MGT8033: Twba. Session 4 - Diagnosis

Data collection, Information gathering, Processing and

Feedback

Learning Objectives

Explain the importance of diagnosis in the overall organisational change process

Understand the basic principles of data collection and analysis

To (identify and) understand methods for collecting and analysing diagnostic information

To learn how to feed back diagnostic information

Collecting and Analysing Diagnostic Information

Major methods for collecting data

1. Questionnaires

2. Interviews

3. Observations

4. Unobtrusive methods

1. Questionnaires

Considered one of the most efficient ways to collect data

Contain fixed-response questions Administered to large numbers of people

simultaneously Can be analysed quickly Permit quantitative analysis Data can easily be fed back to employees

1. Questionnaires

AdvantagesDraw from large samples/groups of respondents

Attract and accommodate large quantities of data

Relatively inexpensive

The activity isn’t time-bound

DisadvantagesPreset questions may not target the real issues

Data can be misinterpreted or overinterpreted

Respondets can misinterpret questions

Subject to response bias (including deliberate misinformation)

2. Interviews

Most frequently used methodology in OD

Especially useful where there is trust between managers and employees

Can be oriented to the individual or the group

Interviews may be highly structured resembling questionnaires

may be unstructured starting with general questions that allow the

respondent to lead the way

2. Interviews

Advantages Flexibility – allows discretion re pursuing themes and further

clarification Primary and rich data Can build rapport with subjects, in which case more honest

and frank disclosure is possible May be individual or group-oriented Focus groups popular: can uncover info. on specific matters

and in great depth. In this form, the process can be quite economical

2. Interviews

Disadvantages Substantial time to plan, conduct and

analyse, with potential complications in interpretation of outcomes

Comparative silence - ‘sleepers’ in group interviews (focus groups) means some views may not be aired. The prevailing views then may not reflect accurately the group view

Bias on the part of interviewer or

respondent(s)

3. Observations

A direct way of collecting data Feature organisational behaviours in their usual functional

settings Observer can be group member or completely detached from

the group or situation If carried out ‘properly’ need not impinge on or influence

normal operations

This data collection method requires care/skill

3. Observations

Advantages Yields data on actual

behaviour Free of bias associated

with self-reporting Focus on the present

whereas other methods tend to be retrospective

Observer can readily change point of focus

Disadvantages Meaning behind observed

behaviours can be difficult to determine

Observer bias possible Sampling issues (see

Waddell et al 2011, p. 148)

Can be expensive

4. Unobtrusive measures

Data collected from secondary sources

Records are typically readily accessible absenteeism, tardiness, grievances, quantity and

quality of production or service, financial performance, correspondence with key stakeholders

Helpful in diagnosing group and individual outputs

These data are recorded at various intervals anyway, therefore trends can be identified

4. Unobtrusive measures

Advantages Non-reactive, no

response bias High face validity: can

be used to cross-check

Easily quantified and reflect ‘legitimacy’

Access and retrieval difficulties (data in a form that’s useful to the company but not the consultant

recording procedures are subject to change, which can make validity of data questionable

Coding and interpretation difficulties

Disadvantages

Sampling-type concerns

Questions re how to go about data collection arise, e.g. How many interviews? Who to interview? Which data are pertinent? Which events should be noted? How often?

Can be circumvented when all org. members are caught in the sample … but this is rare.

In most data collection for diagnosis, selections are made. Sampling is more expedient and less a resourcing drain on the enterprise.

Selections/samples typically need to reflect the characteristics of the population.

Sampling-type concerns

Importance of sample size (how many events, records, people are required?) No definitive answer Sample size decisions are informed by the size of

the population, (The larger or more complex the pop., the more rigorous the data should be), the required confidence in the accuracy and relevance of the data (in which case the larger the proportion of sample to pop. the better), and resources made available for data collection (because resource limitations restrict sample size.

Sampling-type concerns

Importance of sample selection Simple random sampling is often used (every

person, behaviour event or record has equal chance of being included)

For complex populations or many different types or groups must be represented in your sample, a stratified sample may be used. Here, for example, the different member types are allocated into mutually exclusive sets, and a random sample is then taken from each.

Some Techniques for analysing data

Qualitative tools Content analysis Force-field analysis

Quantitative tools Means, standard deviations and frequency

distributions Scattergrams and correlation coefficients Difference tests

Feeding Back Diagnostic Information

Characteristics of effective feedback

Relevant (meaningful to org. members)

Understandable (readily interpreted)

Descriptive (reflect org. behaviours)

Verifiable (valid & accurate)

Timely (fed back as soon as practicable)

Comparative (benchmarking assists here)

Unfinalised (feedback is a spur for further action & investigation)

Significant (limited to issues the members can reasonably do something about)

Characteristics of the feedback process

Motivation to work with the data May involve some empowering. Members will use the

data insofar as they feel some sense of ownership

Structure for the meeting An agenda or direction required. Complicated when the

data reflect negatively

Appropriate membership Suggests that those who are likely to be affected by the

impending change, must be included in the feedback meeting

Characteristics of the feedback process

Appropriate power Members need to be clear on which decisions are

already made, where they have some discretion or input, and to what extent?

Little real power to influence changes means little ownership of the data (or the problem)

Process help Equates to active assistance from the consultant to

work through the issues collectively

Survey feedback steps

Involve organisation in preliminary planning

Administer survey instrument

Analyse the survey data, tabulate results and give suggestions for diagnosis

Feedback usually begins at the top of the organisation and trickles down.

Limitations of survey feedback

Ambiguity of purpose Difficulty reaching consensus

Distrust High levels of distrust in the organisation can

render the survey feedback ineffective

Unacceptable topics

Organisational disturbance

Summary

Data Gathering

questionnaires, interviews, observation, unobtrusive measures Sampling concerns

Data Analysis Qualitative methods Quantitative methods

Characteristics of effective feedback

Characteristics of the feedback process

Survey feedback (steps & limitations)