mining report foe netherlands
TRANSCRIPT
onderkant paginaonderkant pagina
Mining matters
Unacceptable metal mining in developing countries and the responsibilities of companies in the Netherlands
Friends of the Earth Netherlands
Credits
Research: Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie)Text: Albert ten Kate Editing: Iris Maher Production: Joukje KolffDesign: Ruparo, Amsterdam© Milieudefensie - Friends of the Earth Netherlands, May 2009
Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie)Office: Nieuwe Looiersstraat 31, 1017 VA AmsterdamPost: P O Box 19199, 1000 GD AmsterdamThe NetherlandsPhone: (00 31) (0) 20 5507 300Email: [email protected]: www.milieudefensie.nl
Special thanks to: Anne van Schaik (Friends of the Earth Netherlands, FoE NL)Anne-Sophie Simpere (Les Amis de la Terre, FoE France)Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness)Esther de Haan (SOMO/makeITfair)Jan Willem van Gelder (Profundo)Päivi Pöyhönen (Finnwatch/makeITfair)
Coca-Cola: Robert Seegers (public affairs & communications manager Netherlands)Corus: Eric van der Oest (manager public affairs Netherlands) Corus: René Boulonois (manager sustainable development Netherlands)Draka: Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment)Draka: Martin de Koning (director corporate communications)Heineken: Hans Kroes (manager safety, health and environment Netherlands)Philips: Jan Roodenburg (senior vice president supply, development and sustainability)
This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of this document are the sole responsi-bility of Milieudefensie and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union.
Photo cover:Miners extracting tin ore from the Bisie mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo
© Johan Spanner/hollandSe hoogte, november 2008.
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Contents
Executive summary
Conclusion and recommendations
1. Trade links from the Netherlands to mining in developing countries
1.1 Tin
1.2 Bauxite
1.3 Copper
2. Review of mining practices in developing countries
2.1 Tin: Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma
2.2 Bauxite: Jamaica and Guinea
2.3 Copper: Chile, Peru, Zambia and Indonesia
3. Companies reviewed
3.1 Methodology of the review
3.2 Cookson / Alpha-Fry Technologies
3.3 Corus
3.4 Aluminium smelters Aldel and Zalco
3.5 Draka
3.6 Philips
3.7 Heineken
3.8 Coca-Cola
4. Dutch government policy on supply chain responsibility
5. Preliminary research on the use of copper and tin resources
Annexes:
A: Abbreviations
B: Questionnaires sent to the companies
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fuel a terrible war that has already gone on for ten years. Working conditions in the mines are extremely poor. Furthermore, tin mining poses an immense threat to the survival of the eastern lowland gorilla, which is hunted for food by min-ers and traded by rebels. Due to the enormous oppression of Burma’s people, the EU has put trade sanctions in force against the military junta, including tin. Nonetheless, raw tin materials mined from the DRC and to a lesser extent in Burma still arrive in the Netherlands through Asian smelt-ers, such as tin from the company Thaisarco in Thailand (supplying 7 per cent of Dutch imports) which contains tin mined in eastern Congo.
In the Netherlands, the companies Alpha-Fry Technologies (producer of solder and subsidi-ary of the UK-based Cookson group) and Corus (producer of tinplate and subsidiary of Indian Tata Steel) are the largest importers of tin.
Bauxite: mining practices and trade linksAlumina is the mineral made from mined baux-ite; in smelters it is turned into aluminium. Jamaica accounts for 60 to 70 per cent of annual alumina imports by Dutch aluminium smelt-ers. Bauxite mining is the single largest cause of deforestation in Jamaica. The mining industry has stripped thousands of hectares of forest and has caused even larger destruction by creat-ing access roads into forests, making the forests accessible to loggers. Air pollution from the chimneys of the four bauxite processing plants (mainly particulate matter and sulphur dioxide emissions) cause seri-ous health problems, like respiratory diseases, in the communities living nearby. Community health risks due to air pollution have been badly monitored and as yet no investigation has been carried out. Dust resulting from bauxite mining, bauxite processing and port activities is also a big nuisance for people. A matter of great concern are the red mud lakes of waste covering hundreds hectares near the four bauxite processing plants in Jamaica. The lakes consist of metals, water and alkaline
Executive summary
• The Netherlands is a large importer of copper, aluminium and tin from developing countries
• Mining causes major environmental and human rights violations in developing countries
• Dutch companies import and/or use met-als, but leave problems for planet and people unsolved
• The metals mined are used in cars, electronics, housing and packaging materials
In this report, mining practices in ten develop-ing countries are reviewed with regard to labour rights, human rights and the environment. The mining products examined are tin, bauxite and copper, metals which have major trade links with companies in the Netherlands. Various compa-nies in the Netherlands import and/or use met-als. This report reviews the supply chain respon-sibility towards mining practices in developing countries of seven companies in the Nether-lands.
Tin: mining practices and trade linksMost of the tin imported for further processing in the Netherlands can be linked to serious envi-ronmental, labour rights and human rights con-cerns in developing countries. Tin is used mainly for solder in electronic products and tinplate (to make cans). Tin mining in Indonesia – number one exporter of tin to the Netherlands – only takes place on and off the shores of Bangka island, east of Sumatra. The mining damages coral reefs; seriously affects fishermen’s income; has created hundreds of toxic craters on the island; causes abrasion of the coastline; and does not provide a sustainable livelihood for the people on the island. In Bolivia, which also supplies tin to the Neth-erlands, thousands of children work in under-ground tin, zinc and silver mines. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) this is one of the worst forms of child labour.Tin imports to the Netherlands may also origi-nate from the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), where miners are subject to oppression by rebel groups and gov-ernment army factions. Revenues from mining
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Executive summary substances. Releases of water from red mud lakes can seriously contaminate ground and sur-face waters. Most of the bauxite mining in Guinea (Africa), which is also an indirect bauxite supplier to the Netherlands, takes place in tropical rainforests. The area is one of the world’s most biologically rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems. The Dutch aluminium smelters Zalco (Zee-land Aluminium Company) and Aldel (Aluminium Delfzijl) are both owned by the UK-based Klesch & Company. Together they account for all annual alumina imports into the Netherlands.
Copper: mining practices and trade linksMost of the copper and copper products imported by the Netherlands probably have their origin in Chile. In this country, the biggest problems of copper mining are related to the massive amounts of water and energy needed to produce copper concentrates. Often the use of water for copper mining conflicts with the needs of farmers. Water shortage is a major issue in Chile, as well as in Peru, which also exports cop-per to the Netherlands. In Chile, there are plans to build huge hydro-power dams in Patagonia, in the south of the country, to supply energy to the mining industry. These dams will flood thousands of hectares of native forest in a pristine area. Indonesia contains the biggest and most polluting copper mine in the world: the Gras-berg copper and goldmine in West Papua. Massive toxic releases from the mine flow into natural river systems. The main mining compa-ny is Freeport McMoRan, which has also been accused of illegal payments to members of the Indonesian military. In Zambia, environmental practices and work-ing conditions in the copper mines are poor. The Dutch cable producer Draka is probably the biggest Dutch importer of copper. The com-pany accounts for more than 7 per cent of cop-per imports by the Netherlands.
The seven companies reviewedFor this report, seven companies in the Nether-lands were reviewed. The seven companies are among the biggest Dutch companies involved in the supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The reviewed companies, located in the Netherlands, are:• Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu-
facturer for the electronics industry• Corus: big producer of tinplate for can makers• Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu-
minium smelters Zalco and Aldel• Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer in
Europe• Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting
products• Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate
cans• Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever-
ages packed in tinplate cans
Results of the reviewCookson, the aluminium smelters, Draka and Corus use massive amounts of mining products. Moving further down the supply chain, Philips, Heineken and Coca-Cola use considerably fewer mining products themselves, as the mining prod-ucts used to make their products are spread throughout multiple companies. Most companies acknowledged they have not yet mapped out the supply chain of their mining products nor have they identified prob-lems related to the environment, human rights and labour rights. This means that the compa-nies are purchasing metals without being aware of the consequences of the mining practices. Reporting to the public about their trade relationships with specific mining practices is not common yet among the seven companies reviewed. In fact, not a single annual report or CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) report was found including any information on the mining practices or the origins of the tin, bauxite and copper used by these companies. The situation in the eastern part of the Dem-ocratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is probably the best known case triggering responsibility among companies for mining practices. Corus and Philips have acted on the DRC issue. Both com-panies now demand that their suppliers exclude raw tin materials from the DRC from their prod-ucts. While seeming sincere in their intentions, neither company could guarantee that suppliers fulfil this demand as no monitoring is carried out. Both companies state they are looking forward to a broader industry response to the situation in the DRC. Meanwhile, the biggest importer of tin into the Netherlands, Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo-gies, showed no interested in communicating about the origins of its tin purchases and its efforts – if any – to improve mining practices. Though their global tin use may somewhat less than that of Philips, it is remarkable that Heineken and Coca-Cola have no supply chain policy in place regarding their global use of tin for cans.
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Of all the reviewed companies, Philips had the best general policy on supply chain responsi-bility.
Dutch government policy The Dutch government has several initiatives to promote supply chain responsibility among com-panies with regard to the environment, human rights and labour rights: • Reporting on corporate social responsibility
(CSR) by companies will be further encouraged and stricter reporting requirements will be introduced. This is an initiative, supported by the government, of the major employers’ asso-ciations and trade unions in the Netherlands.
• The Dutch government has a procurement policy stating that in 2010 all purchases of the state government must be sustainable.
• As an addition to several existing market initia-tives, the government and several stakehold-ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH), aiming to bring stakeholders together to work on CSR problems related to the trade in commodity products such as timber and other forest products, soy, natural stone products, cocoa and tea.
• Currently, the government has started research and discussions with experts and stakeholders on better options to hold companies liable for abuses in the CSR chain within their sphere of influence.
While the government initiatives may be mov-ing in the right direction, Friends of the Earth Netherlands thinks the present policies are not likely to help reduce the severe social and envi-ronmental problems related to the mining of tin, bauxite and copper imported into the Nether-lands.
Preliminary research on resource useAlthough it may not be the case for copper in the immediate future, tin mining resources are definitely running out. Governments will have to adopt policies to reduce global metal scarcity. Preliminary research on resource use for cop-per and tin shows that the recycling rates of tin (around 27 per cent) and copper (around 67 per cent) leave much room for improvement. For both copper and tin, future resources will be more difficult to extract, and at higher environ-mental costs.
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Conclusion and recommendations
ing by companies on environmental, human rights and labour rights, including criteria for reporting on mining products.
• Freedom of information. In specific cases, mandatory reports will always be too general. When a specific problem exists (environment, human rights and labour rights), there is always valuable information which only the company possesses. At present, companies have the ability to withhold information that might be valuable to solve the problem. The govern-ment has poor mechanisms in place to make a company comply with specific requests by stakeholders. The government should construct better regulations for this purpose.
