methods of research
DESCRIPTION
for thesisTRANSCRIPT
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RESEARCH
ARMANDO L. PAMA
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Etymology (Wikipedia)
As per the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, the word research is derived from the Middle French "recerche", which means "to go about seeking",
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the term itself being derived from the Old French term "recerchier" a
compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning
'search'.
The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.
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Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any
systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or
existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories,
using a scientific method (Wikipedia).
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Research is “the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.” It is always an attempt to widen one’s outlook on life. It always proceeds from the known to the unknown (Sanchez,1997).
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Thus, the end of research is something new in a possession of the truth. Its end product is the
discovery of truth (Sanchez,1997).
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According to Parel (as cited by Sanchez,1997), research is “a
systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of
answering questions posed by the researcher/s.”
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Meanwhile, Creswell (as cited in Wikipedia) states that “research is a process of steps used to collect
and analyze information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue".
It consists of three steps:
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Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present
an answer to the question.
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Kerlinger (1973, as cited by Sevilla, et al. ,1993) defines scientific
research as “a systematic, controlled, empirical
(observable/verifiable), and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.”
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Research is systematic when it follows steps or stages that begin with
identification of the problem, relating of this problem with existing theories,
collection of data, analysis and interpretation of these data, drawing
of conclusions, and integration of these conclusions into the stream of
knowledge (Sevilla, et al. ,1993)
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Scientific research is controlled (unlike ordinary
problems which may be solved cursorily). It is so
planned every step of the way that fancy and guess
work do not sit in.
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The problem is defined thoroughly, variables identified and selected, instruments carefully selected or
constructed, and conclusions drawn only from the data yielded.
Consequently, recommendations are based on the findings and
conclusions.
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As soon as the data have been collected, evidences
are now on hand to confirm or refute the hypothesis
formulated at the start of the investigation. These
empirical data will form the basis for conclusions.
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Everything is so controlled that any observer of the investigation will develop full confidence in the
results. Due to the control employed in the research, exact
and precise outcomes are expected.
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Research and problem solving are similar, although there is a fundamental difference:
The purpose of research is to reveal new knowledge while problem
solving is to provide answer to an immediate problem in particular
setting (Manalaysay,2011)
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Distinctions between Research and Problem- Solving
(Manalaysay,2011):
1. The elements of research are explicitly and precisely described that is not usually demanded of
problem-solving.
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2. Research data are usually analyzed with appropriate statistical procedures while
problem-solving seldom uses statistical analysis.
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3. Factors are elaborately controlled which are not usually imposed in
problem-solving.
4. Findings are generalized (to a population).
5. Report of research findings is expected in writing that the others may utilize the
results.
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Why do research?
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1. Research is a vehicle for mobility or change.
2. It is a major contributor towards the attainment of national
development goals. (Research then assumes the role of shaping the
nation’s future.)
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3. Research has brought about progress and a much better life for
all.
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4. At present, no college student can escape from conducting
research.
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TYPES OF RESEARCH
A. According to motives
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Basic (or Pure) Research and Applied Research
Both basic and applied research are important to the advancement of human knowledge, but they work in slightly different ways, and they have different end goals in sight.
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Basic or pure research is conducted solely for the purpose of gathering
information and building on existing knowledge, as opposed to applied research, which is geared
towards the resolution of a particular question.
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A neurologist who studies the brain to learn about its general
workings is doing basic research, while a neurologist who is searching for the origins of
Alzheimer's disease is involved in applied research.
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Often, applied research builds on existing basic research. Basic
research could be considered the foundation of knowledge which provides people with the basic
information they need to pursue particular areas of research.
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In the example of the two neurologists above, for example,
the neurologist involved in applied research on a neurological condition will probably use research published by the
neurologist who is more generally studying the brain.
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In basic research, general theories, ideas, and questions are explored and
tested, from where the universe comes from to how animals communicate.
Some people have suggested that this type of research should not be a
priority, because it doesn't always result in an immediate benefit to
humans.
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But without basic research, many applied
research programs would be hard-pressed to get
the start they need.
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Doing basic research ensures that applied
researchers don't need to reinvent the wheel every time they start on a new
project, because the groundwork has been done.
