mics total

8/8/2019 Mics Total

1/90

formation Systems Management 27/06/20

Trevor Sharpe

Systems, Information & Management

Trevor M Sharpe MA

Reading list

Course plan

Assignment

Lectures

Examination

15/06/2010 Trevor Sharpe 2

What is the difference between data,

information and knowledge? What information systems are available to

organisations?

How are these information systemsintegrated into the organisation?


8/8/2019 Mics Total

2/90

8/8/2019 Mics Total

3/90

8/8/2019 Mics Total

4/90


Trevor Sharpe

Computer systems at any level of theorganisation that change goals, operations,products, services or environmentalrelationships to help the organisation gain acompetitive advantage.

Laudon & Laudon


Information = Data

+

Relevance

+

Purpose


Information + Insight = Understanding

Understanding + Communication = Intelligence

Intelligence + Action = Effectiveness

Information + Accessibility = Knowledge


8/8/2019 Mics Total

5/90


Trevor Sharpe

A collection of elements or components thatare organized for a common purpose

A computer systemconsists of hardware components

that have been carefully chosen so that they work welltogether and software components or programs thatrun in the computer.

A filing systemis a group of files organized with a plan(for example, alphabetical by customer)

Paul Bocij et al


An assembly of parts where: The parts or components are connected together in an

organised way

The parts or components are affected by being in thesystem (and are changed by leaving it)

The assembly does something

The assembly has been identified by a person as beingof special interest

The Open University



No exchanges

with environment

8/8/2019 Mics Total

6/90


Trevor Sharpe

Predictable systems where the output canbe predicted from the input.

For example: a calculator, where theoutcome of a calculation can be predictedwith complete accuracy.

Deterministic systems are sometimes calledMechanisticsystems



Subject to Known andUnknown Inputs andEnvironmentalDisturbances

ENVIRONMENTNVIRONMENT

InputsOutputs

Predictable

Unpredictable

Known

Unknown

Disturbance

Where some conditions of the system can

be predicted from the previous state butonly in terms ofprobablebehaviour andthere is always a certain degree of errorattached to what the system will do.

For example: in an inventory control systemthe averagedemand or the averagestockcan be predicted, but the exact valueofthese factors cannot be predicted.


8/8/2019 Mics Total

7/90


Trevor Sharpe

Systems that have the ability to monitor andregulate their own performance or behaviour

What is the most adaptive system you know?


Systems have: Holism

the whole is greater than the sum of the parts

Entropy levels of disorder

Equifinality more than one way to put the system together

Ashbys Law of Requisite Variety systems must be flexible

Hard vs. Soft Systems hard systems have explicit objectives. Soft systems are

unpredictable



Specific SocialEnvironment Customers &

Marketing Finance Technology Competition Personnel & Unions Suppliers &

Materials

General SocialEnvironment Social Cultural &

DemographicFactors

InternationalInfluences

Green Issues Legal Influences Government Economic

Framework

8/8/2019 Mics Total

8/90


Trevor Sharpe

Hardware

Software

Stored Data Personnel

Procedures



Management

Information

system

External

Environmental

Influences

Decision

Making

Requirements

Primary

Function

& Size of

Organisation

Planning

Requirements

Organisation

Structure

Management

Style

LegalRequirements

Control

Structures

Use of

Information

Technology

T Lucey

Determining the value of information

systems Understanding the behavioural background

to information systems

Selecting the correct informationarchitecture

Understanding the social and ethicalaspects of modern information systems


8/8/2019 Mics Total

9/90


Trevor Sharpe

1. What specificinformation does a business

need?2. What data gives this information?

3. What is the input from people?

4. What knowledge can be gained?


Valuing Information Systems

Trevor M Sharpe MA

Valuing Information Systems

Trevor M Sharpe MA

8/8/2019 Mics Total

10/90


Trevor Sharpe 1

What are the methods of valuing systems and

the information they contain? What are the advantages and drawbacks of

valuing information systems in this way? What is the value of an information system to

an organisation?



Operational The Payback method Return on Investment Net Present Value Internal Rate of

Return Cost Benefit Analysis

Strategic Porters 5 Forces

Porters Value Chain

Calculate the Cost-Benefit Ratio:

By assigning monetary values to both the costsand the benefits


Total benefits

Total costs

8/8/2019 Mics Total

11/90


Trevor Sharpe 1


Hardware

Software

Installation Environmental

Running

Maintenance

Support

Security

Networking Training

Organisational

Downtime


ImprovedCustomer Service

CompetitiveAdvantage

TimelyInformation

Support for thecore business

ImprovedInformation

Improved ProductQuality

ImprovedCommunication

Innovation

Job Enhancement

Costs and Benefits do not occur within thesame time frame. IT can change during the time of the project. There is a real difficulty in valuing

information Therefore, use the financial models cautiously

and not in isolation


8/8/2019 Mics Total

12/90


Trevor Sharpe 1


Analyse the strategic business importance ofIS

Analyse the IS strategy options Manage the evolving portfolio in direct

proportion to business value and nottechnical peculiarities.

IT as a resource? IT as a means of supporting and/or

enhancing current organizational capabilities? IT as a basis for enabling new capability

creation? IT as infrastructure for the firm? IT as a means of communication within and

beyond the firm? IT as a distribution channel for products?

Is IT all of these, or something elsealtogether?


Drnevich, Hahn, & Shanley

An organisations ability to learn, and translate

that learning into action rapidly, is theultimate competitive advantage.

Jack Welch, Chairman, General Electric


8/8/2019 Mics Total

13/90


Trevor Sharpe 1


Prahalad & Hamel suggest that the keyissue facing organisations is to assess their

core competencies We need to ask:

Will the investment in IT maintain or enhanceourfuture core competencies?

To what extent will better information help us toidentify the core competencies needed in themarketplace?