• Resource use. The government should set policy goals to reduce the use of metals with depleting resources, in order to ensure com-ing generations will also be able to utilise their useful applications. There are also many pos-sibilities to create a bigger market for our own recycling deposits.
• Chain initiatives. Governments should pay far more attention to the severe CSR problems of mining and trade links. Mining appears to be an overlooked problem. Governments could set up chain initiatives within host and mining countries, with all stakeholders involved. The government could also address the severe CSR problems in the mining sector through their procurement policy.
• Liability. It is necessary to legally anchor mini-mum requirements for supply chain responsibil-ity in order to be able to tackle abuses and free riders (supply chain liability). It must be made possible to take legal action against companies in their homelands if they are involved in main-taining illegal and/or unacceptable practices in their supply chains. The Dutch government must work to achieve regulations on supply chain liability, in the Netherlands and in the EU.
For companiesCompanies which use considerable amounts of mining products in their final products should take responsibility for the total supply chain with regard to the environment, human rights and labour rights. In order to make this happen,
Conclusion
This report shows that there are huge problems with regard to mining in developing countries, including loss of livelihood and health risks to communities; devastation of rich ecosystems; poor working conditions of miners; child labour; fuelling war and oppression.
Several large Dutch companies which import and process tin, bauxite and copper are linked with these problems through their supply chain. How-ever, these companies do not yet appear to feel a strong responsibility for the mining practices occurring upstream in their supply chains.
This situation is not unique to the tin, aluminium or copper sector. The mining practices and the trade links of tin, bauxite and copper with the Netherlands should be seen as a model of the entire mining sector and their Dutch buyers. Vari-ous other Dutch companies source other mining products in large quantities, in which the mining process causes huge problems in developing countries.
So far, the government has not focused on the mining sector at all. Friends of the Earth Neth-erlands strongly appeals to the Dutch govern-ment to turn its attention to the severe problems in the mining sector which are related to Dutch companies, and also to develop a policy on the use of scarce metals.
Recommendations
For governments• Transparency. Governments should ensure
that companies report publicly on the supply chain of their mining products. The reporting should include: the origin of the mining prod-ucts; existing environmental, human rights and labour rights problems; the company’s efforts to reduce and end the problems. Because experience shows that a lot of companies do not provide this information voluntarily, the government should institute mandatory report-
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companies should do the following:• map out the supply chain for their mining
products from the mine level and identify prob-lems with the environment, human rights and labour rights along the supply chain.
• take active steps to prevent, reduce or end the problems by exerting influence on suppliers
• report publicly about their involvement in min-ing throughout the supply chain, existing prob-lems, and efforts towards improving the envi-ronment, human rights and labour rights along the mining product chain.
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This chapter maps the
Netherlands’ trade links to the
mining of tin, bauxite and cop-
per in developing countries.
This was done with the help of
import statistics from Statistics
Netherlands, US Geological
Survey global mining statistics
and additional information.
1.1 Tin
Tin: the metal Tin is a silvery-white metal; its elemental symbol is Sn. It is obtained chiefly from the grey mineral cassiterite (tin ore). Tin ore is transformed into tin-in-concentrate in processing plants, and smelters then heat the tin-in-concentrate to become pure refined tin. The London Metal Exchange (LME) and Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) are the key centres of the worldwide refined tin trade.
Major mining countriesThe major tin mining countries are China and Indonesia, in 2007 accounting for 41 per cent
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Chapter 1 Trade links from the Netherlands to mining in developing countries
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and 31 per cent of tin mining production respec-tively. Peru, Bolivia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Brazil followed, accounting respec-tively for 12, 5, 4 and 3 per cent. In 2007 mining production totalled 329,000 tonnes.1 In the last ten years, tin mining production has increased by 50 per cent.2
Large tin belts have been found in Asia and South America. The biggest starts on the island of Tasmania, off the coast of Australia, and runs up through Indonesia and Malaysia, Singapore and further through Burma and Vietnam up to the outer reaches of China and Russia.3 Tin is also found in some African countries, notably the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Tin in products Tin is the main substance used in solder, a metal alloy used to join the edges or surfaces of two pieces of metal. In 2007 solder accounted for 53 per cent of global tin use. More than 80 per cent is used in the electronics industry, for example in printed wired boards.4 In the past few years, tin use as solder has increased rapidly, due to the growing global electronics industry and regula-tions requiring replacement of lead in solder. Solder can be found in many products: cars, tel-evisions, computers, mobile phones, household appliances, etc. Tinplate, sheet steel covered with a thin layer
of tin to prevent rust, is second largest use for tin. Tinplate is primarily used for the packaging of products, principally food cans, beverage cans and pet foods.5 Globally, tinplate accounts for 16 per cent of tin usage.
Tin imports to the Netherlands In 2008, the Netherlands imported 14,000 tonnes of tin, worth 180 million euros. More than 30 per cent of exports to the Netherlands come from countries that do not mine tin themselves, but re-export it to the Netherlands, usually after some processing operations.
For this report it is assumed that Indone-sia imports a bigger percentage of tin than is accounted for by the Dutch statistics listed below. This is due to the fact that Indonesia is a main exporter and a main producer of tin.
China is also a big producer of tin, but not a big trader. China’ tin exports have declined over the years, due to China’s massive demand in its own domestic industries (especially electron-ics) and a 10 per cent export duty on refined tin imposed by the Chinese government.6
The Netherlands’ trade links with the Democratic Republic CongoAbout 4 per cent of global raw tin materials are mined in the eastern part of Democratic Repub-lic of Congo (DRC). The Netherlands’ import statistics do not list any imports from the DRC. But some Dutch imports might nevertheless originate from the DRC, as most tin ore from the DRC is known to be exported to Asian smelters. Dutch import statistics only list imports of refined tin after smelting. The tin smelting companies Thaisarco Smelting and Refining Corporation and Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad have both indicated that they buy cassiterite from the DRC.8 In December 2008, a United Nations Group of Experts working on behalf on the Secu-rity Council reported it had obtained documents showing that an exporter had sold all its mineral purchases to Thaisarco. The exporter knowingly bought the tin ore from mines in South Kivu con-trolled by the FDLR rebel group.9
The Thai company Thaisarco exports a great deal of refined tin to the Netherlands that is likely to have been mined in the DRC. The company is part of the UK-based Amalgamated Metal Cor-poration group. In Thailand little tin mining takes place and raw material imports from Indone-sia, common in earlier years, have decreased.10 The Thaisarco tin smelter in Phuket – the only tin smelter in the country – produced 22,000
Country tonnes per cent
Indonesia 4,136 29
Peru 1,875 13
United Kingdom (re-export) 1,133 8
China 1,065 8
Bolivia 949 7
Thailand (re-export) 895 6
Germany (re-export) 891 6
Singapore (re-export) 682 5
Malaysia (re-export) 633 5
Brazil 612 4
Other 1,206 9
Total 14.077 100
Imports of tin and tin alloys to the Netherlands in 20087
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tonnes of refined tin in 2008.11 It therefore must rely heavily on the import of tin concentrates, including from the DRC. Thaisarco annually buys 30,000 tonnes of this raw material.12 The table above charts Thaisarco’s trade link with the Netherlands. In the period 2004-2008 Thaisarco accounted for about 7 per cent of imports of tin by the Netherlands.
Companies and countries reviewed for this reportThe companies Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo-gies and Corus were reviewed for this report. These companies are the largest importers of tin into the Netherlands. Alpha-Fry Technologies in Naarden (a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook-son group) produces solder. Alpha-Fry accounts for 15 to 20 per cent of the European solder market. It can thus be assumed that the compa-ny bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in 2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).14
Corus Packaging Plus in IJmuiden (a 100 per cent subsidiary of Tata Steel) has one of the larg-est European plants producing tinplate for the can-making industry. The company buys about 3,000 tonnes of tin annually. In 2008, 30 per cent of its tin originated from recycling sources; in 2009 the percentage has risen to 65 per cent according to the company.15
In addition to Cookson and Corus, down-stream users (users which are further down in the supply chain) of tin Philips, Heineken and Coca-Cola were reviewed for this report.
For this report the following mining coun-tries were reviewed: Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma. Togeth-er these countries are estimated to account for more than half of the imports of tin to the Neth-erlands.
Year Sold by Thaisarco to the Netherlands (tonnes)
Tin imports by the Netherlands (tonnes)
Thaisarco share
2004 534 9,131 6%
2005 1,272 11,274 11%
2006 1,165 16,049 7%
2007 339 11,318 3%
2008 895 14,077 6%
Total 2004-2008 4,205 61,849 7%
Thaisarco share in Dutch imports of refined tin, period 2004-200813
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tonnes in 2008, worth 206 million euros. In 2008 as well as in previous years, Jamaica and Spain were the main exporters of alumina to the Neth-erlands.
SpainSpain does not itself mine bauxite, but it does have a huge refinery that processes bauxite into alumina, the San Ciprián facility, with a produc-tion capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of alumina per year. The bauxite arrives at San Ciprián har-bour from the Alcoa mines in Conakry, Guinea, and Brazil.23 The plant is owned by the Ameri-can aluminium giant Alcoa and is the only plant producing alumina in Spain. In 2005 and 2006, Spain accounted for about 10 per cent of Guin-ea’s export revenues. Bauxite mining and alu-mina production provide about 80 per cent of Guinea’s foreign revenues.24 For this report, it is assumed that most of the bauxite that arrives at the San Ciprián facility originates from Guinea.
Companies and countries reviewed for this reportNearly 700,000 tonnes of alumina reach the Dutch harbours of Flushing and Delfzijl each year. The Zalco and Aldel aluminium smelting companies were reviewed for this report, both of which are owned by the UK-based Klesch & Company. These countries mine most of the bauxite that is eventually imported into the Netherlands as alumina. The Zeeland Aluminium Company (Zalco), located near the harbour of Flushing in the south-east of the Netherlands, produces more than 300,000 tonnes of aluminium annually, aug-mented partially with recycled aluminium. Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth-
Year Jamaica Spain
2004 70% 16%
2005 61% 31%
2006 65% 25%
2007 58% 32%
2008 65% 22%
Percentage of Dutch imports alumina originating from Jamaica and Spain in the period 2004-200822
1.2 Bauxite
Bauxite: aluminium oreBauxite, which looks like gravel, is the most important ore for aluminium extraction. Alumina (also known as aluminium oxide) is made from bauxite in a refinery. Alumina is converted into aluminium in smelters. On average, two kilo-grams of alumina can be made from four kilo-grams of bauxite, which in turn can be smelted into 1 kilogram of aluminium.16
Main production countriesIn 2008, bauxite was mainly mined in Australia (31 per cent), followed by China (16 per cent), Brazil (12 per cent), India (10 per cent), Guinea (9 per cent) and Jamaica (7 per cent).17
Main bauxite areasThe following map shows where most bauxite is found in the earth’s crust.18
Globally, in 2008, aluminium was mainly smelt-ed in China (34 per cent), followed by Rus-sia (11 per cent), Canada (8 per cent), United States (7 per cent), Australia (5 per cent) and Brazil (4 per cent).19
Aluminium in products In addition to cars, trains, planes and other means of transport (25 per cent of all alumini-um use), aluminium is widely used in construc-tion (18 per cent), for beverage cans and other packaging materials (18 per cent), in electrical equipment and machinery (14 per cent) and for various consumer products (6 per cent).20
Alumina imports to the NetherlandsDutch imports of alumina totalled 685,000
Country tonnes per cent
Jamaica 447,588 65
Spain 142,448 22
Surinam 42,274 6
Ireland 35,797 5
Other 16,580 3
Total 684,687 100
Imports of alumina to the Netherlands in 200821
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President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil visits an aluminium plant in Brazil
erlands, annually produces over 115,000 tonnes of new (or primary) aluminium. Re-melting production waste and scrap produces another 50,000 tonnes. Can-users Heineken and Coca-Cola were also reviewed for this report. The mining countries Jamaica and Guinea were reviewed for this report. In these countries most of the bauxite is mined that eventually is imported into the Netherlands as alumina.