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Basic or Pure: Robotic: Its Economic Potentials
and Ethical Issues
Applied: Build- Operate- Transfer Scheme in
the Philippines
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B. According to time element
1. Historical – describes “what was”2. Descriptive - describes “what
is” (On-line Games and Academic Performance)
3. Experimental- describes “what will be”(Selected Herbal Medicines and Hypertensive Residents of Cebu City)
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C. According to types of data
1. Quantitative (Motorist Helmet and Accident Survival Rate)
2. Qualitative (Extent of Awareness on Global
Warming)
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D. According to levels of investigation
1. Descriptive- looks into the variables and relationships among them.
2. Experimental- looks on how variables affect other variables.
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3. Exploratory – looks for the variables themselves.
(Factors Affecting Water Contamination)
4. Developmental- done to design better work method.
(Automated Water Sprayer for Del Monte Philippines)
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E. According to duration
1. Retrospective or Historical- studies that look for causes, events, etc. that occurred in the past.
2. Prospective- studies that look to the present following into the future (looking into changes of the dependent variables over time).
.
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3. Cross- sectional- describes what exists today using one
measurement time (collects data one time only and are meant to
obtain a cross section of the population at a given moment in
time – now/today)
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THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
(Sevilla, et. al.,1993)
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A researchable problem is not answerable by a seminar or by a single book (Manalaysay, 2011).
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SOURCES OF PROBLEM
• One of the critical steps in thesis writing is the choice of the problem.
• Although a great number of students find this stage stimulating/challenging, often this is one factor that hinders them in pursuing a thesis.
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Students may pick their problem from:
1. journals2. books
3. abstracts4. recommendations in theses
5. teachers and friends
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THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS MAY MANIFEST A PROBLEM :
(McGuigan,1978, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1993)
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1. When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in
knowledge.2. When there is a gap between what
is and what should be (Manalaysay, 2011)
3. When there are contradictory results.
4. When a fact exists and one intends to make a study explain it.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROBLEM:
1. The topic should be very interesting to the researcher.
2. It is useful for the concerned people in particular fields.
3. It possesses novelty.
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4. A good problem invites a more complex designing.
5. It can be completed in the allotted time.
6. It does not carry ethical or moral impediments.
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SHARPENING SKILLS FOR DISCOVERING and IDENTIFYING a
PROBLEM
The following activities are suggested:
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1. Reading a lot of literature in one’s field of concentration and being
critical of what one reads.
2. Attending professional lectures/seminars.
3. Being close observant of situations/happenings.
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4. Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics/lessons taken
in content courses.
5. Conducting mini-researches and noting the obtained findings closely.
6. Compiling researches with special emphasis on content and
methodology.
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7. Visiting libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics.
8. Subscribing to journals in one’s field and in research.
9. Building-up a library of materials in one’s field.
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STATEMENT of the PROBLEM
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LIMITING and DEFINING the PROBLEM
(How may a broad topic be more defined/narrowed down):
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1. One may start defining some major terms or concepts.
2. One should read further literature (Take note of research
approaches/methods, the participants/respondents,
instruments, data analyses, outcomes, etc.)
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3. One may shape his specific questions more finally than what
he did at the beginning of the survey of the literature.
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WRITING THE TITLE OF THE INVESTIGATION
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There are some functions that the title serves as it is used in a study:
1. It draws (in summary form) the content of the entire investigation, giving the
reader an instant grasp of what the study is .
2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
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3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible
survey of theory.
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In view of the above-mentioned functions, the
title should be written briefly, but should contain 3
things:
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a. The variables one will study.
b. The relationship among the variables.
C. The target population.
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Example:
1. From “The Relationship Between Creativity and Music Achievement”
to
“Creativity and Music Achievement Among Grade Six Pupils in Four Marist
Schools of Metro Manila”.
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Example2. From “A Study of the Relationship
Between I.Q., Socio-economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career
Preference”to
“I.Q., Socio-economic Status, Personality, Work Values, and Career Preferences Among Fourth Year High School Students of South Cotabato”
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VARIABLES
(Sevilla, et. al., 1992)
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A variable is a characteristic that has two or more mutually
exclusive values or properties.