Can IS build

barriers toentry?

Can IS changethe basis ofcompetition?

Can IS buildin switching

costs?

Can IS change thebalance of powerwith suppliers?

Can IS generatenew products orservices ?

Robson


InboundLogistics

Operations OutboundLogistics

Marketingand Sales

CustomerService

Administration and Management

Human Resources

Technology

Procurement

Margin

Source: M E Porter, Competitive Advantage, New York Free Press (1985)

8/8/2019 Mics Total

14/90


Trevor Sharpe 1

Can we enhance the value added by thatactivity?

Is there an opportunity to reduce the cost ofthat activity?

Or eliminate that activity?

Can we use the activity to differentiateourselves?

What information is needed for that activity?


The value of information is now defined notby what it costs you, but by what you can dowith it.

James Strachan, Managing Director, Britannica.co.ukDaily Telegraph, Wed 20thOct 1999.


Companies that create value with digital assets

may be able to re-harvest them in an infinitenumber of transactions.

J F Rayport & J J Sviokla, Exploiting the virtual Value Chain,Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec 1995, pp 75-85


8/8/2019 Mics Total

15/90


Trevor Sharpe 1


Physical Value Chain

Gather

Organise

Select

Synthesise

Distribute

Virtual Value Chain

Valuematrix

Newmarkets

Newmarkets

Focus on the knowledge input into a businessprocess as a way of determining the costsand benefits of changes

These can be measured in terms of learningtime to master new processes

Hence the return on knowledge can beestimated


To make knowledge work productive will be

the great management task of this century,just as to make manual work productive wasthe great management task of the lastcentury.

Peter F Drucker, 1999


8/8/2019 Mics Total

16/90


Trevor Sharpe 1

The real value of Knowledge is only real if youchange the way business is done

B A.Pasternack & A. J. Viscio, The Centerless Corporation (1998)


A fool with a tool is still a fool


R. Banerjee in KnowledgeManagement - Tools and Techniques.(Ed. Rao) Elsevier (2005)

We are all used to Francis Bacons view that

Knowledge is Power

But

Bacon also said The desire of excessivepower caused the angels to fall; the desireof knowledge caused men to fall.


8/8/2019 Mics Total

17/90


Trevor Sharpe 1

Despite much talk about the "informationage" or the "knowledge-based enterprise"

there are no generally accepted principlesto guide executives in reconciling theeuphoric promises of the computeradvocates and their staff's ability to provethat information technology investmentsare profitable

P. A. Strassman Strassman Inc.


Systems & Organisations

Trevor M Sharpe MA

What are the strategic considerations for ISdevelopment?

What are the organisational considerationsfor IS development?

What are the cultural considerations for ISdevelopment?


8/8/2019 Mics Total

18/90


Trevor Sharpe 1


Mission

Objectives

Strategy

Other strategic

organisationalattributes

System objectives

System constraints

System design

Strategies

ISstrategic

planningprocess

Businessstrategy set

IS strategy set

W R King Strategic Planning for Management InformationSystems, MIS Quarterly, Vol. 2 No. 1 pp. 27-37 1978

External considerations

Internal considerations

Structural considerations

Cultural Considerations


Any model could be used, but we will take:-

Porters Generic Strategies a marketing approach

The Information Intensity Matrix trying tounderstand the importance of information to thebusiness.


8/8/2019 Mics Total

19/90


Trevor Sharpe 1

Again, there are many models, but we willconsider:-

Nolan Stage Model a development model

Parsons Generic Strategies a managementawareness model


Overall Cost Leadership

Overall Differentiation

Focus/Niche


Systems should replace or control costs

Biggest costs are in labour Control systems e.g.:

Inventory management

Office automation

Process control systems


8/8/2019 Mics Total

20/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

Add unique features to product/servicesdirectly

Biggest differentiator is quality Example systems:

CAD

Quality assurance systems

Quality monitoring systems


Identify and create market niches directly

Example systems: Marketing databases

CRM systems

R & D databases


High Oil Refining

Legal Services

Newspapers

Banking

Education

Airlines

Low

Cement

Bricks

Fashion

Perishables

Low High


InformationIntensity ofthe ValueChain

Information Intensity of the Product

M E Porter & V E Miller, How information gives you competitiveadvantage, HBR Vol. 63, No. 4 pp. 149-60 (1985)

8/8/2019 Mics Total

21/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

Try to understand what the strategy is trying

to achieve. Try to ensure that the Information System will

deliver or enhance that achievement.


1. Initiation The computer is used for low level transaction

processing

2. Contagion Enthusiasm grows, but understanding doesnt

3. Control The data processing department is reorganised

to provide more control of project development


4. Integration

Data processing becomes more orientedtowards information provision

5. Data Administration Users become more accountable for the

integrity and correct use of the information

6. Maturity There is a recognition of the strategic

importance of information


R L Nolan, Managing the Crises in Data Processing, HBR, Vol. 57, No. 2 pp.115-126, 1979

8/8/2019 Mics Total

22/90


Trevor Sharpe 2


Strategy Reasons for

Adoption

Role of IS

function

CentrallyPlanned

Managementbelieves centralplanning facilitatesthe uncovering ofthe whole picture

Service provider

Strategy Reasons forAdoption

Role of ISfunction

Leading Edge Managementbelieves thatinnovativetechnology cancreate business

gains

Experimenter andpromoter




Role of ISfunction

Free Market Managementbelieves the marketmakes the bestdecisions

Competitivebusiness unit

8/8/2019 Mics Total

23/90


Trevor Sharpe 2


Strategy Reasons for

Adoption

Role of IS

function

Monopoly Managementbelieves thatinformation is acorporate asset

Reactive satisfyingrequirements



Role of ISfunction

ScarceResource

Managementbelieves thatinformation is finite

Making the bestuse of limitedresources



Role of ISfunction

Necessary Evil Managementbelieves thatinformation is notimportant in theirbusiness

Providingminimum level ofresource

G Parsons, Fitting Information Systems Technology to the Corporate Needs: The LinkingStrategy, Harvard Business School Teaching Notes (9-183-176) June 1983

8/8/2019 Mics Total

24/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

Technical view A stable, formal structure that takes resources

from the environment and processes them to form

outputsBehavioural view

A collection of rights, privileges, obligations andresponsibilities that are delicately balanced over aperiod of time through conflict and conflictresolution


Entrepreneurial

Machine bureaucracy

Divisionalised bureaucracy

Professional bureaucracy

Adhocracy



Production Finance Marketing

CEO InformationFlows

Instructionflows

What are the informational flows in anadhocracy or matrix organisation?

