Mgmt 383Mgmt 383

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Jobs and Job AnalysisJobs and Job Analysis

20092009

Overview: Approaches to Deal Overview: Approaches to Deal with Jobswith Jobs

• Workflow AnalysisWorkflow Analysis – ensuring that work is – ensuring that work is effectively divided into jobs.effectively divided into jobs.

• Job DesignJob Design – improving jobs for motivation or – improving jobs for motivation or efficiency.efficiency.

• TeamsTeams – using group inputs when appropriate. – using group inputs when appropriate.• Alternative SchedulingAlternative Scheduling – improving jobs for – improving jobs for

flexibility or retention.flexibility or retention.• Job AnalysisJob Analysis - systematically identifying what is - systematically identifying what is

done in the job.done in the job.• Job Descriptions and SpecificationsJob Descriptions and Specifications – product of – product of

JA identifying TDR & KSA.JA identifying TDR & KSA.

Workflow AnalysisWorkflow Analysis

• The study of the manner in which work The study of the manner in which work (inputs, activities, and outputs) moves (inputs, activities, and outputs) moves through an organization. through an organization.

Inputs Activities(a.k.a., Process)

Outputs

Closed System

Workflow AnalysisWorkflow Analysis

• Workflow Analysis often can be used to Workflow Analysis often can be used to identify redundancy or over-complexity in identify redundancy or over-complexity in the work process.the work process.

• Workflow Analysis may lead to job Workflow Analysis may lead to job redesign.redesign.

• Workflow Analysis may indicate job Workflow Analysis may indicate job obsolescence.obsolescence.

Re-engineeringRe-engineering

• Workflow analysis enhances our Workflow analysis enhances our understanding of how work is currently understanding of how work is currently being done.being done.

• Re-engineering initiates the needed Re-engineering initiates the needed changes.changes.

Business Process Re-EngineeringBusiness Process Re-Engineering

• Business Process Re-engineering (BPR)Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) three three phased approach to improving product phased approach to improving product development, customer service & service delivery:development, customer service & service delivery:

I I Re-thinkRe-think – how does current work and job – how does current work and job design affect customer satisfaction & service?design affect customer satisfaction & service?

II II Re-designRe-design – analyze the – analyze the workflowworkflow, then re-, then re-design the process as necessary.design the process as necessary.

III III Re-toolRe-tool – look at the possibility of new – look at the possibility of new technology to improve productivity, service, technology to improve productivity, service, quality & customer satisfaction.quality & customer satisfaction.

Job Design/Re-DesignJob Design/Re-Design

• Job DesignJob Design – organizing TDR into a – organizing TDR into a productive unit of work. Reasons for productive unit of work. Reasons for systematic job design:systematic job design:• Maximize performanceMaximize performance• Enhance job satisfactionEnhance job satisfaction• Reduce adverse affects to physical and mental Reduce adverse affects to physical and mental

health.health.

• Person/Job FitPerson/Job Fit – matching the characteristics – matching the characteristics of applicants with the characteristic of the job.of applicants with the characteristic of the job.• Discussed in detail in Chapter 8Discussed in detail in Chapter 8

Classic Job Design ApproachesClassic Job Design Approaches

• Job EnlargementJob Enlargement – increasing the scope of – increasing the scope of job tasks.job tasks.

• Job EnrichmentJob Enrichment – increasing the scope and – increasing the scope and depth of job tasks.depth of job tasks.

• Job RotationJob Rotation – shifting individuals from – shifting individuals from one job to another (usually to gain one job to another (usually to gain experience)experience)

Characteristics of JobsCharacteristics of Jobs

Hackman & Oldman’s Model of Hackman & Oldman’s Model of Job CharacteristicsJob Characteristics

• Skill VarietySkill Variety – level of different activities – level of different activities required to perform the job (assembly line required to perform the job (assembly line v. law enforcement).v. law enforcement).

• Task IdentityTask Identity – the extent to which a the – the extent to which a the job includes a whole identifiable unit of job includes a whole identifiable unit of work that results in a visible outcome work that results in a visible outcome (assembly line v. Orange County Chopper).(assembly line v. Orange County Chopper).

