the questions from the computer screen in direct

communication with the computer.

After completion of the interview, the responses are saved

automatically in the memory and further added to previous interview data.


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Computer-aided telephone interview (CATI)

Here the computer is used by the interviewer, who reads the

questions to the interviewee through the telephone as it appears on the

screen and records the response in the computer.

It can draw the sample, choose the telephone number, dial the

respondent through a self-dial system and connect the interviewer with the

interviewee.

Advantages of interviewing

Flexibility & High response rate

Easy administration & Opportunity to observe non-verbalbehavior

Control over the environment and order of the questions

Capacity for correcting misunderstandings by respondents:

Such an option is very valuable and not available in other forms of data

collection.


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Opportunityto record spontaneous answers

Controlover the time, date, & place of the interview

More complex questions can be used, because the presence of theinterviewer can assist in answering the questions.

Limitations

Despite the above advantages, interviewing is limited by some factors that cannot

be overlooked

Interviewsare more costly and time consuming than other methods.

Interviews are affected by the factor, interviewer & the possible bias

associated with. Interviewingis more inconvenient.

It is less effective than other methods, when sensitive issues arediscussed.


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(b) Observation

Observation involves may take place in natural settings and

involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is

happening.

It is argued that there are limits to the situations that can be

observed in their 'natural' settings and that the presence of the research may

lead to problems with validity.

Techniques for collecting data through observation:

(1) Written descriptions

I. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people, situations or

environment

II. Limitations include

Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking notes

The researcher may be focussed on a particular event or situation

There is room for subjective interpretation of what is happening


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2) Video recording

I. Allows the researcher to also record notes

II. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the camera

or others avoiding the camera

III. The camera may not always see everything

(3) Photographs and arte facts

I. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or

phenomena such as buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance

II. Artefacts include objects of significance - memorabilia, instruments,

tools etc.

Limitations with observation include:

I. Change in people's behaviour when they know they are being observed

II. A 'snap shot' view of a whole situation

III. Think Big Brother...IV. The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking

notes

V. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or

misunderstand what has been observed


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A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in

a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to

respondents

who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the

reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The

respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to

respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and business

surveys.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:

Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart

of a

survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is notproperly set up, then the survey is bound to fail.

(a)General form

(b) Question sequence

(c) Question formulation and wording


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(a) General form:

The general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can

either be structured or unstructured questionnaire .

Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which

there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are

presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all

respondents.

The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type

yes or no) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in

advance and not constructed during questioning.

Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative

questions in which responses of the informants are limited to the statedalternatives. Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions

and answers are specified and comments in the respondents own words are

held to the minimum.

When these characteristics are not present in a

questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire.


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(b) Question sequence:

In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure

quality to the replies received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A proper sequence of questions

reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood.

The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving,

meaning there by that the relation of one question to another should be readily

apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being putin the beginning.

The first few questions are particularly important because

they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his

desired cooperation.

The opening questions should be such as to arouse human

interest. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening

questions in a questionnaire:


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I. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of

the respondent;

II. questions of a personal character;

III. questions related to personal wealth, etc.

(C) Question formulation and wording:

With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the

researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of

misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey.

Question should also be impartial in order not to give a

biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with

a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan.

In general, all questions should meet the following standards:

(a) should be easily understood;

(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;

(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the

respondentsway of thinking.


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Strengths of Questionnaire :

I. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no

response is often indeterminate.

II. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.III. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

IV. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.

V. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Limitations with Questionnaire include:

I. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread

geographically.

II. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own

words.

III. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

IV. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reachedconveniently.

V. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more

dependable and reliable.


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Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I. To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

II. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more

difficult questions.

III. The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should

be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

IV. The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the

researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking

questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting

cooperation.

V. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may

attract the attention of recipients.


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Essentials of a good questionnaire :

I. To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple

i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.

II. Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more

difficult questions.

III. The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should

be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.

IV. The physical appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the

researcher receives from the recipients and as such an attractive looking

questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting

cooperation.

V. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may

attract the attention of recipients.


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(5) Secondary Method :

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they

refer to the data which have already been collected and analysed by someone

else.

Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished

data.

Usually published data are available in:

I. various publications of the central, state are local governments;

II. various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and

their subsidiary organisations;

III. technical and trade journals;

IV. books, magazines and newspapers;

V. reports and publications of various associations connected with business

and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;VI. reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in

different fields; and

VII. public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of

published information.


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The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in

diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be

available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour

bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

Case Study :

Case study research, through reports of past studies, allows the

exploration and understanding of complex issues. It can be considered a robust

research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required.

Case studies, in their true essence, explore and investigate

contemporary real-life phenomenon through detailed contextual analysis of a

limited number of events or conditions, and their relationships.

An in-depth longitudinal examination of a single case or event is

used.The longitudinal examination provides a systematic way of observing the

events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results over a

long period of time.


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Category of case study :

There are several categories of case study.Yin (1984)

notes three categories, namely:

I. Exploratory case study,II. Descriptive case study,

III. explanatory case studies.

First, exploratory case studies set to explore any phenomenon in the data

which serves as a point of interest to the researcher.

Second, descriptive case studies set to describe the natural phenomena

which occur within the data in question, for instance, what different strategies

are used by a reader and how the reader use them.

Third, explanatory case studies examine the data closely both at a surface

and deep level in order to explain the phenomena in the data.

Other researchers also mention about other categories of case

study.


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In defining case studies, Stake (1995) distinguishes three types,

I. the intrinsic,

II. the instrumental,

III. the collective.

In an intrinsic case study, a researcher examines the case for its own sake.

In an instrumental case study, the researcher selects a small group of

subjects in

order to examine a certain pattern of behaviour.

In a collective case study, the researcher coordinates data from several

different sources, such as schools or individuals.


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Design of case study :

Careful design of a case study is therefore very

important. This is because case study method, through interviews or journal

entries, must be able to prove that:

i. it is the only viable method to elicit implicit and explicit data from the

subjects.

ii. it is appropriate to the research question.

iii. it follows the set of procedures with proper application.

iv. the scientific conventions used in social sciences are strictly followed.

v. a chain of evidence, either quantitatively or qualitatively , are

systematically

recorded and archived particularly when interviews and direct

observation by the researcher are the main sources of data.

vi. the case study is linked to a theoretical framework (Tellis, 1997) .


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Limitations :

I. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is

needed under case study method since one studies the natural history

cycles of social units and that too minutely.

II. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be

very realistic at times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always

subject to doubt.

III. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is notpossible to use it in case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible

under a case study method.

IV. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study

method. He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can

himself answer about it. In case the same is not true, then consequences

follow. In fact, this is more the fault of the researcher rather than that of

the case method.


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Advantages :

I. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method

enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the concernedunit.

II. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the

social unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces

involved in its surrounding environment.

III. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods

under the case study method depending upon the prevalent

circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as

depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports of individuals,

letters, and the like is possible under case study method.

IV. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this

in turn increases his analysing ability and skill.


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Conclusion

Despite the above stated limitations, we find that case studies arebeing undertaken in several disciplines, particularly in sociology, as a tool of

scientific research in view of the several advantages indicated earlier. Most of

the limitations can be removed if researchers are always conscious of these

and are well trained in the modern methods of collecting case data and in the

scientific techniques of assembling, classifying and processing the same.

Besides, case studies, in modern times, can be conducted in such a mannerthat the data are amenable to quantification and statistical treatment.

Possibly, this is also the reason why case studies are becoming popular day

by day.

Bibliography


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