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per.30 A great deal of heating equipment uses copper components. Copper is also used for roofs and cladding.
• Industrial use: surface and underground cables, ships, rail, aircraft, plants, machinery, ammunition, etc.
• Electrical and electronic equipment: This includes everything with a pin contact or bat-teries. The list of products is endless: micro-waves, televisions, computers, vacuum clean-ers, refrigerators, mobile phones, wires for lighting, etc. Copper is used in cables, wiring, motors, circuit boards, etc.31 Consumer elec-tronics like DVD players and audio equipment have on average 400 grams of copper con-tent.32
• Vehicles. On average, a car contains 20 kg of copper (electronic devices, radiator, motor, brakes, etc.)33
Copper imports to the NetherlandsIn 2007, the Netherlands imported almost 300,000 tonnes of copper, copper alloys and copper objects with a total worth of 1.5 billion euros (copper waste trade excluded). Almost 40 per cent of copper imported into the Neth-erlands came from Chile. Chile mainly exports refined copper. A large portion of Dutch imports originate from countries like Germany, Belgium and the
1.3 Copper
Copper: the metal Copper is a chemical element with the sym-bol Cu (Latin: cuprum), known for its excellent electrical conductivity. Copper is mined in large, open-pit or underground mines.25
Main mining countriesChile is by far the leading copper mining coun-try. In 2007 the country mined 36 per cent of the world’s copper, followed by Peru (8 per cent), United States (8 per cent), China (including Mon-golia, 7 per cent), Australia (6 per cent), Indone-sia (5 per cent) and Zambia (4 per cent).26
Over the past five decades, the volume of copper mined globally has increased by an aver-age of 2.6 per cent annually.27 In 2007, 15 million tonnes of copper was mined globally; in the year 1900 the total was less than 0.5 million tonnes.28
Copper in products Average residents of wealthy nations require about 200 kg of copper per person to fulfil their needs.29 Copper is used in four main sectors:• Housing and other buildings. These are sup-
plied with copper wires and cables in the elec-tricity and phone network. In the Netherlands, 90 per cent of water pipes are made from cop-
Copper pipe stocks
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United Kingdom. These countries have no cop-per mines themselves, but process copper before exporting it to the Netherlands. There-fore, the mining origin of the copper imported to the Netherlands is difficult to extract from the statistics.
Companies and countries reviewed for this reportThe only company reviewed in this report is the Dutch cable producer Draka, probably the big-gest Dutch importer of copper. Draka’s head-quarters are in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Draka annually processes about 22,000 tonnes of copper wire in the Netherlands, thus accounting for more than 7 per cent of copper imports to the Netherlands. Only primary copper is used in cables; no recycled copper is used in cables.35
The reviewed countries are Chile, Zambia, Peru and Indonesia. Together these countries account for about 55 per cent of global copper mining production.
Imports of copper, copper alloys and copper objects to the Netherlands in 2007 (copper was te trade excluded)34
Country tonnes percentage
Chile 115,804 39
Germany (re-export) 57,056 19
Belgium (re-export) 34,082 11
Peru 15,586 5
Russia 13,404 5
United Kingdom (re-export) 13,347 4
France (re-export) 8,310 3
Brazil 7,567 3
Canada 6,101 2
Other 25,669 9
Total 296,926 100
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2.1 Tin
Indonesia
Almost all tin produced in Indonesia originates from and around Bangka Island, located just east of Sumatra. Bangka-Belitung is one of the 33 provinces of the Republic of Indonesia, and Bangka is the biggest island of the province. The amount of tin mined in Indonesia in 2008 has been estimated at 100,000 tonnes.36
PT TimahThe leading producer of Indonesian tin is the PT Timah Tbk company (Timah). Timah produced almost 50,000 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.37 The Indonesian Government owns 65 per cent of the company, while the other 35 per cent is owned by private shareholders. The company is listed on the Jakarta, Surabaya and London Stock Exchanges.
Timah operations
Timah mines both on and offshore Bangka Island and has a very large tin smelter in Men-tok, Bangka. Offshore mining presently accounts for about 30 per cent of its mining production. Timah has a number of dredgers that operate several kilometres offshore in depths of up to 50
metres below sea level.38 In March 2009, Abrun Abubakar, corporate secretary of Timah, stated: ‘Currently, we have three suction vessels and hire more than 20 vessels of this type from our part-ners, which operate in our concessions.’39 The company wants to boost offshore mining from 30 to 50 per cent of its tin production. In 2009 it intends to invest $21 million in new bucket-wheel dredgers,40 which may be capable of dig-ging down to 70 metre depths.41 While present offshore resources in depths up to 50 meters are being depleted and onshore operations are constrained for geographical, environmental, and sociological reasons, Timah considers the area extending to 70 metre depths as a major resource for the future.42
IHC MerwedeThe Dutch company IHC Merwede has a long tradition of delivering dredgers to Indonesia for tin mining and the company is currently still involved in this business. In 2005, IHC delivered the Pulau Tujuh (seven islands) dredger to Timah. The Pulau Tujuh will be used by Timah for remov-ing sediment above the tin deposits, which will subsequently be mined by Timah’s huge bucket dredgers.43 Timah also works with IHC Merwede to dredge at depths of more than 50 meters.44
Timah marketsThe company produces mainly refined tin as an end product. Its buyers are traders or manu-facturers of downstream products like solder, tinplate and chemicals. ‘If you ask about our markets, they are mostly in Asia,’ says Wachid Usman, President Director of Timah. ‘About 55 per cent goes to Asia, 30 per cent to Europe, and about 8 per cent to North America. The domestic market is very small.’45 Timah’s web-site reports: ‘Export destination in Asia Pacific: Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China and Singapore; Europe: England, Netherlands, France, Spain and Italy; and also America and Canada.’46 PT
Chapter 2 Review of mining practices
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Timah’s financial report 2008 shows the follow-ing main debtors as of 31 December 2008: Mit-subishi Shoji Light Metal Corp, Indelberg Trad-ing & Service PTE Ltd, Pan Light Corporation, Daewoo International Corp., Cookson Electron-ics. Wilhelm Grillo Handelsgesellsschaft GmbH,
Arcelor Espana and S.A Westmetal Gmbh & Co.KG.47
Other tin companies on BangkaMany small artisanal miners are still engaged in illegal mining on Bangka. In recent years the
A worker holds an ingot of 99.99% tin at a PT Timah smelter in Mentok on the Indonesian island of Bangka.
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One of the hundreds of toxic lakes on Bangka
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government has tried to clamp down on the illegal mining, but in October 2008 Bangka-Belitung’s police chief reported that mining was still going on in prohibited areas, including pro-tected forests.48
PT Koba Tin (Koba), which operates in South Bangka, is the number two company active in mining and smelting on Bangka. The Malay-sia Smelting Corporation Berhad owns 75 per cent of Koba, while Timah owns the rest. Koba produced 7,200 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.49 Its production was low compared to previous years, because the police had closed down the company’s operations for some time in 2008 due to allegations that it had bought tin from illegal sources.50 All charges against the defend-ants have been dropped, but an investigation by the Forestry Department into Koba’s use of protected forests for mining operations is still pending.51
Apart from Timah and Koba, some 20 to 30 smaller tin smelters operate on the islands of Bangka and Belitung. In late 2007, a new tin smelter with a capacity of 12,000 tonnes of tin per year, was put into operation by Singapore Tin Industries (which is 51 per cent owned by the Chinese Yunnan Tin Company).52
Environmental damage Tin mining causes severe environmental damage. Though dredging ships are sometimes halted and
checked, government monitoring to prevent and clean up damage from mining activities is weak.
Hundreds of deep craters and small lakes containing acidic water cover the landscape of Bangka. Most of the onshore mining uses gravel pumps, and the tin ore containing alluvium is washed with running water. This water becomes acidic when it is mixed with the grey-black tin ore extracted from the earth.53 Reclamation and re-vegetation of mined areas is almost never done. The two main mining companies have re-vegetated only a few of their former mines. Many holes have been left by the illegal mining of small-scale miners.54
Tin mining is also the main cause of damage to the coral reef ecosystem around the island of Bangka. The head of the Bangka-Belitung Marine and Fishery Service, Dr. Yulistyo, has stated that about 30 per cent of the coral reefs in Bangka-Belitung waters have been damaged due to offshore tin mining and fish poaching activities using explosives. He has further assert-ed that on Bangka Island, coral reefs have been mainly damaged due to tin dredging activities in the coastal area, naming losses in Lepar and Pongok (South Bangka) and Tanjung Ular (West Bangka).55 Another negative consequence of off-shore mining is abrasion of the coast area, due to the number of holes at the bottom of the sea caused by coastal mining.56
Coral reefs along the coast, extending up
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One of the tin dredging boats of PT Timah
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to 50 metres deep, are the tropical rainforests of the sea: there are no other sea areas where so much biodiversity can be found.57 As fish-ing grounds, they are thought to be 10 to 100 times as productive per unit area as the open sea.58 It is estimated that about 20 tonnes of fish can be obtained each year, enough to feed 1,200 people in the coastal areas, on one square kilometre of healthy coral reef. Even when dredging associated with mining only takes place in the area around the coral reefs, it causes water turbidity which can reach the coral reef area and damage it.59
The Indonesian environmental organisation Walhi (Friends of the Earth Indonesia) reported in early March 2009, after field visits, that the income of fishermen in the Permis, Rajik and Sebagin villages in South Bangka has decreased by 80 per cent, due to offshore tin mining. According to Walhi, a newly built road along the coast also suffered damage due to abrasion of the coastline.