Characteristics of JobsCharacteristics of Jobs

• AutonomyAutonomy – the level of individual control – the level of individual control the individual exerts over the work and its the individual exerts over the work and its scheduling (assembly line v. law scheduling (assembly line v. law enforcement).enforcement).

• Task SignificanceTask Significance – the impact that the job – the impact that the job has other people (assembly line v. hurricane has other people (assembly line v. hurricane relief worker).relief worker).

• FeedbackFeedback – amount of information – amount of information individuals receive regarding work individuals receive regarding work outcomes.outcomes.

Types Teams to Perform WorkTypes Teams to Perform Work

• Special-Purpose TeamsSpecial-Purpose Teams – formed to address – formed to address specific problems, improve work processes, specific problems, improve work processes, and enhance product/service quality (Quality and enhance product/service quality (Quality Circles)Circles)

• Self-Directed Work Teams (SDWT)Self-Directed Work Teams (SDWT) – – composed of individuals who are assigned a composed of individuals who are assigned a cluster of TDR to be performed and are cluster of TDR to be performed and are empowered to make decisions regarding work empowered to make decisions regarding work assignments within the group.assignments within the group.• No formal supervisor is assigned to the team.No formal supervisor is assigned to the team.

Types Teams to Perform WorkTypes Teams to Perform Work

• Virtual TeamsVirtual Teams – composed of individuals – composed of individuals who perform team assigned tasks, but are not who perform team assigned tasks, but are not geographically collocated.geographically collocated.• Members do not share physical proximity.Members do not share physical proximity.• Members are linked by telecommunications Members are linked by telecommunications

technology.technology.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Advantages & Disadvantages of TeamsTeams

• AdvantagesAdvantages• Productivity Productivity cancan

increase.increase.• Cost savings on Cost savings on

supervisor.supervisor.

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages• Performance measurement Performance measurement

is problematic.is problematic.• Compensating individual Compensating individual

members.members.• Not all employees are Not all employees are

“group oriented.”“group oriented.”• Require problem-solving Require problem-solving

training.training.

Alternative SchedulingAlternative Scheduling

• Shift WorkShift Work• Morning day shift (8 am - 4 pm, e.g.)Morning day shift (8 am - 4 pm, e.g.)• Evening shift (4 pm - 12 am, e.g.)Evening shift (4 pm - 12 am, e.g.)• Graveyard shift (12 am- 8 am, e.g.)Graveyard shift (12 am- 8 am, e.g.)

• Compressed Work WeeksCompressed Work Weeks• 52% of U.S. would trade a day off per week for less pay.52% of U.S. would trade a day off per week for less pay.

• FlextimeFlextime• Core timeCore time• Many jobs are not conducive to flextime.Many jobs are not conducive to flextime.

• Job SharingJob Sharing• In Global Work Environments be aware of Scheduling In Global Work Environments be aware of Scheduling

Differences.Differences.• Tuesday 1pm Oxford = Wednesday 12am Hong KongTuesday 1pm Oxford = Wednesday 12am Hong Kong

TeleworkTelework

• Telecommuting – workers work via the Telecommuting – workers work via the Internet and computer technology for one or Internet and computer technology for one or more days per weekmore days per week• HomeHome• Client’s facilityClient’s facility• Airport conference roomsAirport conference rooms• Shared offices (“office nomads”)Shared offices (“office nomads”)

TeleworkTelework

• Issues to be dealt with:Issues to be dealt with:• How to monitor the work.How to monitor the work.• How the use of company equipment will be How the use of company equipment will be

monitored (appropriate use issues).monitored (appropriate use issues).• How to handle the expenses incurred in home How to handle the expenses incurred in home

offices.offices.• How to track employee time.How to track employee time.• How to properly manage/supervise work time.How to properly manage/supervise work time.

The Nature of Job AnalysisThe Nature of Job Analysis

• Job AnalysisJob Analysis - A systematic method of - A systematic method of gathering data about the content and human gathering data about the content and human requirements of a job and the context in requirements of a job and the context in which it is performed.which it is performed.

• Three components:Three components:• Job descriptionJob description• Job SpecificationJob Specification• Performance StandardPerformance Standard

Job descriptionJob description

• Identifies the tasks, duties and Identifies the tasks, duties and responsibilities incumbent upon the responsibilities incumbent upon the position.position.