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Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
time.
An example is tossing a coin once, which can result in either heads or
tails, but not both.
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In the coin-tossing example, both outcomes are collectively exhaustive, which means that at least one of the outcomes must happen, so
these two possibilities together exhaust all the possibilities.
However, not all mutually exclusive events are collectively exhaustive.
For example, the outcomes 1 and 4 of a single roll of a six-sided die are mutually exclusive (cannot both happen) but not collectively
exhaustive (there are other possible outcomes such as 5 and 6).
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At the beginning of a research study, one
should firmly set in mind what his/her variables
are.
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Which among the characters or measure do you intend to be your
outcome/objective?
What characteristics/conditions will make the outcome/objective
vary/differ?
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Q: In the foregoing questions, which is asking
for the criterion or dependent variable?
variate or independent variable?
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A:
Former- criterion/dependent variable
Latter- variate or independent variable
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Some sources describe the independent variable as the cause and the dependent variable as the
result.
The dependent variable, therefore, is the object of the investigation.
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Title length (Baker & Schutz, 1972, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1993)
Twenty substantive words, function words not included, is the maximum allowable length.
Moreover, they propose that the phrases “ A Study of”, “ An Investigation of”, An Inquiry into”, “ A Comparison of”, be dropped from the title since all theses or dissertations are investigations.
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WRITING THE
SPECIFIC QUESTIONS
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Write them in quantifiable terms.The specificity set will ascertain
just what questions are to be answered. Quantification and measurement will give more direction to the investigation.
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Example # 1:
What is the creativity level of college freshman students?
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Specific, quantifiable and measurable:
What is the creativity level of college freshman students in terms
of fluency, flexibility, and originality?
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Example # 2:
How do certain reading skills relate to problem- solving skills?
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Improved:
How does reading comprehension relate to problem-solving skills among Grade V pupils of the
study?
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THE HYPOTHESIS
As soon as one has found a suitable topic for a problem, he should start building up predictions of the outcome of the study. These predictions may just be based on observations or firm belief about the topic, but these are all tentative. The real hypothesis will be formulated after a thorough review of the literature.
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Gay (1976, as cited by Sevilla, et. al., 1992) defines hypothesis as “a tentative
explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur.”
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It states the researcher’s expectations concerning the
relationship between the variables in the research problem.
A hypothesis then is the most specific statement of a problem.
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Characteristics of a good hypothesis:
(Manalaysay,2011)
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1. A good hypothesis is easily understood, specific, conceptually
clear, and can be tangibly measured.
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2. It should be related to a body of theory so that the findings will be
relevant and provide valuable information.
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3. It should be logical, testable, related to the research problem,
factual, and theory- based.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS
1. It introduces the researcher’s thinking at the start of the study.2. It structures the next stages or procedures of the study.3. It helps one provide the format for the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the data in the thesis.
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STATING THE HYPOTHESES
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Hypotheses are stated in a variety of ways:
simple, complex, directional, non- directional,
or null hypotheses.
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Simple: Performance in Mathematics is related to success
in the Board Examination.
Complex: Heredity, home environment, and quality instruction are related to
intelligence and performance in school.
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Directional: People who smoke are more prone to fail the Board Exams
than those who don’t.
(The expected direction or nature of a hypothesized relationship is
specified.)
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Non- directional: There is a difference in the Board Exams rating of those who smoke and
those who do not.
Null hypothesis: There is no correlation between the Board
Exams rating and smoking.
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In studies where the hypotheses are to be tested by statistical tests of significance, the practice is to employ the concept of the null
hypotheses.
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Null hypothesis is a statement of “no significant difference or
relationship” between two or more variables that are to be measured
and tested through inferential statistics.
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Ex. 1Ho: There is no difference in the 7-day
strength of Portland and Pozzolan cements.
Ex. 2Ho: There is no difference in the
recovery rate of patients who received drug x and those who do
not.
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In many studies involving statistical tests of the significance of
relationships, null, as well as alternative hypotheses, are
formulated.