Three tin dredgers owned by Timah have been active in this specific region of South Bangka since the beginning of 2004. Another tin dredger has also been conducting activities in the waters since the end of January 2009. Some
Tin miner on Bangka with gravel pump
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of these ships are able to suction around 1000 cubic metres of sand per hour.60
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Democratic Republic of Congo
Tin mining in eastern CongoAbout 4 per cent of global tin mining takes place in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Cassiterite (tin ore) is found in various parts of eastern Congo, mainly in the provinces of Manie-ma, North Kivu and South Kivu. It is estimated that exports from the Kivus amounted to 18,000 tonnes of cassiterite in 2007 and 25,000 tonnes in 2008. The export value of the cassiterite sold from the Kivus in 2008 has been estimated at $200 million.61
WarWar was waged in eastern Congo during the period 1998-2002, leading to extreme violence, massive population displacement, widespread rape and the collapse of public health services. Despite the signing of a formal peace agree-ment in December 2002, conflict and erup-tions of violence have persisted in the eastern provinces, causing severe loss of life. Approxi-mately 500,000 Congolese have continued to die each year, mostly due to easily preventable and curable conditions, such as malaria, diar-rhoea, pneumonia, malnutrition, and neonatal problems.62 Rape, murder and pillage are still committed regularly in eastern Congo; children are still being recruited to join the rebel groups. The United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) has been engaged in the area since February 2000, and currently has about 20,000 peacekeepers in the country.63 MONUC and the Congolese government have not yet managed to gain control of the region, though some progress has been made.
Mines in control of armed groups Rebel groups as well as units and commanders of the Congolese national army have had con-trol over mines or have imposed ‘taxes’ in the form of minerals or cash at the mines, along the roads or at border crossings since 1998. These revenues enable them to keep fighting.64 Among other groups, mine revenues are extracted by:
The Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda (FDLR). The group is descended from Hutu rebels responsible for the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. It controls mines in Walikale, in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the South Kivu province and also lots of other mines in North and South Kivu.65
The non-integrated 85th Brigade of the Forc-es Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo (FARDC, the Congolese national army). In December 2007, the DRC’s Vice-Minister of Mines, Viktor Kasongo, stated that the 85th brigade was not under the control of the ‘état-major’, while it should be under the control of the government and army structure. One of the mines it controlled was the Bisie mine, which is the largest mine in the Walikale region. The 85th brigade was moved away from Bisie in March 2009; a FARDC/ex-CNDP (Le Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple) brigade replaced the 85th brigade.66 Walikale is the main cassiterite production area of DRC, estimated to account for about 9,000 tonnes of cassiterite exported from Goma (North Kivu’s trading capital).67
The Tutsi-dominated CNDP. One of the prin-cipal sources of revenue for CNDP has been con-trolling Bunagana customs on the DRC/Uganda border.68 In December 2008, a United Nations report accused Rwanda of supporting CNDP-leader General Laurent Nkunda.69 This has led to aid cuts (among others from Sweden and the Netherlands) and threats from donors. The pres-sure may have led to the fact that on 22 January 2009 General Nkunda was arrested by Rwan-da. In March 2009, the Congolese government reached an agreement with CNDP: the group said it would give up violence and in exchange was promised the release of all prisoners taken in the war, accorded a political party status and an all-important clause granting amnesty to all its members (including some serious criminals) who have fought since 2003.70
Workers’ conditionsThe consultant Nicholas Garrett has widely published about mineral trade in the DRC and has advised several organisations including the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative,
Adapted from a map in a report by Global Witness: ‘Undermining peace’, June 2005
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World Bank and German government. He has extensively studied working conditions at the Bisie Mine in North Kivu. The mining is subdivid-ed into alluvial, open pit and hard rock mining in 167 different pits, tunnels and alluvial sites. Allu-vial and open pit mining is undertaken on the surface; hard-rock mining goes on underground. Hard-rock mining accounts for the large major-ity of production volume, with a cross-checked estimate of 75 per cent, suggesting a far higher yield in the tunnels. This extra productivity is an incentive for tunnel owners to drive the tun-nels ever further into the mountain; some up to 150 meters deep, which is far beyond the 30 meters stipulated as ‘safe’ in DRC mining regula-tions. Mining activities are accompanied by seri-ous safety hazards, such as mudslides, naturally occurring CO2 in the tunnels, or mine collapse. Even on a productive day, the income of the workers in the Bisie mine does not exceed $5. Communities around the mine subsist in abso-lute poverty. In Bisie, the FARDC’s non-integrat-ed 85th brigade used to prey on the miners. Low-ranking soldiers were exploited by their commander to steal cassiterite on his behalf. At the time of research, no children under the age of 10 were identified on the mining sites in Bisie, but a minimum of 300 youths (estimated 10-18 years) were present.
Garrett estimates that the province of North Kivu has up to 200,000 artisanal miners. Allow-ing for five dependants per worker, this means up to one million people in North Kivu could be dependent on artisanal miners for their liveli-hoods.71 The working conditions in most mines
are generally in breach of commonly acceptable labour standards and many injuries and acci-dents – some of them fatal – occur regularly. Health hazards result from occupational hazards, poverty, poor sanitation and a lack of access to protection and health support. Environmental degradation includes pollution, erosion, defor-estation, poaching, etc.72
Kahuzi-Biéga National ParkThe Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in eastern Congo is a World Heritage Site and home to the eastern lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei ssp. Graueri). This subspecies of gorilla is endemic in the DRC and 86 per cent of the population, some 14,500 animals, live in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and the adjoining Kasese forests. However, about 25 per cent of the population is said to have disappeared. Most of these gorillas have been killed for bush meat for the thousands of mining labourers and for sale by armed rebels.73
The gorilla is an endangered species. In eastern DRC, the eastern lowland gorillas face substantial threats to their survival. Firstly, agri-culture and grazing are leading to massive loss and fragmentation of forest habitat. Secondly, widespread illegal mining activities in the forests increase the demand for bush meat, includ-ing consumption of gorillas. Thirdly, infants are illegally captured, often causing other group members to be killed. Ongoing political unrest and military activity, including the occupation of national parks and killing gorillas for food, have compounded the problems.74
Miners extracting cassiterite from the Bisie mine
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Bolivia
Bolivia’s mining sector accounted for about 4.5 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2006. Zinc, gold, tin and silver were the main products mined.75
Yearly, Bolivia produces some 18,000 tonnes of tin-in-concentrate, making it the world’s fourth-largest tin producer (after China, Indonesia and Peru). Almost half of the production originates from the Posokoni mine near the city of Huanu-ni, the remainder from smaller mines.76 In 2006, small-scale, cooperative and artisanal miners accounted for about 62% of tin production in Bolivia. An estimated 41,800 miners were offi-cially registered with a cooperative in 2006, but it is assumed there are more artisanal small-scale miners.77 Most of the mined tin-in-concentrate is processed in the Vinto tin smelter, which pro-duced 9,500 tonnes of tin in 2008.78
Child labourIt is estimated that more than 13,500 children and adolescents in Bolivia work in traditional mining (extraction of tin, silver and zinc), mainly
in the south-western departments of Oruro and Potosí, and in gold mining in the subtropical area around La Paz.79 Another estimate states that 3,800 children – 10 per cent of the total min-ing workforce – work in tin, zinc and silver mines in the Ururo (which incorporates the Huanuni mine), Potosí and La Paz departments.80
The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines the mining work done by children in Bolivia as one of the worst forms of child labour, and states that its elimination should be a prior-ity. Article 3d of ILO Convention 182 describes this hazardous work as ‘work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.’81
A 2006 study on child labour in the Boliv-ian mining sector states the following about the health conditions for children working in the underground Posokoni mine: ‘Mining children who work in the mine are exposed to reduced oxygen and poisonous gases that affect their health, particularly their nervous system. Contin-uous exposure to dust causes silicosis (the most common occupational lung disease worldwide), as well as nose and eye irritation. The high levels of noise produced by the drills and explosions can produce deafness. (...) None of the children that were interviewed go to the doctor since they have no money, or because they ignore the pain.’82
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Miners at work in an underground mine at Potosí
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Burma
EU regulationsIn response to the brutal repression of the peaceful protesters of the Saffron Revolution in September 2007, the European Council decided to strengthen their position against Burma’s mili-tary junta. Among other measures, the import into the European Union of several goods origi-nating or exported from Burma was prohibited: round logs, timber and timber products, metals and minerals, as well as precious and semi-pre-cious stones. Banned tin products included tin ores and concentrates; unwrought tin (refined tin before further processing); tin waste and scrap.83 The new regulations came into force in March 2008. The regulations have not yet had any effect on tin imports originating in Burma to the Neth-erlands. This is due to the fact that according to EU Import Customs Regulations, the country of origin changes if goods have been processed. Therefore, if tin ores and concentrates from Bur-ma are processed into refined tin outside Burma and the EU, the tin is simply allowed onto the EU market. Earlier this year, Friends of the Earth Neth-erlands (FoE NL) conducted research on timber traded from Burma to the European Union.84 Based on a first round of interviews and field work in Burma, FoE NL has found several strong
indications that the recent European sanctions have had no impact on the export of Burmese timber. Sanctions are a means to put more pressure on the junta in order to work towards democratisation. Therefore it is highly important that sanctions are effective and monitored on a regular basis by the European Council.
Tin trade link Burma – NetherlandsThe Netherlands does not directly import tin ores/concentrates and refined tin from Burma. Refined tin is however imported from China, Sin-gapore and Thailand. Tin smelters in these coun-tries may source tin ore and concentrates from Burma. Some examples:• China imported 7,000 tonnes of tin ore and
concentrate in 2008.85 In 2008, China’s main import sources were Vietnam (39 per cent), Bolivia (31 per cent) and Burma (17 per cent).86 In 2007, as well as 2008, the Netherlands was the biggest importer of refined tin from China.87 Both refined tin as well as electronic products containing tin solder from tin mined in Burma may end up at the Dutch market.
• About 5 per cent of tin imports to the Nether-lands come from Singapore. In 2007, the Sin-gapore Tin Industries Pte Ltd tin refinery relied on supplies of crude tin from Australia, Burma, India and Vietnam. Most of their refined tin output was exported to the United States and European countries.88
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Log truck in Burma. The export of logs from Burma to the EU is prohibited.
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Burma also has some tin smelting facilities. In November 2002, the newly built Lonhtan (or Long Tan) tin smelting plant started operations, very close to the border with Yunnan, China.89 No information on the capacity and recent pro-duction of this plant could not be found for this report. Tin ore is also being refined at the Thanlyin tin smelting plant. The tin ore for this plant is sourced from the Heinda mine through a joint venture between the military junta (No. 2 Min-ing Enterprise) and the Thai company Myanmar Pongpipat Co Ltd In 2008 production of refined tin and tungsten was around 600 tonnes, which reportedly was distributed to the domestic mar-ket.90
How much tin is mined, refined or exported in Burma is not known, due to lack of independ-ent information. The US Geological Survey esti-mates that production by state-owned mines was 923 tonnes (tin content of ores and concen-trates) in 2006, based on statistics from the jun-ta.91 In 2007 and the first three quarters of 2008, the amount of tin mined in Burma has probably risen due to stronger demand and higher tin prices.