8/8/2019 Mics Total

25/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

The values, attitudes and behaviour thatinfluence the way that people sense, collect,organise, process, communicate and useinformation


D. A. Marchand, Managing Strategic Intelligence"; "What is your company'sinformation culture?"; "The information infrastructure: promises & realities",

Financial Times Mastering Management, Ed T. Dickson & G. Bickerstaffe,(Pitman Publishing, London, 1997), pp. 346-350, pp. 351-356, pp. 360-364.

Functional Managers use information as a means of exercising power

or influence over others.

Sharing Managers and employees trust each other to use

information wisely (especially about their problems orfailures) to improve their performance

Inquiring Managers and employees search for information better to

understand the future and ways of changing what they doto align themselves with future trends/directions

Discovery Managers and employees are open to new insights about

crises and radical changes and seek ways to createcompetitive discontinuities.



ANTICIPATEAvoid Errors and

Problems

CREATERedefine theCriteria for

Success & Failure

CONTROLMonitors Errorsand Problems

ADAPTCorrect Errorsand Problems

High

High

Low

Low

COMPLEXITY

UNCERTAINTY

8/8/2019 Mics Total

26/90


Trevor Sharpe 2


What are the sources of information andknowledge that provide a sustainablecompetitive advantage to the business?

How do the company culture, organisationand practices currently influenceinformation cultures and behaviour?


Does the company have the right mix ofinformation behaviour and cultures tomanage change successfully today and inthe near future?

What gaps in capabilities and competenciesmust managers address in order to aligntheir information culture with their businessand market strategies?


8/8/2019 Mics Total

27/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

Flexibility is key Support a variety of styles, skills and knowledge Multiple analytical models

Needs to reflect an understanding oforganisational processes

Must be sensitive to bureaucratic andpolitical requirements

Must reflect an awareness of its limitations


Systems & Management

Trevor M Sharpe MA

What is the role of managers in the

organisation? What do managers use information for?

How can information systems be designed toenable managers to perform better?


8/8/2019 Mics Total

28/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

Deciding

Planning

Controlling Coordinating

Organising


Programmed Repetitive

Routine

Known rules

Things not people

Delegated

Automated


Unprogrammed Novel

Non-routine

Rules not known

Always involvepeople

Cannot bedelegated

Intelligence Awareness that a problem exists Awareness that a decision must be made

Design Identify all possible solutions Examine possible solutions Examine the implications of the possible

solutions

Choice Implementation

Evaluation


8/8/2019 Mics Total

29/90


Trevor Sharpe 2

1. Single unambiguous objective

2. Objective stated in numerical terms

3. All outcomes are known4. Alternatives expressed in terms of outcomes

5. Alternatives are ranked

6. Best is chosen


Descriptive and behavioural model that takesaccount of imperfections of knowledge andbehaviour

All alternatives are not always known

Not always a single, clear cut objective

Uses rules of thumb


Decision is reached which is acceptable to all

Focus is on getting the right question Involves more people

Greater chance that the real problem will beidentified


8/8/2019 Mics Total

30/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Consider the full range of objectives Explore a wide range of alternatives Carefully evaluate the costs and risks Seek out new information Assimilate expert opinion

Re-examine all alternatives beforemaking the final decision

Make detailed plans Review the decisions made


The MIS can perform two functions

a. It supplies information, exploresalternatives, and provides supportwhere the manager takes the decision

orb. The MIS takes the decision itself. This is

only appropriate with routineoperational decisions where the rules

are known.


Where are we now?

Where are we going? How will we get there?

How will we know we have arrived?


8/8/2019 Mics Total

31/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

PESTEL

5 Forces

Boston Consulting Group Etc.


Simple Planning Model Based on Profit & Loss Account

Business Models Cash flow forecast, based on historical data

Sensitivity Analysis Examines the sensitive variables

Probability Models Normal Distribution, queuing etc.


Standard specifying the expectedperformance

Measurement of actual performance

Comparison of expected vs. actual

Feedback of deviations

Action to alter the performance

Feed forward to higher authority


8/8/2019 Mics Total

32/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Control system is a rational system Set of logical rules is relied upon

Focuses on a single task Scope is precise and narrow

Control is Repetitive Stable

Decisions are not judgement based


In order to achieve effective control, a systemmust be capable of as much variety as theenvironment in which it exists.

H R Ashby, Introduction to Cybernetics, Wiley, 1956


Accounting Information Systems

Financial Information Systems Marketing Information Systems

Manufacturing Information Systems

Human Resource Information Systems


8/8/2019 Mics Total

33/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

A manager is responsible for theapplication and performance ofknowledge.