If the data reject the null hypothesis, the alternative
hypothesis is accepted.
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The alternative hypothesis (HA) is a reverse statement of a null hypothesis.
It states that “there is a significant difference or relation (for a non-
directional two-tailed test) or that the difference is in a certain direction ( for
a directional one- tailed test).”
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Alternative Hypotheses:HA1: Portland cement has a greater 7-day
strength.HA2: Pozzolan cement has a greater 7-day
strength.
HA1: Patients will have a higher recovery rate with drug.
HA2: Patients will have a higher recovery rate without the drug.
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When the null hypothesis is rejected, it is the alternative hypothesis that serves as the
statement that clinches the finding and answers the question posed in
the pertinent sub-problem.
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Q: Why is the null hypothesis (usually) stated in negative?
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A: A known advantage of stating a hypothesis in the null or no-
relationship format is the sense of scientific objectivity that pervades
such statement.If Ho is stated in positive, the
impartiality of the research can be questioned, since it appears to have
a preconceived opinion on the outcome.
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Q: Is there a hypotheses- free research?
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A: Yes.1. Studies not after relationships
do not use hypotheses.
2. A researcher may engage in a fact- finding investigation (He may
be interested in learning more about a certain phenomenon).
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Ex: 1. Why do students in Group A perform better than Group B?
2. How can the number of board passers be raised?
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WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
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SUGGESTIONS:1. Start with a brief background of
events that truly depict the present state of the issue (This is a brief
world scenario citing striking facts/statistics that objectively portray the existing problem
situation abroad, in the Philippines, and in the locality).
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2. The researcher’s firm stand on the need to bridge the gap
between existing bodies of knowledge and the prevailing
problem situation.
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3. The researcher’s rationale concerning the need to conduct or replicate a completed study. Such is a statement to establish reason
for the study.
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4. If a new theory is being envisioned for the study, start by
attacking some pertinent universally- held theories on the subject and giving the rationale
behind the research undertaking.
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It is cautioned to refrain from presenting in the introductory section the statement on the
research problem itself or information that should be part of
the related literature.
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THEORIES and CONCEPTS
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Theory- a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions,
or propositions that provide a view of reality for the purpose of
describing, explaining, predicting, or controlling the phenomena of
interest.
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Concept – a complex of ideas so united as to portray a larger
general idea.
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FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
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1. Presents the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies in previous
researches. This provides the study with conceptual frameworks,
justifying the need for investigation.
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2. Puts together all the constructs/concepts that are
related with the researcher’s topic. The theory then leads one into
other specific questions to ask in the investigation.
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3. It presents the relationship among variables that have been investigated. This process enables the researcher
to view the topic on hand against the findings earlier bared. These findings have the function of explaining the
phenomena. It is the thesis/dissertation topic that is the
center of the phenomena.
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THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK- a set of interrelated
constructs/concepts, definitions, and propositions that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. The theoretical framework serves as a basis for formulating the research
hypotheses.
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- a representation of predictive relationships between
theoretical and operational concepts as indicated by the
theory.
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The framework is developed out of review of related literature.
Current knowledge is organized around a scheme of (variable-
dependent/independent) concepts that are placed with in a logical, sequential, diagrammic design.
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VARIABLE – refers to factor, characteristic or condition of a
person, a group of person, a thing, an event, an approach which takes
on values that can be measured categorically and quantitatively.
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Independent Variable (X) – the factor, characteristic, or condition
introduced, removed, or manipulated to cause a change in the dependent variable. X is also called the treatment, stimulus,
predictor, input, or experimental variable.
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Dependent Variable (Y) – the factor, characteristic, or condition that is observed and measured to
find out how X affects it. Y is called by such other names as the
outcome, response, output, and criterion, or attribute variable.
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Moderator Variable (Z) – a secondary independent variable
that is included in a study to determine whether it affects,
modifies, or alters the relationship between the primary or
independent variable (X) and the dependent variable (Y).