Some Asian companies have been looking into investing in the Burmese tin mining indus-try. Singapore Tin Industries said it also planned to set up a smelter with an annual capacity of 12,000 tonnes in Myanmar in 200892, but to our knowledge the company has not proceeded with this plan. The Tongkah Harbour PCL mining com-pany from Thailand recently stated it was con-sidering taking over or forming a joint venture with a tin business in Myanmar, to be effected in 2009.93
2.2 Bauxite
Jamaica
Bauxite and alumina in JamaicaIn 2008, Jamaica was responsible for 7 per cent of global bauxite mining.94 The country mines about 14 million tonnes of bauxite, which it par-tially exports and mainly uses to produce about 4 million tonnes of alumina.95 There are no alu-minium smelting facilities in Jamaica.
The mining and processing of bauxite is a major sector of the Jamaican economy, account-ing for about 10 per cent of GDP (gross domes-tic product). Bauxite and alumina are the third earner of foreign revenue, after remittances and tourism. It is a capital-intensive industry and, as a consequence, directly employs only 3,400 workers.96 Due to the financial crisis, in May 2009 three of the four alumina plants will be closed for an extended period of possibly 12-18 months.97
Producing companies Jamaica has four bauxite mining and alumina producing companies which may be supplying alumina to Dutch aluminium smelters:• Jamalco (55 per cent US-based Alcoa, 45 per
cent Jamaican government). Jamalco has a pro-duction capacity of around 1.4 million tonnes of alumina per year.98 The company has a refinery at Halse Hall in Clarendon parish.
• Windalco (93 per cent Russia-based RUSAL, 7 per cent Jamaican government). The produc-tion volume of Windalco is 1.2 million tonnes of alumina annually.99 Windalco has two refineries: one at Ewarton in Saint Catherine parish and the other at Kirkvine in Manchester parish.
• Alpart (65 per cent RUSAL, 35 per cent Nor-way-based Hydro). Alpart has a production capacity of around 1.65 million tonnes of alu-mina per year.100 The company has a refinery at Nain in Saint Elizabeth parish.
• St Ann Bauxite Ltd (SABL) is a Jamaican baux-ite mining company which is owned by a 50/50 joint venture between Canada-based Century Aluminum and US-based Noranda Aluminum. SABL, in turn, is a 49 per cent owner of St Ann Bauxite Partners with the remaining 51 per cent owned by the Jamaican government. Approxi-mately 60 per cent of the bauxite mined at St Ann is shipped to an alumina plant in the USA. The remainder is sold to a single third party. The current annual bauxite production capacity at St Ann is 5.1 million tonnes of ore.101
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Environmental problemsThere are several environmental, health and social problems related to the bauxite mining and alumina refineries in Jamaica:• Forest loss. Bauxite mining is the single larg-
est cause of deforestation in Jamaica. The bauxite mining industry has stripped thou-sands of hectares of forest. Up to 2006, a total of 7,400 hectares of land had been disturbed since the commencement of mining activi-ties in Jamaica. Only 4,800 hectares, however, had been rehabilitated, and most forests were not restored. For rehabilitation, material from the surrounding hillsides is often used to fill holes, a procedure which destroys hillsides and watershed areas.103 Bauxite mining also affects water quality.
Bauxite mining has caused even greater forest destruction by opening access roads.104 Not only are forests cleared in order to make way for these access roads, but once they exist, loggers move in and illegally remove trees in and around the mining areas. According to the Jamaican Bauxite Institute, access roads present bauxite mining’s most serious threat to the forest cover on the island.105
• Air pollution. The bauxite industry is the larg-est emitter of particulate matter and sulphur dioxide in Jamaica.106 ‘Bunker C’ heavy oil is used to process bauxite into alumina in refiner-ies. In 2007 about 9 million barrels of this oil were used for this purpose.107 Bunker C, mostly used for seagoing ships, has a sulphur content of at least 3 per cent. Therefore, the oil refiner-ies emit a great deal of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter. When it comes in con-tact with moisture, SO2 can result in acid rain, which damages crops. Some communities are located very near to the four Jamaican refin-eries. These residents will have more respira-tory and cardiovascular diseases than people exposed to cleaner air. Long term exposure to particulate matter is especially unhealthy. San-dra McLean, living near the Alpart refinery in Nain, St Elizabeth, states: ‘You know how long I have flu and it can’t get better? The white acid from the plant is killing us slowly. My niece is suffering from asthma, four to five times a year they go to a hospital.’108
Community health risks due to air pollution have been badly monitored and not yet inves-tigated. The government and refinery-owning companies do not report the amount of health-related emissions released into the air by the refineries. This information cannot even be found in environmental impact assessments.
• Red mud pools. Because the processing of bauxite produces at least as much residue as alumina, large storage ponds are built next to refineries. The Jamalco refinery at Halse Hall in Clarendon, for instance, currently has four active residue disposal areas (red mud pools) covering 214 hectares in total.109 The mud pools consist of metals (mainly iron ore), water and strong alkaline substances left over from the use of caustic soda during bauxite process-ing into alumina.110 The greatest risk of the red mud pools is spillage, which may contaminate both groundwater and surface water sources, such as ponds, streams and rivers. This caus-es damage to humans, plants and animals. For instance, the red mud lake around Mount Rosser was used for over 30 years, until 1991, by the mining company Alcan to collect resi-dues from alumina processing. The pond area is continuously fed by stormwater run-off from
Map: adapted from the Jamaican Bauxite Institute map of February 2007.102
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the surrounding hillsides. The alkaline water flows from the lake into neighbouring areas and groundwater. According to the US Army Corps of Engineers, the nearby Moneague Blue Hole was once a good freshwater source, but has now been contaminated; this is believed to have come from the Mount Rosser pond with its high sodium effluent.111 In August 2006, the pH level for the water in the Mount Rosser pond was 10.2, which is very alkaline compared to normal water that has a pH of 7.0.112 In the coming years the red mud pond at Mount Rosser will finally be rehabilitated.113
• Dust nuisance. Dust nuisance as a result of mining, drying and calsining (decomposition of hydrated minerals) operations is a major problem for communities in bauxite mining and processing areas.114 There may also be high lev-els of dust affecting people in ports.115
Cockpit Country: will it be saved from bauxite mining?Cockpit Country is a mountainous, forested area of western Jamaica, rich in biodiversity and home to the Leeward Maroon people of Jamai-ca. The forest of Cockpit Country is Jamaica’s largest remaining primary forest and a refuge for rare Jamaican animals such as the black-billed parrot and the giant swallow-tail butter-fly. In 2006, Alcoa and its Jamaican joint-venture partner applied for the renewal of a prospect-ing licence, first granted in May 2004, to exclu-sively prospect for bauxite within an extremely large area of western Jamaica, including much
of Cockpit Country. In November 2006, the Minister of Agriculture, the Hon. Roger Clarke, renewed Alcoa’s licence. The public outcry that ensued prompted the Minister to suspend the licences almost immediately. However, the threat to Cockpit Country remains, as the government has not made a definite decision not to allow mining in Cockpit Country.116
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Red mud lake in Jamaica
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Guinea
Guinea in West Africa, one of the poorest coun-tries on the continent, has about one third of the world’s bauxite reserves. Bauxite mining and alumina production provide about 80 per cent of Guinea’s foreign revenue.117 In 2007, bauxite production amounted to 18.5 million tonnes.Since December 2008 Guinea has been led by a military junta which has promised to hold elec-tions in 2009 or 2010. The military seized power after the death of President Lansana Conte, who had ruled since 1984. The new president, Moussa Dadis Camara, said in January 2009 that mining contracts under the last administration had not been in Guinea’s interest. He stated: ‘I commit myself to move ahead with revising the mining code and mining conventions in force, and with technical, financial and fiscal audits for the past five years by internationally regarded firms.’118
Sangaredi: mining Guinean forestsMost bauxite mining takes place in Guinea’s San-garedi Plateau in the Boké region, a biodiversity hotspot in the north-west of Guinea. The mines produce about 13 million tonnes of bauxite annually, most of the country’s total production. The mining is done by the Compagnie des Baux-ites de Guinée (CBG). Halco mining, a joint ven-ture controlled by the mining giants Alcoa (45%, US-based) and Rio Tinto Alcan (45%, Anglo-Aus-tralian), is a 51 per cent shareholder of CBG. The Guinean government holds the remainder of the shares. CBG has exclusive rights through 2038 to bauxite resources in the area.119 In addition
to mining in Sangaredi, CBG operates a port in Kamsar for drying and shipping the bauxite to refineries worldwide.120
The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest is located within one of the world’s most biologi-cally rich – but also seriously threatened – eco-systems. Recent biological assessment of the area surrounding the bauxite mine and proposed alumina processing facility identified five reptile species, 17 amphibian species, 140 species of birds, 16 species of mammals, and eight primate species, including the endangered West African chimpanzee and western red colobus monkey.123
New SangarediMining is expected to increase massively in the Boké region. In 2005, the Guinean government approved a 75-year investment and concession agreement with a joint venture of Global Alumi-
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Satellite view of the Sangaredi bauxite mine in 1986 and 2007. The bauxite ore is mined in open pits, requiring the removal of vegetation and topsoil. In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine
is visible as a vast open pit approximately 20 km from one end to the other.121 Since opening in 1973, the operation has produced over 260 million tonnes of bauxite for export.122
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na, BHP Billiton, Dubai Aluminium Company Lim-ited and Mubadala Development Company. The joint venture has exclusive rights to build and operate an alumina refinery within a 690 square kilometre mining concession area in the Boké region. The refinery will have an annual capacity of 3.3 million tonnes of alumina. The mining con-cession contains 19 previously unmined bauxite-bearing plateaus. The investment includes: a 70-megawatt power plant to be fuelled by coal (likely to be sourced from South Africa) and/or
petroleum coke; a 30-meter-high dam for the refinery’s water supply; and a lined storage facil-ity for red mud disposal. The total construction costs at completion are expected to be more than $5 billion with alumina production starting in late 2011.124
Another refineryIn 2005, Alcoa and Alcan also signed a basic agreement with the government of Guinea, this time for the development of a 1.5 million metric tonne per year alumina refinery. Alcoa and Alcan worked with Conservation International on biodi-versity issues related to the refinery plan.125 The location of the refinery will probably be a site near Kabata, north of Kamsar. A detailed feasibil-ity study is expected to be completed in 2009 with a final investment decision made thereafter. Following such a decision, alumina production could be expected to begin in 2012.126
RUSALIn Guinea, the Russian aluminium giant Unit-ed Company RUSAL owns two companies: the Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK complex) and the Alumina Company of Guinea (Friguia complex).127 The CBK complex has an annual capacity of 3 million tonnes of bauxite. It includes the Debele mine, a railway, a mine port and a repair cen-tre. Over 2 million tonnes of bauxite per year are delivered to the Nikolaev alumina refinery in Ukraine.128 The Friguia complex consists of an alumina refinery in the town of Fria (0.6 million tonnes capacity) close to a bauxite deposit. RUSAL wants to increase the plant’s capacity to 1 million tonnes annually.129 Recently, the Guinean presi-dent Moussa Camara stated that he is consid-
Train full of bauxite heading for the port of Kamsar, where it is shipped for export.