Peter Drucker


Office Automation Systems (OAS)

Knowledge Work Systems (KWS)

Group Collaboration Systems (GCS)

Artificial Intelligence Applications (AI)


The effort to develop computer based systems

that can behave like humans, with the abilityto learn languages, accomplish physicaltasks, use a perceptual apparatus andemulate human expertise and decisionmaking


8/8/2019 Mics Total

34/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Expert systems/Knowledge based systems

Case-Based Reasoning

Computer Aided Software Engineering Natural Language Processing

Fuzzy Logic

Genetic Algorithms

Neural Networks

Semantic Search Engines and Link Machines

11/02/08 Trevor Sharpe10

0

Creating an organisational knowledge base Preserving expertise that may be lost through

retirement/illness etc. Increasing reliability Eliminating routine jobs Maintaining a companys strategic position


1

Someone who interprets and applies

information to create and provide value-adding solutions, and to make informedrecommendations.

Winslow & Bramer, FutureWork, Free Press (1994)


2

8/8/2019 Mics Total

35/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Explicit Objective, rational and technical

Policies, procedural guides,reports etc.

Tacit Subjective and cognitive

Experiences, insights expertise etc.

I. Nonaka & H. Takeuchi, The Knowledge Creating Company: How Japanesecompanies Create the Dynamics of Innovation, Oxford University Press(1995)


3

Knowledge is:- Applicable

Contextual

Experiential

Historical

Communal

Individual


4

Information is not the pathway to

enlightenment, happiness or wisdom.Information is only data, after all, and it ispossible to have too much of it. In fact,information can get in the way of wisdom,unless we leave ourselves sufficient timeand energy to reflect on it, make sense of it,and integrate it into our lives.

Hugh Mackay Australian columnist and author (1996)


5

8/8/2019 Mics Total

36/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Sometimes it seems that the more we know,the more confused we get; that the more weincrease our technical capacity, the more

powerless we become

Charles Handy The Age of Paradox, Harvard SchoolPress (1994)


6

The secret of business is to knowsomething that nobody elseknows.

Aristotle Onassis


7

Technology Considerations

Trevor M Sharpe MA

8/8/2019 Mics Total

37/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

What are the criteria that direct our choice ofIT architecture?

What hardware and software systems areavailable?

How should we choose our hardware andsoftware?

Should we outsource our InformationSystems?


9

1. Business need

2. Application software

3. System software

4. Hardware


0

Reflect choices made during strategy

assessment Used to add value through the value chain

Fulfil operational needs


1

8/8/2019 Mics Total

38/90


Trevor Sharpe 3

Operating Systems

Communications

Programming Languages Utilities


2

Utilities Disk maintenance Anti Virus File Maintenance

General System Software Word Processing Presentation Software Spreadsheet


3

Moores Law

Architecture choice Network topology

Metcalfs Law

Coases Law

Peripherals


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

39/90

8/8/2019 Mics Total

40/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Clients use but do not provide networkresources

Servers provide network resources Peers both use and provide network

resources


8

Strong central security

Central file storage allows easy back-up ofcritical data Easier to manage a large number of users

Keeps data from getting lost amongst users

Servers can pool hardware and software,saving costs

Servers can be optimised for speed


9

Expensive dedicated hardware Expensive network operating system software

and client licenses

Usually needs a dedicated networkadministrator


0

8/8/2019 Mics Total

41/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

No extra investment in server hardware orsoftware

Easy set-up Little administration required

Users control resource sharing


1

Additional load on computers They tend to run more slowly

Weak security

Lack of central management/organisation Data gets lost

Users administer their own computers


2

A high-speed special-purpose network (or

sub network) that interconnects differentkinds of data storage devices with associateddata servers on behalf of a larger network ofusers.

Part of the overall network of computingresources for an enterprise


3

8/8/2019 Mics Total

42/90


Trevor Sharpe 4


4

Direct Attached

Storage (DAS)

Network

AttachedStorage (NAS)

Storage Area

Network (SAN)

Application Application Application

File System Network File System

Disk Storage File System Network

Disk Storage Disk Storage

The power of the network increasesexponentially by the number of computersconnected to it. Therefore, every computeradded to the network both uses it as aresource while adding resources in a spiral ofincreasing value and choice

Robert M Metcalf the inventor of Ethernet


5

Architecture choice Outsourcing

Vendor Choice


6

8/8/2019 Mics Total

43/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Firms will grow and manage activitiesinternally until it is cheaper to outsource thatactivity. E.g. payroll. If it cheaper for a company to manage

payroll internally, they will do so. But, if a companycan outsource that activity more cost effectively,they will.

R Coase, The Nature of the Firm, Economica 4 (1937), pp. 386-405


7

Coase highlighted the following costs firmsshould consider when contemplating makevs. buy decisions: search and information costs

bargaining and decision costs

policing and enforcement costs


8

There is a limited opportunity for an

organisation to distinguish itselfcompetitively through a particular systemsapplication or series of applications

The predictability of uninterruptedinformation systems service is not veryimportant

The organisations existing informationsystems capabilities are limited, ineffectiveor technically inferior


9

8/8/2019 Mics Total

44/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Cost reduction

Quality improvements

Enables focus on core business Reduces risk of project failure


0

User Support

Disaster Recovery

Data NetworkManagement

Data Centre Operations

Support Services

Application Hosting

Voice NetworkManagement

Software Development Software Maintenance IT Strategy & Planning Internet Services Business Process


1

Branded products

Box Shifters Build yourself


2

8/8/2019 Mics Total

45/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

How much computer power do you need?

Can you spread the load over a number of

smaller computers? Do users need power over their own

computing needs?


3

Total freedom

Data exchange

Short list

Fixed Standards


4

Software has a longer life than hardware

Architecture is more enduring than kit Dont migrate from one architecture to

another without good reason Connecting two or more vendors

components is generally difficult Information requirements can never be fully

defined in advance Avoid pioneering


5

8/8/2019 Mics Total

46/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Moore's Law, Metcalfe's Law, and Coase'sTheory of Transactional Costs are synergistic.As the cost of computing declines, and the

utility of the network increases. transactionswhich came at stupendously hightransactional costs in the past are now nearlyfree.