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Variables can be classified as:
1. Qualitative- gender, civil status, educational attainment, stress, grief, level of proficiency, etc.
2. Quantitative – IQ, age, scores, number of years in college, etc.
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Faculty:Degree
Trainings attendedYears of Experience
Students:Entrance Score
HS GPA
Facilities:Library
Laboratories
Quality Education:Performance in
Licensure Examination
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Quality Education as indicated by the passing in licensure examination is affected by the quality of faculty, students and facilities.
Independent Variables
Depedent Variable
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SIGNIFICANCE of the STUDY
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This section discusses the importance of the study to society,
institution, community, and the writer himself.
It expounds on the study’s probable impact to education,
science, etc.
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It also gives justification for the study in terms of its contribution to
theory and practice.Lastly, it touches on the
significance of the study to the researcher himself, what it does to his profession, and the difference it
makes to his own professional growth.
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SCOPE and DELIMITATION (Extent of the Study)
Explained in this section are the nature, coverage, and time frame of
the study. It briefly presents the subject areas of investigation, the numbers of respondents/subjects
involved, etc. and the rationale behind delimiting the scope of the
study.
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It answers the questions what, when, where, and who.
A sufficiently delimited study generally permits in- depth and
thorough investigation within the projected time frame.
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Delimitations- perceived weaknesses of the study include those recognized but beyond the
researcher’s control.
Ex: lack of administrative support, budget , geography, etc.
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DEFINITION of TERMSThis is necessary in order for the
researcher and the reader to be “thinking on the same plane”.
This section utilizes Operational Definitions (as opposed to
conceptual/dictionary definitions) of the terms in the title, including
unfamiliar/technical terms used through out the study.
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REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
(Sevilla, et. al., 1993)
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The review of the related literature involves the systematic
identification, location, and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research problem.
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FUNCTIONS:
1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the
planned research.2. It provides information about past researches related to the
intended study.
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3. It provides the researcher all constructs related to his study.
4. It gives information about the research methods used, the
population and sampling considered, the instruments used in gathering data, and statistical
computations of previous researches.
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5. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which the present researcher may
relate to his own findings and conclusions.
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REASONS FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
Improve your methodology Broaden your knowledge base in
your research area.
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PROCEDURE FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE Search for existing literature in
your area of study; Review the literature selected;
Develop a theoretical framework, and
Develop a conceptual framework
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RESEARCH METHODS
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By purpose, research methods are considered BASIC or APPLIED.
The former is conducted primarily to test or arrive at theory. Its main objective is to establish GENERAL
PRINCIPLES without known or intended practical application of
the findings.
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The latter, on the other hand, refers to the application of theory to the solution of problems. It is
conducted for the purpose of APPLYING, or TESTING theory, and
EVALUATING its usefulness (Gay,1976).
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ACTION RESEARCH, which is popularly used in schools, is a
feature of applied research that involves discovering and
identifying a problem in the local setting (in the classroom for
example) and solving it in the same setting but without intention of
generalizing its results.
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DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
• It is designed to gather information about present existing conditions.
• The principal aims in employing this method are to describe the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular phenomena (Travers, 1978).
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It involves collection of data in order to test hypotheses or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the
study (Gay, 1976).A descriptive study determines and
reports the way things are.
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WAYS OF OBTAINING DESCRIPTIVE INFORMATION
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a. Personal interview or mail survey- the data may involve factual information or merely composed of varied opinions.
This type of descriptive investigation is classified as
questionnaire or opinion-naire studies. These studies are also
known as self-reporting.
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b. Observation.b.1: activity/process analysis - actual
behavior of participants.
b.2: product analysis- product of the participants behavior.
b.3: situation analysis – to determine the sets of conditions in which the
behavior of participants occurs.
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c. Use of devices/instruments to conduct measurements from the
identified participants.Any study which establishes
standards of what is prevalent is termed as normative survey.
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THE EXTENT OF USE
(Reasons for the preference for descriptive research)
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1. It is more expansive and encompassing than any other
methods.2. Its contribution to science in
supplying the necessary information in a new situation (It
helps identify the factors that may serve as worthwhile for
experimental undertaking.
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3. It helps (people) to adjust or meet the existing daily common
problems in life.4. It assists (people) in knowing
how to accomplish desired purposes in the shortest available
time.5. It is applicable to varied kinds of
problems.