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ering legal action over a 2006 transaction that gave control of the Friguia complex to RUSAL. According to the president, the Guinean gov-ernment was paid a fraction of the amount the company was valued at by consulting firms.130 RUSAL (51%) and the China Power Investment Corp (CPI, 49%) also are investors in an alumina refinery producing up to 2.8 million tonnes of alumina per year, near the RUSAL owned Dian-Dian mine, with a possible future production of 13.4 million tonnes of bauxite annually.131
Bauxite exploration permits(See map on page 28.) The Canadian-based Navasota Resources Ltd has a bauxite mining concession in Guinea, near Sangaredi, and has started exploring mining possibilities.132 In early 2007, China agreed to fund a $1 billion hydro-power dam in return for rights to bauxite con-cessions.133 Mitsubishi (Japan) and Vale (Brazil) have also won exploration permits.134 A Nava-sota Resources brochure pictures the bauxite mining concessions and exploration permits in Guinea.135 There will be little forest left in the western part of Guinea if all these areas are actu-ally mined for bauxite.
2.3 Copper
Chile
Copper is Chile’s most important export prod-uct. In 2007, helped by high copper prices, exports of copper totalled $37 billion, 56 per cent of total exports.136 Copper production in Chile reached 5.6 million tonnes in 2007. The Chilean government expects copper production to rise to 6.7 million tonnes in 2015. Investments by private mining companies and the state-run company CODELCO are predicted to be $18 bil-lion in the period 2008-2012.137
Copper is mined in Chile in about 25 mines. The biggest ones are: the Rio Escondida open pit mine (annual capacity 1.43 million tonnes); the CODELCO North Division including Chuqui-camata, Mina Sur, and Radomiro Tomic Mines (0.97 million tonnes); the Collahuasi open pit mine (0.46 million tonnes); the underground El Teniente Mine (0.43 million tonnes); the Los Pela-mbres open pit mine (0.36 million tonnes) and the Los Bronces Mine (0.3 million tonnes).
Water shortage in ChileIt has been calculated that the copper industry in Chile uses 11,500 litres of water per second,
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more than 5 per cent of the country’s water usage.138 In April 2009 the Chile’s Public Works Minister, Sergio Bitar, stated: ‘We are entering a complex water shortage phase in Chile. Water consumption to produce a tonne of copper is still high and we have to ask for more efficient usage.’ In 2008, Chile suffered one of its worst droughts in memory, which affected the agricul-ture and hydro-electric sectors and prompted miners to consider alternatives, such as desali-nation plants, to ensure supplies. The copper industry has stated that it reduced its water use from 15,000 litres per second in 2000 to 11,500 litres in 2006 through projects to reuse water and measures to avoid evaporation by covering reservoirs.139 Increased copper production might however increase water conflicts among sectors of the economy and, most critically, over avail-ability for human consumption.140 Some mining companies have started to pump water from the Pacific Ocean high into the Andes Moun-tains (where the copper mines are) because of chronic water shortages exacerbated by climate change.141 Water is often allocated where it brings the highest economic yield in Chile. Academics and environmentalists argue that Chile’s privatised water system is unsustainable because it pro-motes speculation, endangers the environment and allows smaller interests to be muscled out by powerful forces, like Chile’s mining industry.142
Plans for destructive hydroelectric dams in PatagoniaThe copper mining sector accounts for around 10% of the total energy consumption of Chile (31% of the total electric energy and 5% of other fuels). The energy used to make one tonne of copper decreased by 8 per cent between 1995 and 2006. The Chilean copper industry uses about 100 petajoules of energy annually,143 an amount equivalent to the annual household energy use (natural gas and electricity) of 3 mil-lion people in the Netherlands.144
Plans to expand the copper industry in Chile mean that its energy use will increase consider-ably. In respond to energy demand, five massive hydroelectric dams are planned in Patagonia in southern Chile. The dams – two on the Baker riv-er and three on the Pascua river – would damage one of the wildest and most beautiful places on earth, by flooding nearly 6,000 hectares of pris-tine forest. The project also calls for construction of a 2,000-km transmission line to transport the electricity from the south to Chile’s central and northern regions, creating a scar across some of Chile’s most magnificent landscape.145 The HydroAysén company that wants to implement the project is a joint venture between Endesa Chile (owning 51 per cent of its shares) and Colbún (with 49 per cent of its shares). Endesa Chile owns the (privatised) water rights. One of Europe’s biggest utility companies – Enel
Mining in progress at the open pit mine Chuquicamata in northern Chile
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from Italy – controls Endesa.146 Two huge Chilean wood and pulp producers – the Matte Group and the Angelini Group – together control Colbún. Opponents of the HidroAysén dams have joined together in The Patagonia Defence Coun-cil (CDP), an umbrella group of 50 Chilean and international organisations. In Chile, the cam-paign is called Patagonia Sin Represas (Patago-nia Without Dams). Friends of the Earth Chile (National Committee for the Defense of Flora and Fauna, Codeff) is a member of Patagonia Sin Represas.147
In November 2008, the HidroAysén energy company was granted a nine-month extension of the environmental impact assessment phase of the project.148 Environmental authorities ordered dam proponents to respond to overwhelming criticism from the public and government agen-cies in their 10,500-page environmental assess-ment. The company will have to answer over 3,000 comments and observations made on the environmental impact assessment report (EIA) the company produced in August 2008.149
Copper industry and pollutionAt present, about 90 per cent of the sulphur emissions are captured in Chile’s seven cop-per smelters, compared to 97 to 99 per cent in copper smelters in Western Europe, the USA and Japan. Compared to the situation in 1989, however, the capture of sulphur emissions has increased considerably. There is now less pollu-tion around the copper smelters. This is mainly due to environmental regulations and the fact that the sulphur can be profitably used to pro-duce sulphuric acid. Nonetheless, some smelt-ers exceed the Chilean standards for hourly SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and annual PM10 (particulate matter) emissions.150
Peru
Peru’s mining sector accounted for about 60 per cent of total export revenues in 2006 and 2007. Copper accounted for about 40 per cent of the exports in the mining sector.151 Approximately 1.3 million tonnes of copper was mined in Peru in 2008.152 Peru has about 10 copper mines, the biggest of which is the Antamina Mine in Huari (400,000 tonnes). There are copper smelters at Ilo (320,000 tonnes) and La Oroya (65,000 tonnes).
Many communities in Peru have protested against mining. As in Chile, water shortages are a major problem. Local communities also expe-rience few benefits from mining revenues. The Peruvian government lacks the capacity and political will to regulate the industry. For exam-ple, the mining sector was exempted from the responsibilities of the newly created Ministry of the Environment; only the Ministry of Energy and Mines is allowed to monitor mining.153 This sec-tion examines two examples of mining projects with serious consequences for humans and the environment.
Rio Blanco copper mineWhen realised, the Rio Blanco copper mine, planned in the Northern highlands of Piura, will be one of the biggest copper mines in Peru. UK-based Monterrico Metals plc (Chinese Zijin Consortium 89.9 per cent and South Korean LS-Nikko Copper Inc 10.1 per cent) aims to invest in this project.154
Communities have protested against the potential impacts of the huge proposed cop-
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per mine to their production of organic coffee and fruit. Much of Piura is desert or semi-desert and its agriculture is acutely dependent on the quantity and quality of water draining from the region’s eastern highlands, where the Rio Blanco project is located. The agricultural sec-tor has begun to grow rapidly, with both large enterprises as well as small and medium farm-ers’ organisations supplying internal and external markets.155 In 2007, referenda were held in the villages of Carmen de la Frontera, Ayabaca and Pacaipampa. The great majority of people voted against mining activity on their lands.156
A report on Rio Blanco by the Peruvian Ombudsperson, released in November 2006, concluded that the implementation of the Rio Blanco project violates community mem-bers’ rights to property, to determine the ways in which their property will be used, and to informed participation in decisions about devel-opment. The Ombudsperson concludes that these violations of rights derive from lack of clar-ity in the regulations and practices of the Minis-try of Energy and Mines.157
In 2004 and 2005, local protests against the project led to violent clashes with police, result-ing in two deaths. In January 2009, a coalition of Peruvian human rights groups released pho-tographs from a 2005 protest that suggested police and security forces had tortured protes-tors. The government said it was investigating the case.158 Copper smelter La OroyaIn September 2007, the US-based not-for-profit organisation Blacksmith Institute, which focus-es on identifying and solving pollution-related problems in the developing world, listed the town of La Oroya (35,000 inhabitants) in Peru as one of the top ten most polluted places on earth. A poly-metallic smelter has been the main cause of the released toxins. A survey conduct-ed by the Peruvian Ministry of Health in 1999 revealed blood lead levels among local children to be triple the limits set by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Sulphur dioxide concentra-tions also exceeded the World Health Organiza-tion guidelines by a factor of ten. Vegetation in the surrounding area has been destroyed by acid rain due to high sulphur dioxide emissions. The copper smelter is the main driver of the local economy and able to exercise control over the livelihood of the population.159
The smelter and adjoining copper mine are owned by Doe Run Peru (a subsidiary of the US-based Renco Group).160 In September 2008, Doe
Run Peru inaugurated a $50 million sulphuric acid plant, which is expected to reduce half of the sulphur dioxide emissions from the La Oroya metals smelter.161 However, even after more active emissions from the smelter are reduced, the expended lead will remain in La Oroya’s soil for centuries — and there currently is no plan to clean it up.
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Zambia
Zambia is a poor country. Most of its 12 million people live in poverty. Copper mining generates three-quarters of its foreign exchange earnings and the mines are a major employer in the coun-try.162
The copper content of mined ore in Zambia was 560,000 tonnes in 2008, 4 per cent of global production.163 The mining takes place in the so-called African Copperbelt, which stretches along the southern border of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The DRC has also some copper mines, in the Katanga region above the Zambian Copperbelt province.
Main mining companiesMost mining operations in Zambia are controlled by foreign companies, with the government of Zambia holding a minority share:• Zambia’s largest copper mining company is
Konkola Copper Mines (KCM), with an annual capacity of 200,000 metric tonnes of copper.164 The India-based company Vedanta Resources owns 79 per cent of the shares, the remain-der is owned by ZCCM-IH (Zambian govern-ment 87.6 per cent, private equity holders 12.4 per cent). KCM has several copper mines: the open pit and underground Nchanga mine; the
Konkola underground mine; and the Fitwaola mine.165 Recently it built a new copper smelter in Nchanga, with a capacity of 300,000 tonnes annually.166 At Konkola, mine shafts go down as deep as 1,500 metres, where copper content is very high.167
• In late 2008 the Australia/Canada-based Equi-nox Minerals Ltd started producing copper from the Malundwe and Chimiwungo depos-its (100 per cent share) in the north-west of Zambia, outside the Copperbelt province. The company expects to produce 170,000 tonnes of copper in 2009.168 The investment was sup-ported through loans by the European Invest-ment Bank and the African Development Bank, among others.