B McNett, http://www.livejournal.com/users/cavemanog/4231.html


6

A computer will not make a good manager of abad manager. It makes a good managerbetter faster and a bad manager worse faster.

Edward M Esber, CEO of Ashton Tate, Fortune Magazine, 1987


7

Systems Building Methods

Trevor M Sharpe MA

8/8/2019 Mics Total

47/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

What are the major methods of designingnew systems?

What are the major methods of modifyingsystems?

How do they compare?


9

Systems Life Cycle

Computer Aided Software Engineering

Prototyping

The Spiral Model

The Exploratory Model

Application Software Packages

End-User Development


0


1

Evaluation and

maintenance

Implementation

Detailed design

Systems design

Systems Analysis

Systems investigation

and feasibility study

Determination of Scope

and objectives

8/8/2019 Mics Total

48/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Standard methodology

Ordered process

Easy to learn/teach

Wide range of tools

Good for complicated systems


2

Unambitious systems design

Inflexibility

User dissatisfaction

Documentation problems

Lack of control

Incomplete systems


3

Deal with the difficult analysis stage of theSDLC

Systems are modelled on paper using dataflow diagrams

Use a system of structured walkthroughs tomaintain quality assurance.


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

49/90


Trevor Sharpe 4

Built around flexible data structures

Use of diagrams improves communication

Built of business requirements Technical details are left to the end Consistent, rigorous and complete

documentation.

Training requirements can be preciselydefined.

System is independent of the developer.


5

Effort is expended in the earlier stages of theproject which is largely intangible.

Depends to a high degree on userinvolvement.

Designers maintain the intellectual propertyrights of their designs.


6

Uses the capabilities of the computer toassist the analysis and design

Capable of storing all the details

Can produce all the documentation.


7

8/8/2019 Mics Total

50/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Experimental system

Rapid

Inexpensive End-user evaluation

Iterative process


8

Useful when there is uncertainty about therequirements

Better suited to smaller applications

Management may not see the need for fulldesign

Encourages lack of documentation


9

Initial Specification Development.

System Construction/Modification. System Test.

System Implementation.


0

8/8/2019 Mics Total

51/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Used when it is very difficult, if notimpossible to identify any of the

requirements for a system at the beginningof the project. It is limited to use with very high-level

languages, such as LISP.

It is difficult to measure or predict its cost-effectiveness.

Often yields inefficient or crudely designedsystems.


1

Planning.

Risk Assessment.

Engineering.

Customer Evaluation.


2

It is difficult to assess its strengths andweaknesses due to its relative newness.

The risk assessment component of theSpiral model provides both developers andcustomers with a measuring tool that earlierSDMs do not have.

The practical nature of this tool helps tomake the Spiral model a more realistic SDMthan some of its predecessors.


3

8/8/2019 Mics Total

52/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Readily available

Pre-tested

Technical Back-up Not geared to unique requirements

The cost of customisation can be enormous


4

Users rent the software rather than buy it.

Access is available over the Internet.

Preferred Microsoft model?

Need methods of micro-payment beforeindividual users can adopt it.


5


6

Capabilitiesof thestandardpackage

Prioritisedbusinessrequirements

Map of discrepancies

Surround the packagewith extra functionality

Tolerate themismatch

Modify thebusiness process

Customise thepackage

Surplus to needsUnmet needs

8/8/2019 Mics Total

53/90


Trevor Sharpe 5


7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%

Percentage Code Rewritten

CostMultiplier

Made possible by use of 4GL tools

Professional expertise not involved

Uses commercially available products

Can lead to software anarchy


8

Improved requirements determination Increased user involvement & satisfaction

Reduced application backlog


9

8/8/2019 Mics Total

54/90

8/8/2019 Mics Total

55/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Correct resource allocation

Software Metrics

Thorough testing

Use proper quality assurance tools

Object Oriented Development (CASE etc.)

Use a sympathetic conversion method


3

Parallel: Old & new run same problems. Give same

results?

Direct cutover: Risky conversion to new system

Pilot: Introduce into one area. Does it work? Yes:

introduce into other area

Phased: Introduce in stages


4

Databases and Database Management

Trevor M Sharpe MA

8/8/2019 Mics Total

56/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

What are the components of quality data?

How is data organised?

What are the trends in data management?


6

1. Data should be entered into the system onceand once only

2. Data should be captured as close to thesource as possible

3. All data should form part of a coherentdatabase

4. Data should be available to everybody with aneed to know


7

Raw facts and figures in two forms:

Discrete Rarely changes

Continuous

Constantly changing

Collect discrete data wherever possible


8

8/8/2019 Mics Total

57/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

A collection of many inter-related items of rawfacts and figures

A database is made up of a number of inter-related

files

A file is the whole of the stored information for aparticular application e.g., information on all thecustomers of a company

A file is made up of a collection ofrecords

A record is made up of a collection offields. Eachfield contains a single item of information


9


0

ONE-TO-ONE: STUDENT ID

ONE-TO-MANY:CLASS

STUDENTA

STUDENTB

STUDENTC

MANY-TO-MANY:

STUDENTA

STUDENTB

STUDENTC

CLASS1

CLASS2


1

ROOT

FIRSTCHILD

2ndCHILD

Ratings Salary

Compensation Job

Assignments

Pension Insurance Health

Benefits

Employer

8/8/2019 Mics Total

58/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Processing efficiency: high