• TasksTasks

• DutiesDuties

• ResponsibilitiesResponsibilities

• Work ContextsWork Contexts

Job SpecificationJob Specification

• Identifies the Identifies the knowledge, skills, and knowledge, skills, and abilitiesabilities (KSA) that a position incumbent (KSA) that a position incumbent must possess in order to adequately perform must possess in order to adequately perform the job.the job.

• An employee who lacked the prescribed An employee who lacked the prescribed KSA, would not be able to successfully KSA, would not be able to successfully accomplish the essential TDR associated accomplish the essential TDR associated with the job.with the job.

Performance StandardPerformance Standard

• Job analysis should identify the minimal Job analysis should identify the minimal level of performance associated with the job level of performance associated with the job in question. in question. Entry level competenciesEntry level competencies..• Quantity expectationsQuantity expectations• Quality expectationsQuality expectations• Behavioral expectationsBehavioral expectations• Timeliness expectationsTimeliness expectations

Why Job Analysis is Important Why Job Analysis is Important to HRMto HRM

• Legal foundation for Legal foundation for job-relatednessjob-relatedness..

• Basis for Basis for HR planningHR planning..

• Foundation of Foundation of performance appraisalperformance appraisal..

• Basis for Basis for recruiting & selectionsrecruiting & selections..

• Benchmark for Benchmark for compensationcompensation systems. systems.• Identifies Identifies training & developmenttraining & development needs needs..

Why Job Analysis is Important Why Job Analysis is Important to HRMto HRM

• Determines Determines appropriateness of appropriateness of bargaining unitsbargaining units..

• Identifies Identifies health, safety, and securityhealth, safety, and security problems.problems.

Task-Based Job AnalysisTask-Based Job Analysis

• Most common form of Job Analysis.Most common form of Job Analysis.

• Focuses primarily on the tasks, duties, Focuses primarily on the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a given job.and responsibilities of a given job.

Competency-Based Job AnalysisCompetency-Based Job Analysis

• Focuses primarily on the knowledge, skills, Focuses primarily on the knowledge, skills, and abilities of a given job.and abilities of a given job.

• Becoming increasingly popular because:Becoming increasingly popular because:• It communicates valued behaviors within the It communicates valued behaviors within the

organization.organization.• Helps raise competency levels.Helps raise competency levels.• Emphasizes people’s capabilities for enhancing Emphasizes people’s capabilities for enhancing

the organization’s competitive advantage.the organization’s competitive advantage.

Typical Behavioral CompetenciesTypical Behavioral Competencies

• Customer focusCustomer focus• Team orientationTeam orientation• Technical expertiseTechnical expertise• Results orientationResults orientation• Communications Communications

effectivenesseffectiveness• PunctualityPunctuality

• LeadershipLeadership• Conflict resolutionConflict resolution• InnovationInnovation• AdaptabilityAdaptability• DecisivenessDecisiveness• Attention to detailAttention to detail

Job Analysis Approaches Job Analysis Approaches (Methods)(Methods)

• ObservationObservation• Work samplingWork sampling• Job diary/logJob diary/log

• InterviewingInterviewing• QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)• Managerial Position Description Managerial Position Description

Questionnaire (MPDQ)Questionnaire (MPDQ)

• Computerized Job AnalysisComputerized Job Analysis

ObservationObservation

• Work SamplingWork Sampling

• Employee Diary (Job Log)Employee Diary (Job Log)

• Warning: Be aware of the “Hawthorne Warning: Be aware of the “Hawthorne Effect” when conducting your observations.Effect” when conducting your observations.

InterviewsInterviews• Decide on interview formatDecide on interview format

• StructuredStructured• Specific questions asked of each candidate.Specific questions asked of each candidate.• What were your primary duties in your last job?What were your primary duties in your last job?• What equipment did you use?What equipment did you use?

• UnstructuredUnstructured• Open-ended questions.Open-ended questions.• Tell me about your last job?Tell me about your last job?

• Determine who is to be interviewed:Determine who is to be interviewed:• EmployeeEmployee• SupervisorSupervisor• Combination (recommended)Combination (recommended)

• May be used in conjunction with questionnairesMay be used in conjunction with questionnaires..