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• Mopani Copper Mines (MCM) is 73 per cent owned by the Swiss mining company Glencore. The remaining shares are in the hands of the Canada-based First Quantum Minerals (17 per cent) and ZCCM-IH (10 per cent).169 The assets owned by the company include the Mufulira mine and Nkana mines, a smelter and a refinery at Mufulira.
• Kansanshi Mining plc is owned by First Quan-tum Minerals Ltd (79.4 per cent). The remaining 20.6 per cent of the shares is owned by ZCCM-IH. The company owns the Kansanshi copper mine, also produces copper cathodes and has a sulphuric acid plant.
• The China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co. Ltd owns the Chambishi mine and also runs a fac-tory producing copper cathodes.
The financial crisisSince the financial crisis which started in late 2008, thousands of mine workers have been made redundant in Zambia. These workers often provided for entire families. A proposed hydro-electric project (the Kafue Gorge Lower Dam) has recently been put on hold.170 The project was aimed at providing more energy for the cop-per industry, as it is the largest energy user in Zambia and most of the energy it requires comes from hydroelectric power plants. In early 2008, Zambia tightened its tax policy towards foreign mining companies, in order to share in the benefits of high copper pric-es. However, the country has not been able to profit from the new laws, as due to the financial crisis both copper demand and the price have dropped.171 Unfortunately, Zambia has a long his-tory of not profiting much from its own copper industry: problems first were caused by govern-ment mismanagement, then came privatisation and low-tax agreements with companies and now the financial crisis has lowered prices.
PollutionWith support from the World Bank, the Zambian government has set up a programme to address its own environmental liabilities and obligations incurred prior to the privatisation of industries, and to strengthen the capacity of its environ-mental regulatory institutions to improve future compliance by the mining sector with environ-mental and social regulations.172 That this is needed is illustrated by a few examples:• In January 2008, spillage of an acidic solu-
tion used in the leaching process by MCM at Mufulira contaminated underground drink-ing water supplies. About 582 people were
treated at various health institutions in Mufu-lira after drinking contaminated water. People complained of severe abdominal pains, general body pain, vomiting and other ailments.173
• The environment around the Mufulira smelter is heavily polluted because of regular SO2 releas-es that affect the land, vegetation, buildings and people’s health.174 The regional manager for the governmental Environmental Council of Zambia puts it as follows: ‘Here in Zambia we are dealing mostly with sulphide copper...so during the processing there is a lot of sulphur dioxide that gets released...in some places like in Mufulira you’ll find that there is a large space where you can’t grow things because of the acid rain and that kind of thing...”175
• On 6 November 2006, one of KCM’s pipelines leaked significant quantities of acidic liquid. The Environmental Council of Zambia reported that KCM ‘significantly polluted Chingola and Mushishima streams, as well as the Kafue River, causing serious effects on human life and the environment.’176
Fatal accidents and injuriesMining in Zambia is dangerous for workers:• The University of Bergen in Norway recently
published a short report on injuries and fatal accidents in the underground copper mines of KCM. In the period from January 2005 to May 2007, there were 17 fatal accidents (mostly caused by falling rocks) and 85 injuries. The authors of the study conclude that the fatality frequency rate in copper mining in Zambia is high, particularly at underground sites, and that measures should be taken to reduce the risk of accidents and to evaluate the reporting sys-tems of occupational injuries.177
• In Zambia, there are many complaints about labour conditions at Chinese companies. In July 2006 six workers at the Chambishi mine (owned by the China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co. Ltd) were shot and wounded after rioting over wages. In April 2005, the company caused a massive and unexplained explosion in a factory, which killed 46 people.178
• At the Mopani Copper Mines, more than 20 workers died in 2005, including six when a cage carrying miners fell into a shaft, according to the miners union.179
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Indonesia: the Grasberg mine
The Grasberg mine is a large mining complex located in West Papua, Indonesia. Grasberg is situated 4,000 metres above sea level, and bor-ders on Lorentz National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Grasberg is an open pit mine, but also includes zones of underground operations. In 2008, the mine produced 499,000 tonnes of copper; copper reserves as of 31 December 2008 were 16 million tonnes.180 The mine has the world’s largest copper reserves and biggest gold deposits. It is probably also the most polluting mine in the world.
FreeportThe Grasberg mine is operated by PT Freeport Indonesia, 90.64 per cent of which is owned by Freeport McMoRan Copper&Gold Inc. The Indo-nesian government owns the remainder of the shares. Freeport McMoRan has established a special agreement with the Anglo-Australian mining giant Rio Tinto. Rio Tinto holds a 40 per cent interest in production exceeding specified annu-al amounts through 2021, and, after 2021, a 40 percent interest in all production.181 Because of the polluting Grasberg mine, Freeport and Rio Tinto have been excluded from the government pension fund of Norway. In Sep-
tember 2008 the Norwegian government stated: ‘The finance ministry has decided to exclude the Rio Tinto Group from the public pension fund because of the serious environmental risks.’182 Freeport had already been excluded from the fund in 2006, because it caused ‘serious damage to the river system and parts of the nearby river-ine rainforest and…considerable negative con-sequences for the indigenous people residing in the area of Freeport’s operations.’183
Environmental problems In 2006 Friends of the Earth Indonesia (WALHI) completed an investigative report on the envi-
Aerial view of the Grasberg copper and gold mine
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ronmental impacts of the Grasberg mine. The report documents severe environmental damage and clear breaches of environmental law, based on a number of unreleased company and gov-ernment monitoring reports, including an envi-ronmental risk assessment never made available to the public.184
The Grasberg mine discharges very large amounts of tailings (the refuse material resulting from processing ore) directly into a natural river system. Every day, about 230,000 tonnes of tail-ings are discharged directly into the Aghawagon River, which feeds into the Otomona River. The Otomona River runs through a plain covered by rainforest before flowing into the Ajkwa Estuary. The tailings release a considerable amount of heavy metals into the environment. The rainfor-est and wetland area destroyed by tailings depo-sition was formerly a vital hunting, fishing and gardening area for Kamoro traditional landown-ers. Local communities face water shortages as their rivers have become contaminated. Elevated levels of heavy metals in the sediment have also been detected. Freeport has repeatedly claimed that riverine tailings disposal is the best solution, given the difficult terrain, the earthquake threat and the rainfall.185
The second environmental problem of the Grasberg mine is acid rock drainage (outflow of acidic water). Waste rock is disposed of in two valleys adjacent to the mine, amount-ing to 360,000-510,000 tonnes per day. Acid rock drainage from the deposit sites was first observed in 1993, and leaching into the ground-water has also been reported, causing pollu-tion of springs in Lorentz National Park, among others. Acid rock drainage is considered one of the most serious mining-related environmental problems throughout the world. It occurs when sulphurous minerals come into contact with
both water and air, forming sulphuric acid. In this process the heavy metals that are naturally present in the ore may be mobilized. The result is the generation of acid water containing heavy metals, which may lead to considerable pollution of groundwater and water systems. Once this process has been initiated, it may go on for cen-turies.186
Other problemsApart from the severe environmental damage, a frequent source of controversy concerning the Grasberg mine has been the share of revenue going to Papuans, the legality of payments to Indonesian security forces who help guard the site, and whether such an operation should be run by a foreign company. Freeport has a long tradition of ties to the Indonesian military. In 2008, Freeport paid ‘less than’ 1.6 million dollars through wire transfers and cheques to provide a ‘monthly allowance’ to police and soldiers at and around the Grasberg mine. The direct payments are part of 8 million dollars Freeport paid in broader ‘support costs’ for 1,850 police and soldiers protecting Gras-berg last year. In a 2005 report, the non-gov-ernmental organisation Global Witness alleged Freeport had paid hundreds of thousands of dollars directly to senior police and military offic-ers between 2001 and 2003.187 Company records obtained by the New York Times show that from 1998 through 2004, individual command-ers received tens of thousands of dollars, in one case up to $150,000. The company records were provided by an individual close to Freeport and confirmed as authentic by current and former employees.188 Up till now, Freeport has still not disclosed which security forces are given allow-ances, how much money they get and whether there is a legal basis for these payments.
Trade linksThe copper, gold and silver produced by PT Freeport is milled into copper concen-trate (which also contains gold and silver) by Freeport itself. A portion of this cop-per concentrate is then sent to the copper refinery of PT Smelting in Gresik (Indone-sia), but a much larger part is exported for refining else-where.189
Export destinations of Freeport’s copper concentrate190
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3.1 Methodology of the review
Seven companies located in the Netherlands were reviewed for this report. These are among the biggest Dutch companies involved in the supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The reviewed companies are:• Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu-
facturer for the electronics industry• Corus: large producer of tinplate for can pro-
ducers• Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu-
minium smelters Zalco and Aldel• Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer of
Europe• Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting
products• Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate
cans• Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever-
ages packed in tinplate cans
The main questions Friends of the Earth Nether-lands asked the companies to answer were:• Have you mapped out the supply chain of the
mining products? • Have you identified problems related to the
environment, human rights and labour rights (CSR problems) along the supply chain?
• To what extent do you publicly (and/or after questioning) report about your involvement in mining throughout the supply chain (transpar-ency)?
• What is your general policy with regard to sup-ply chain responsibility?
• Which steps did you take to ensure better min-ing practices on labour rights, environment and human rights?
The review consisted of reading the latest sus-tainability and/or annual reports of the com-panies, their public statements such as codes of conduct for suppliers, and any other avail-
able information with regard to the supply chain responsibility of the companies. In December 2008, questionnaires were sent to the compa-nies in order to get more information. Most of the companies returned the questionnaires and provided additional information. There were also follow-up meetings and phone calls. All the com-panies were sent the draft report and were able to comment on it. Where necessary, the com-ments have been adopted into the final report. Cookson Electronics (Alpha-Fry Technologies) and Klesch & Company (Zalco and Aldel) were the only companies which did not respond at all to questionnaires, draft reports, phone calls and emails. The review of these companies consisted solely of reading publicly available information.
3.2 Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies
General information on CooksonThe Cookson Group is a public limited compa-ny registered in England and Wales and listed on the London Stock Exchange. The company’s total revenue was £2.2 billion in 2008; its trading profit was £216 million. Cookson employs over 15,000 people in 40 countries. The Cookson Group has three divisions:• The Ceramics division supplies products to the
steel, glass, solar and foundry industries. This division’s revenue was £1,265 million in 2008.
• The Electronics division comprises two sec-tors: assembly materials and chemistry. This division’s revenue was £620 million in 2008. One of the main products manufactured and sold within this division is solder for the elec-tronics market. In 2008, the total value of tin and silver included within the revenue of the electronics division (£620m) was £200m.191 Cookson is probably the world’s largest buyer of tin for electronics solder.192 The only thing
Chapter 3 Companies reviewed
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known about Cookson’s tin suppliers is that the Indonesian PT Timah company is one of them, as Cookson Electronics is listed as one of the debtors in PT Timah’s 2008 financial report.193
• The Precious Metals division supplies fabricat-ed precious metals (primarily gold, silver and platinum) to the jewellery industry in the US, UK, France and Spain. The division’s revenue was £318 million in 2008.194
Alpha-Fry TechnologiesThe Dutch company Alpha-Fry Technologies BV is a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook-son group. The company is located in the small city of Naarden near Amsterdam. The average number of employees at the Naarden company amounted to 127 in 2007.