Flexibility: low

User friendliness: low Program complexity: high


2

Variation of hierarchical model

Useful for many-to-many relationships


3

NETWORKA

NETWORKB

NETWORKC

NETWORK1

NETWORK2

Processing efficiency: medium/high

Flexibility: low/medium User friendliness: low/moderate

Program complexity: high


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

59/90


Trevor Sharpe 5

Data in table format

Relation: table

Tuple: row (record) in table

Field: column (attribute) in table


5

NAME HOURS RATE TOTAL

ABLE 40.50 10.35 419.18

BAXTER 38.00 8.75 332.50

CHEN 42.75 9.25 395.44

DENVER 35.50 9.50 337.25

Processing efficiency: low but improving

Flexibility: high

User friendliness: high

Program complexity: low


6


7

Database

Data Dictionary

Enquiry

Software

Handles all formsof requests

ProcessingSoftware

Manipulates andRetrieves Data

Definition andDescription

Software

Defines andOrganises Data

Interface

8/8/2019 Mics Total

60/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

Reduces complexity

Reduces data redundancy/inconsistency

Central control of data creation/definitions Reduces program/data dependence

Reduces development/maintenance costs

Enhances system flexibility

Increases access/availability of information


8

DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING: multiplegeographical / functional systems connectedwith network

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE: data physicallystored in more than one location Partitioned - has files unique to that site Duplicate - has copies of common files


9

OBJECT- ORIENTED: Data and procedures

stored together; can be retrieved/shared HYPERMEDIA: Nodes contain text,

graphics, sound, video, programs.Organizes data as nodes.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL: 3D (or higher)groupings to store complex data


0

8/8/2019 Mics Total

61/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

DATA WAREHOUSE: Organisationselectronic library stores consolidated

current & historic data for managementreporting & analysis

ON-LINE ANALYTICAL PROCESSING (OLAP):ability to manipulate, analyse largevolumes of data from multiple perspectives DATA MINING


1


2

INFORMATIONDIRECTORY

INTERNALDATASOURCES

EXTERNAL

DATASOURCES

OPERATIONAL,HISTORICAL DATA

DATA WAREHOUSE

EXTRACT,TRANSFORM

DATAACCESS &ANALYSIS

QUERIES &REPORTS

OLAP

DATA MINING

The extraction of hidden predictive information

from large databases.A powerful new technology with great potential

to help companies focus on the mostimportant information in their datawarehouses.


3

8/8/2019 Mics Total

62/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

Predict future trends and behaviours

Scour databases for hidden patterns

Can be implemented rapidly on existingsoftware and hardware


4

Massive data collection

Powerful multiprocessor computers

Data mining algorithms

On-line Analytical Processing (OLAP)

Hypermedia

Rule induction


5

Two keys

Precise formulation of the problem to be solved

Using the right data

The more the model builder can play withthe data, the better the resulting model willbe.


6

8/8/2019 Mics Total

63/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

Association

looking for patterns where one event is connectedto another event

Sequence or path analysis

looking for patterns where one event leads toanother later event

Classification

looking for new patterns


7

Clustering

finding and visually documenting groups of factsnot previously known

Forecasting

discovering patterns in data that can lead toreasonable predictions about the future


8

In any collection of data, the figure most

obviously correct, beyond all need ofchecking, is the mistake. Corollary #1 No-one you ask for help will spot the

mistake.

Corollary # 2 Anyone who stops by with unsoughtadvice especially a superior will spot themistake, immediately.

Anon


9

8/8/2019 Mics Total

64/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

The Internet and e-CommerceTrevor M Sharpe MA

What is the difference between the Internetand the World-Wide-Web?

How has internet technology changed ourmethods of working?

What are the problems of managing this newtechnology/interface?


1

Began by the US government as theARPANET

Taken up by the US Universities as USENET

Taken up by the UK Universities as JANET

Individuals joined through Bulletin Boards

No central control


2

8/8/2019 Mics Total

65/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

The Internet is the physicalconnection ofcomputers

The World Wide Web is the abstractconnection of information and ideas on theinternet

T Berners-Lee, Inventor of the World Wide Web


3

e-MAIL: person-to-person messaging;document sharing USENET: electronic bulletin boards for discussion

groups LISTSERVs: e-mail list servers for discussion groups IRC: interactive conversations

HTTP: web pages on the Internet TELNET: log on to one computer, work on

another FTP: transfer files from computer to computer


4

Global connectivity

Reduced communications cost Reduced agency costs

Lower transaction costs

Interactivity, flexibility, customisation Accelerated knowledge

Technology has been expanded into intranets andextranets


5

8/8/2019 Mics Total

66/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

Business to Business (B2B) Collaborative Commerce

Business to Consumer (B2C) Consumer to Business (C2B)

Consumer to Consumer (C2C)

Intrabusiness (B2E)

Government to Citizens(G2C)

Mobile commerce (m-commerce)

Peer to Peer (P2P)


6

An Intranet is an internal network

An Extranet allows external users to connectdirectly to the company

WWW technology

Often installed on existing networkinfrastructure Overcomes computer platform differences


7

Connectivity

Can be tied to legacy system & transactionprocessing

Interactive applications with text, audio, video

Scalable to larger or smaller systems asrequired


8

8/8/2019 Mics Total

67/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

Easy to use browser interface

Low start-up costs

Rich, responsive information environment Reduced information distribution costs


9


0

INTERNET

CUSTOMER

SUPPLIER FIREWALL

DATABASES

SERVER

CLIENTS

BUSINESS

PARTNER

Easy to link with other businesses, customers

Can update product information, ordering,customer support

Enhanced business forms

Customer-centred retailing

On-line storefronts


1

8/8/2019 Mics Total

68/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

CONTENT PROVIDER creates revenue through providing advertising

and content for a fee. ON-LINE SERVICE PROVIDER

provides service, support for hardware, softwareproducts

APPLICATION SOFTWARE PROVIDER rents software usage, on-line


2

TRANSACTION BROKER buyers view rates, terms from various sources

ELECTRONIC CLEARINGHOUSE auction-like setting, products, prices, change in

response to demand

REVERSE AUCTION buyers set what prices they want to pay


3

COMMUNITY PROVIDER

User communities for personal web pages etc INFORMATION BROKER

provides information for a fee

VIRTUAL STOREFRONT sells goods, services on-line


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

69/90


Trevor Sharpe 6

WEB HOSTING SERVICES provides large servers for Web sites of fee-paying

customer

ELECTRONIC PAYMENT SYSTEM using Web for electronic funds transfers, credit ,

smart & debit cards

ADVERTISING AGENCY Places banner ads on sites

Affiliate advertising


5

e-Contact

e-Catalogue

e-Commerce

e-Courier

Sharpe & Boohene


6

e-Tailing issues

Management Issues Legal issues

Issues in m-commerce


7

8/8/2019 Mics Total

70/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Resolving channel conflict Direct sales or via retailers?