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

• Two types of questionnaire formats.Two types of questionnaire formats.• StructuredStructured• UnstructuredUnstructured

• They are less costly and data can be collected They are less costly and data can be collected more quickly than interviews.more quickly than interviews.

Typical Data Collected by Typical Data Collected by QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

• What were the routine duties?What were the routine duties?• What were the special duties?What were the special duties?• How much time was spent on these duties?How much time was spent on these duties?• Who do you have to work with to do the duties?Who do you have to work with to do the duties?• What decisions do you regularly make?What decisions do you regularly make?• What KSAs do you have to use?What KSAs do you have to use?• What training is required?What training is required?• What physical activities do you perform?What physical activities do you perform?• What are your working conditions?What are your working conditions?

Specialized Job Analysis Specialized Job Analysis Questionnaires: Position Analysis Questionnaires: Position Analysis

Questionnaire (PAQ)Questionnaire (PAQ)

• A sophisticated questionnaire which uses a A sophisticated questionnaire which uses a Likert scale to evaluate work behaviors.Likert scale to evaluate work behaviors.

• Strengths:Strengths: focuses on the elements that describe focuses on the elements that describe behaviors (competencies) which are relevant to the behaviors (competencies) which are relevant to the job rather than technical aspects of the work.job rather than technical aspects of the work.• Job elements are grouped into six divisions for Job elements are grouped into six divisions for

evaluation.evaluation.• The focus is on The focus is on behaviorsbehaviors necessary to do the necessary to do the

work.work.

Position Analysis Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)Questionnaire (PAQ)

• PAQPAQ Dimensions:Dimensions:• 1. 1. Information InputInformation Input - Where and how does - Where and how does

the worker get information to perform the job?the worker get information to perform the job?• 2. 2. Mental ProcessMental Process - What levels of reasoning - What levels of reasoning

does the job require?does the job require?• 3. 3. Work OutputWork Output - What physical activities - What physical activities

must be performed? must be performed?

Position Analysis Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)Questionnaire (PAQ)

• PAQPAQ Dimensions cont’d:Dimensions cont’d:• 4.4. Relationship with Others Relationship with Others - What level of - What level of

interdependency does the job require?interdependency does the job require?• 5. 5. Job ContextJob Context - What are the working - What are the working

conditions associated with the job?conditions associated with the job?• 6. 6. OtherOther - What other factors are relevant to - What other factors are relevant to

the job beyond the previous five dimensions?the job beyond the previous five dimensions?

Position Analysis Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)Questionnaire (PAQ)

• Shortcomings of PAQ:Shortcomings of PAQ:• PAQ is written at the college level.PAQ is written at the college level.

• It can only be effectively administered by It can only be effectively administered by an expert.an expert.

• It is very costly.It is very costly.

• It is very time consuming.It is very time consuming.

Computerized Job AnalysisComputerized Job Analysis

• Actually these are computerized versions of Actually these are computerized versions of questionnaires.questionnaires.• Once data is received the program produces job Once data is received the program produces job

descriptions, job specifications and (sometimes) descriptions, job specifications and (sometimes) performance standards.performance standards.

• CMQCMQ (Common-Metric Questionnaire) (Common-Metric Questionnaire)• Interpersonal dimensionInterpersonal dimension• Decision making dimensionDecision making dimension• Mechanical & physical activities dimensionMechanical & physical activities dimension• Work context dimensionWork context dimension

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

• Based on the Department of Labor’s Based on the Department of Labor’s Dictionary of Occupational TitlesDictionary of Occupational Titles. (actually . (actually replaced by O*Net in 1991)replaced by O*Net in 1991)• Titles and general job descriptions for over Titles and general job descriptions for over

28,000 jobs.28,000 jobs.• A good starting place for the general summary A good starting place for the general summary

component of job descriptions and component of job descriptions and specifications.specifications.

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

• ConsiderationsConsiderations• Goals of the organizationGoals of the organization• What workers do to achieve those goalsWhat workers do to achieve those goals• The level and orientation of what workers doThe level and orientation of what workers do• Performance standardsPerformance standards• Training contentTraining content

Occupational Information NetworkOccupational Information Network

• The Occupational Information Network - O*Net The Occupational Information Network - O*Net database takes the place of the Dictionary of database takes the place of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) as the nation's primary Occupational Titles (DOT) as the nation's primary source of occupational information. source of occupational information.