Resolving conflict with click-and mortarorganisations Direct from the shop or via the web-site?

Organising order fulfilment and logistics

Brand development on the Internet How/where do you advertise?

Identifying appropriate revenue models


8

Channel conflicts Customers in or employees out?

Technology hurdles

Security & privacy

Unproven business models Who builds the website?

IS Department? Marketing Department?

Who controls the website? What should be on it? Who manages the information generated?

How do we harness the increasing bandwidth?


9

Bandwidth will rise at a rate three times the

rate at which processing power isincreasing, or three time the rate of Moore'sLaw.

In other words, with processing powerdoubling every 18 months, bandwidth willdouble every six months.

At the moment processing power isdoubling every year and bandwidth everyfour months.

G Gilder, The Bandwidth Tidal Wave, Forbes ASAP, December 5, 1994


0

8/8/2019 Mics Total

71/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

E-mail, web content, B2B, P2P etc. increasebandwidth demands.

Demand for bandwidth from Intranets andExtranets is increasing dramatically

Gilders Law results in a bandwidthinversion Networks are more data rich than servers

Telecom companies gain profits byproviding scarce resources!


1

Fraud Buyer Protection

Seller Protection

Privacy Web tracking

Disintermediation

Taxation

Copyright

Cybersquatting


2

Which protocol?

SMS, EMS, MMS, WAP? Location Based Commerce

Needs location determining equipment

Convergence All personal devices in one

Usability


3

8/8/2019 Mics Total

72/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

It is clear we are all drowning in a sea ofinformation. The challenge is to learn toswim in that sea, rather than drown in it.Better understanding and better tools aredesperately needed if we are to take fulladvantage of the ever-increasing supply ofinformation.

Lyman, P & Varian, H R, "How Much Information", 2000. Retrieved fromhttp://www.sims.berkeley.edu/how-much-info


4

Search Engines and Directories Google vs. Yahoo

Portals Whatis.com, Findarticles.com

Intelligent Agents Softbots, knowbots

Discussion Groups Usenet, Chat rooms

The Semantic Web


5

Extension of the current web, in which

information is given a well defined meaning Expected to facilitate search, interoperability

and the composition of complex applications

Could provide personal assistants to peoplein terms of software agents capable ofperforming useful tasks such as bookingholidays/rooms etc. As well as searching forinformation


6

8/8/2019 Mics Total

73/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Towards Total ConnectivityTrevor M Sharpe MA

What are the elements of connectivity?

What are the advantages and disadvantagesof connectivity?

How can connectivity change theorganisation?


8

A measure of how well computers andcomputer-based devices communicate andshare information with one another withouthuman intervention

K. Laudon & J. Laudon


9

8/8/2019 Mics Total

74/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Organisation using networks linking people,assets and ideas to create and distributeproducts and services without being limitedby traditional organisational boundaries orphysical location

K Laudon & J Laudon


0


1

CharlesHandy

Core:

Indispensable core people

Suppliers:

Outsourcedkey services

Interface:

Flexiblelabour force

Intranet

Extranet Internet


2

8/8/2019 Mics Total

75/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Connected Worker

Teleworker


3

The use of telecommunication to work outsidethe traditional office or workplace, usually athome or in a mobile situation.

www.whatis.com


4

An expanded pool of potential employees Improvements in employee productivity,

effectiveness and morale.

A reduction in office space and parking

An attractive working condition To aid in recruitment and retention of skilled

employees

To help reduce voluntary separation of keyemployees.


5

8/8/2019 Mics Total

76/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Decline in absenteeism Employees who may feel too ill to complete a full

day and commute, may be well enough to work apartial day.

Accommodation of trained employees withhealth problems or disabilities.

Decrease in time and travel costs formeetings, conferences and training.


6

Reduced commuting time

Reduction in costs for transportation,parking, food clothing and child care

More control over their lives Increased flexibility to coordinate work schedules

with personal and family priorities

Ability to capitalize on personal peak productivityperiods.


7

Increased physical comfort

A sense of renewal and motivation,especially in ageing and plateaued workers

Improvements in communication Studies show that telework usually compels

supervisors and employees to learn new methodsto communicate


8

8/8/2019 Mics Total

77/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Loss of direct control over employees

Potential of distractions leading to declinein work output

Potential of negative public perception


9

Availability of the teleworker for trainingand counselling

Morale issues of employee who would liketo, but were not selected for telework

Costs. The return on investment fortelework is difficult to quantify and initialhardware investments takes time to regain


0

Interruptions by family members or socialinterruptions

Social isolation Peer availability for informal work related

discussions (i.e.: at the coffee machine).

Overwork. Some employees find thatbecause they have their work resources athome, they tend to work more. This couldinterfere with family life.


1

8/8/2019 Mics Total

78/90


Trevor Sharpe 7

Decline in career opportunities because of

decreased visibility within the company Inadequate physical accommodations Costs associated with the virtual office The ability to troubleshoot technical

problems, the availability of technical helpremotely

Dependence on the computer networks andtelephone lines


2

Availability of bandwidth (Guilders Law)

Social methodologies for balancing workcontrol and work freedom

Perceived values and economies intelecommuting

The opportunities and need for workingcollaboratively across large distances


3

Motivation

Self motivation Management by Objectives

Control Use information system

Communication Regular meetings Groupware


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

79/90


Trevor Sharpe 7


5

Face to face meetings

Copy boards

Polling systems

Group decision rooms Facilitation services

Administrative filing andfiltering

Shared files

Shift work

Group displays

Cross-distance meetings

Conference calls

Screen sharing

Video teleconferencing

Ongoing coordination

Group writing

Forms management

Group voice mail

Same time Different time

Differentplace

Same

place

Computer to computer exchangebetween two organizations of standardbusiness transaction documents


6

Computer Computer

Seller Customer

Orders, payments

Shipping notices, price

Updates, invoices

1. Automating some of the existing processes

in a business function

2. Automating all of the processes in abusiness function

3. Changing the way that the business functionis performed

4. Performing new business functions


7

8/8/2019 Mics Total

80/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Legal relationships Between partners

Between users and providers of services

Data protection/security

Auditing and tracking

Service levels

Organisational issues


8

By recognizing the need to separateconnectivity from applications we have theopportunity to unleash the power of themarketplace that has served so very well incomputing and in the Internet.

Bob Frankston The inventor of the Visicalc Spreadsheet


9

The technology of the computer allows us to

have a distinct and individually tailoredarrangement with each of thousands ofemployees.

John Naisbitt Megatrends


0

8/8/2019 Mics Total

81/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

The Control of Information andInformation Systems

Trevor M Sharpe MA

What are the systems vulnerabilities? What are the problems of controlling data and

information? How can systems and information be made

more secure? What are the problems of managing the

workforce in the new systems environment?


2

Control of the system

Control of the information Control of the workforce


3

8/8/2019 Mics Total

82/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Procedures cannot be replicated manually

No visual trace of changes

Requires specialised technical expertise The effects of disaster much more extensive


4


5

Hardware

Software

User Errors

Theft

Fire

Flood

Electrical Problems

Viruses, trojans and worms

Denial of Service Attacks

Spoofing Spamming

Sniffing

Phishing


6

8/8/2019 Mics Total

83/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Data loss

Data integrity

Data disclosure Libellous content


7


8

IT &

Systems

Individual

Society

Politics

Quality of Life

System

Quality

Accountability &

Control

Property Rights &

Obligations

Information Rights &

ObligationsPolitical

Issues

Social Issues

Ethical Issues

Data must be:- Obtained and processed fairly and lawfully. Held only for lawful purposes which are

described in the register entry. Used or disclosed only for those or compatible

purposes. Adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation

to the purpose for which it is held.


9

8/8/2019 Mics Total

84/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Data must be:- Accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date. Held no longer than is necessary for the purpose

for which they are held.

Able to allow individuals to access information heldabout them and where appropriate correct or eraseit.

Surrounded by proper security.


0

There should be no personal recordsystems whose existence is secret.

Individuals have rights of access,inspection, review and amendment tosystems that have information about them.

There must be no use of information forpurposes other than those for which it wasgathered, without prior consent.


1

Managers of systems can be held accountable

and liable for the damage done by systems,their reliability and security.

Governments have the right to intervene inthe information relationships between privateparties.


2

8/8/2019 Mics Total

85/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Do unto others as you would have them dounto you

If an action is not right for everyone to take

then it is not right for anyone If an action cannot be taken repeatedly,

then it is not right to be taken at any time Take the action that receives the higher

value Take the action that produces the least

harm There is no such thing as a free lunch


3

Prevention and deterrence

Detection

Limitation of damage

Recovery

Correction

Awareness and compliance


4

Firewalls

Proxy Servers Anti Virus Software

Anti Malware Software


5

8/8/2019 Mics Total

86/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Both Software and Hardware

Hardware comprises a computer with two

network cards Software is a combination of antivirus and

access control software

Proxy servers strip out the network addressof each computer.


6

Reliability Only as good as the latest virus/trojan etc.

Therefore needs to be up-dated on a regular basis

Use needs to be enforced

On network

To all software loaded


7

Something only the user is

Biometric controls Something only the user knows

Password

Something only the user has Smart card or token

Easily stolen/misused?


8

8/8/2019 Mics Total

87/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Photograph of face

Fingerprint

Hand geometry Iris scan

Retinal scan

Voice scan

Signature

Keystroke dynamics


9

Password Control Frequent changing

Eight characters or more

No proper names

Mix of characters


0

Design your security by looking to your

technology, your processes and your people.The security should be the sum of all threebecause the bad guys are going to look to theweakest element, and if it's your people, theyare going to exploit it, it is done all the time.

Kevin MitnickSecurity Consultant and (ex) hacker


1

8/8/2019 Mics Total

88/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Risk Management Manage for all risks?

Backups When/how are they done?

Usually use RAID devices

Access Needs education of personnel


2

Whose laws prevail?

Are cookies acceptable?

Intellectual property rights who owns theinformation? Copyright mp3, pictures etc.


3

Dependence on information systems.

Rapidity of change. Downsizing of the workforce.

Reengineering job loss.

Equity and access

Health risks


4

8/8/2019 Mics Total

89/90


Trevor Sharpe 8

Who is responsible?

What are they responsible for?

Who reports to whom? Where does the buck stop?


5

Corporate security programs need to: Be aligned with organisational goals

Include everyone in the organisation

Be continuous

Be proactive

Be validated

Be formal

M W Doll et al., Defending the Digital Frontier, Wiley (2003)


6

Understanding the moral risks of the new

technology. Establishing corporate ethics policies that

include information systems.


7

8/8/2019 Mics Total

90/90


Man is simply designed wrong for

any mechanistic system.

Tom Peters & Robert Waterman In Search ofExcellence


8

The truth is out thereThe X files (1993)

But

A fool with a tool is still a fool


9

mics total

Documents