• O*NetO*NetTMTM OnLine at OnLine at http://online.onetcenter.org/• Find occupations using keywords or O*NET-SOC codes.Find occupations using keywords or O*NET-SOC codes.

• Use a list of your skills to find matching O*NET-SOC Use a list of your skills to find matching O*NET-SOC occupations.occupations.

• You can enter a code or title from the DOT to find You can enter a code or title from the DOT to find matching O*NET-SOC occupations matching O*NET-SOC occupations

DPT CodesDPT Codes

Data

0 - Synthesis1 - Coordinate2 - Analyze3 - Compile4 - Compute5 - Copy6 - Compare

People

0 - Mentor1 - Negotiate2 - Instruct3 - Supervise4 - Divert5 - Persuade6 - Speak/ Signal7 - Serve8 - Take Instruction

Things

0 - Setup1 - Precision Work2 - Operate/Control3 - Drive Operate4 - Manipulate5 - Tend6 - Feed7 - Handle

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

•090090. . 227227. . 010010..Occupational

Code:Educational

DPTCode

Order interms of otherjob titles with

same DPT

25-1011.00 O*NET-SOC code

Job Description (the Job Description (the Document) ComponentsDocument) Components

Identification

Position Title:Reporting relationship:Department:Pay Grade:

General SummaryEssential Functions and DutiesJob Specifications

Education requirements:

Expertise requirements:Working conditions:

Disclaimers and Approvals

Job DescriptionJob Description

Position Title: Computer OperatorDepartment: Data Systems DepartmentReports to: Manager of Data Systems DepartmentGeneral Summary:Computer operator oversees the operation of computer hardware systems, ensuring that these machines are used as efficiently as possible. Works with networks of personal computers. Computer operators must anticipate problems and take preventive action as well as solve problems that occur during operations.

Essential Job FunctionsEssential Job Functions

Essential Functions and Duties1. Controls the console of computer workstation while entering data in packaged or developed software. (60%)2. Works from operating instructions prepared by programmers, users, or operations managers, computer operators set controls on the computer and on peripheral devices required to run a particular job.(15%)3. Operates scanners and printers.(5%)

[Continued on next slide]

Essential Job FunctionsEssential Job Functions

Essential Functions and Duties Con’t:4. Prepare printouts or other output for distribution to computer users. (5%)5. Loads the equipment with disks, and paper as needed.(5%)6. While the computer is running, monitors the control console and respond to operating and computer messages.(5%) 7. Performs other duties as directed. (5%)[the general duty clause]

Job Description and Job Description and SpecificationsSpecifications

Job Specifications:

1. Education, high school graduate or equivalent.2. Experience with IBM® compatible personal computer data entry.3. Knowledge and skill in using Excel® spread sheets.4. Knowledge in operating laser jet printers.5. Ability to take instructions and pay attention to detail in data entry and maintaining log books.

Job Description and Job Description and SpecificationsSpecifications

Disclaimer:

1. The company reserves the right to change the content of this job as needed.2. This job description in no way, implicitly nor explicitly, contractually binds the company to a permanent relationship with the employee.

Legal Standards for Job Legal Standards for Job AnalysisAnalysis

1. 1. Job analysis must be performed on the Job analysis must be performed on the exact job for which the selection criteria exact job for which the selection criteria are used.are used.

2. 2. Job analysis must be in written formJob analysis must be in written form..3. 3. Job analysis must be able to describe the Job analysis must be able to describe the

job in question and its relevant procedures.job in question and its relevant procedures.4. 4. Data must come from several up-to-date Data must come from several up-to-date

sources.sources.

Legal Standards for Job Legal Standards for Job AnalysisAnalysis

5. 5. Data should have been collected by an expert Data should have been collected by an expert (either internal or external).(either internal or external).

6. 6. Tasks, duties, and responsibilities must be Tasks, duties, and responsibilities must be clearly identified.clearly identified.

7. 7. Amount of competency required at the Amount of competency required at the entry entry levellevel must be clearly defined. must be clearly defined.

8. 8. KSA must be shown to be essential for job KSA must be shown to be essential for job accomplishment.accomplishment.