Alpha-Fry ‘s activities consist of buying base metals and metal alloys and producing the fol-lowing products: tin and solder anodes; various solder products such as powders, ingots, sticks, bars and wire; solder preforms; printing metal; lead and tin alloys. In 2007, the costs of buying raw materials were 46 million euros. In addition to tin, the company buys silver and lead in lower quantities.195 It can be estimated that Alpha-Fry bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in 2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).196 Alpha-Fry is the only Cookson company making solder in Europe and the lion’s share of its production is sold to Cookson companies within Europe.
Alpha-Fry accounts for 15 to 20 per cent of the European solder market.197
In 2004, Alpha-Fry arranged the purchase of tin for the all Cookson’s European companies. The company bought both primary and second-ary (recycled) commodities, stating the ratio as approximately 50:50. Annually, 12,000 tonnes of tin, lead and silver were purchased.198
Alpha-Fry buys its silver from the Dutch-based Cookson Drijfhout, also a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cookson group. Drijfhout is engaged in the purchase and sale of precious metals and related products for the jewellery business.199
Supply chain policy In its 2007 and 2008 annual reports, Cookson made no reference to any responsibilities due to the purchase of raw mining materials, but only referred to the risks related to fluctuations of price and supply of raw materials: ‘Tin, solvents, alumina, graphite, silver and gold are among the principal raw materials that the Group purchas-es. The Group’s businesses may be affected by fluctuations in the price and supply of such raw materials, although purchasing policies and prac-tices seek to mitigate, where practicable, such risks and the Group’s geographical and product diversity reduces the dependence on any single item or supplier.’200
Cookson includes a CSR (Corporate Social
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Responsibility) tab on its website, supplying information such as its Code of Conduct and its Health, Safety and Environmental policy. While the company may have made quite some effort to ensure sound safety, health and environmental practices in its global operations, Cookson does not yet have a policy on supply chain responsibil-ity regarding mining products. Furthermore, no reference could be found to international stand-ards, like the Core Conventions of the Interna-tional Labour Organisation (ILO).
QuestionnaireAlpha-Fry did not fill in the questionnaire which was sent to the company in December 2008. After several phone calls with the Health and Safety manager of Alpha-Fry Technologies in March, it was agreed Friends of the Earth Neth-erlands (FoE NL) should contact the headquar-ters of Cookson in London. This was tried several times, from 7 April 2009 onwards, but always to no avail. Phone calls were directed to voice mails. Only one time there was email contact. After a facilities manager stated: ‘Please forward me a copy of your report for our comments,’ a draft report was sent to Cookson by FoE NL. However, no comments had been received by the stated deadline of 1 May 2009.
3.3 Corus
General informationCorus is Europe’s second largest steel producer, with annual revenues of around £12 billion and a yearly production of over 20 million tonnes of steel, nearly 7 million tonnes of which are pro-duced in IJmuiden, the Netherlands. The com-pany employs around 40,000 people worldwide. In late 2006, Corus was the ninth largest steel producer in the world. In 2007, the company became part of Tata Steel, based in India. Since then Tata Steel has become the world’s sixth largest steelmaker. In addition to producing steel in the UK and the Netherlands, Corus manu-factures value-added steel products for several industries: construction, automotive, packaging, aerospace, energy and engineering.201
Corus Packaging Plus is a division within the Corus group that manufactures packag-ing steel. It supplies approximately 1.2 million tonnes annually to the can-manufacturing indus-try.202 Corus Packaging Plus has its headquarters in IJmuiden, in the north-west of the Nether-lands.203 In IJmuiden, Corus has one of the larger European plants producing tinplate for the can-making industry, with an annual production near-ing 0.9 million tonnes.204 Production of tinplate within Corus also takes place in Trostre (South Wales).
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Supply chain policyIn its Corporate Responsibility Report 2007/2008, Corus declares its policy principles regarding supplier practices: ‘Our health and safety stand-ards apply equally to contractors’.205 The Corus Purchase Terms for Goods & Services state that suppliers need to conform to all applicable laws with regard to health, safety and the environ-ment.206 Corus has recently begun implement-ing the Tata Code of Conduct, which defines the ethical identity of the company, but does not yet include its position towards suppliers.207
The overall picture is that the company does not yet have strict policies in place to encour-age its suppliers towards environment, human rights and labour rights. Corus does not require that its suppliers comply with the Core Conven-tions of the International Labour Organisation. Neither does the company monitor suppliers in a systematic way, though some checks are made. The Corporate Responsibility Report 2007/2008 does mention some multi-stake-holder initiatives on responsible procurement, mainly focusing on steel. Corus does not provide information to the public, for instance in its CSR report, on the ori-gin of the mining products the company uses in its production process, nor any information on the circumstances under which the mining takes place.
QuestionnaireAs a steel producer, Corus annually purchas-es large amounts of iron ore and coal. For this report, Friends of the Earth Netherlands (FoE NL) only considered Corus’ supply chain responsibil-ity regarding its tin purchases. Corus filled in the questionnaire sent by FoE NL and responded to follow-up questions.208 Representatives of Corus IJmuiden and FoE NL also met on 9 March 2009. In addition, Corus responded to the parts of the draft report that were sent to the company. Of the seven companies reviewed, Corus provided FoE NL with the most additional information. Tin purchasing within the Corus group is cen-tralised within one business unit, Corus MET BV, located in the Netherlands. Corus MET trades in aluminium, zinc, tin and nickel. It has a procure-ment and risk management function within the Corus group.209 Corus imports around 3,000 tonnes of tin per year, utilised by Corus Packaging Plus IJmui-den for packaging applications, mostly tinplate. Its non-recycled tin is purchased from traders and trade agencies. The company states it does not always know the origin of the tin purchased
(mining companies, smelters). The company fur-ther states that its use of secondary tin (recy-cled) increased from 30 per cent in 2008 to 65 per cent in 2009. The recycled tin is purchased directly from a European supplier of secondary material. Corus does not reveal its suppliers, as this is considered business-sensitive information. Corus expects traders and trade agencies to respect the Corus Purchase Terms when doing business with tin miners and smelters. Corus considers control of compliance a difficult task due to the significant contribution of artisan and small-scale miners (ASM) to production in emerg-ing and developing countries. The company states it does not know of any current social or environmental issues related to its sources of tin. Through APEAL (Association of European Producers of Steel for Packaging), Corus became aware of assertions that trade in minerals from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was supporting the civil war, directly or indirectly. As a result Corus’ tin procurement process excludes tin originating from the DRC. Corus has shown FoE NL a Request for Quotation on tin purchase. The document states: ‘Tin ingots from cassiter-ite originating from the Democratic Republic of Congo should be excluded.’ Burma, however, is not formally excluded and Corus was not aware that tin from their suppliers might be sourced from Burmese mines. The company states that its tin is imported from South America and Asia.210
A coordinated industry response?Corus finally stated that sustainable sourcing is important for the tin plating industry and a sub-ject of discussion within APEAL. Through APEAL, Corus is in contact with ITRI, the organisation rep-resenting the world’s major tin producing com-panies. ITRI has started a Sustainability Project, focusing on artisanal small miners and the Demo-cratic Republic of Congo. In its progress paper of February 2009, ITRI states: ‘Both ITRI and its members understand the concern of downstream tin users and other stakeholders regarding the circumstances surrounding cassiterite production and trade in, and from, the Democratic Repub-lic of Congo (DRC) and have committed to take steps to improve and encourage the adoption of appropriate due diligence procedures through-out the supply chain in that region. A working group has been established, led by ITRI members Thaisarco and Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad (MSC)’.211 Both companies currently buy cassiterite from the DRC.212 There was no news on the proceedings of the working group by the time this report went to press.
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3.4 Zalco and Aldel aluminium smelters
General informationKlesch & Company, a British private equity com-pany, has owned Zalco since May 2007.213 In February 2009, Aldel was also acquired by Kle-sch & Company.214
The Zeeland Aluminium Company NV (Zalco), located near the harbour of Flushing in the south-east of the Netherlands, is a primary aluminium smelter. According to its website the company annually produces 230,000 tonnes of extrusion billets and rolling slabs. In addition, about 100,000 tonnes of anodes are manufac-tured for its own production process and for third parties.215 In 2007, the production level of extrusion billets and rolling slabs was 207,000 tonnes.216 In November 2008, Zalco announced that 141 of the 700 jobs would be cut during the course of 2009. The company has closed half of its 512 electrolysis furnaces.217
Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth-erlands, is also a primary aluminium smelter. Aldel has long been a subsidiary of Corus. Annu-ally Aldel produces over 115,000 tonnes of new (or primary) aluminium. By re-melting production waste and scrap, another 50,000 tonnes of alu-minium are produced. Aldel employs 450 peo-ple.218 In March 2009, however, Aldel announced it would cut production by 40 per cent and 185 people would lose their jobs. In addition, 120 furnaces would be closed down.219
Supply chain policyIn their annual reports, neither company gives any information on the origin of their bauxite, nor on the circumstances under which the mining takes place. While there may be quite some efforts to ensure sound practices regarding internal safety, health and environmental operations, nei-ther company yet has a policy on supply chain responsibility including mining products.
QuestionnaireFriends of the Earth Netherlands sent question-naires to Zalco and Aldel on 15 December 2008. Zalco did not fill in the questionnaire, because the company was too busy with a pending reor-ganisation at that time. Corus/Aldel did not answer because Aldel was about to be taken over by Klesch & Company, so Corus was no longer in a position to fill in the questionnaire.
The draft report was sent to Zalco on 22 April 2009. No response had been made by the time this report went to press.
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3.5 Draka
General informationDraka is a large cable producer, with an estimat-ed global market share of 2.5 per cent, making the company the third-largest cable producer in Europe. Draka operates 68 companies in 30 countries throughout Europe, North and South America, Asia and Australia and earned a rev-enue of 2.8 billion euros in 2007. Draka employs about 10,000 people worldwide. Draka has its headquarters in Amsterdam. In the Netherlands it employs 1,000 people, including 500 in its cable-producing affiliates in Emmen, Nieuw Bergen and Amsterdam.220
Draka’s portfolio includes: producing semi-manufactures (copper drawing, compounding, optical fibre production); selling cable as a final product; and selling cable systems/concepts. In its manufacturing process the Group uses raw materials like copper, preforms for optical fibre, aluminium, PVC and other polymers. These raw materials account for approximately 70 per cent of total operating costs.221 In its 2005 annual report the company stated that purchases of copper and aluminium amounted to 650 mil-
lion euros in 2005.222 All Draka’s global copper purchases are arranged by its headquarters in Amsterdam.
Supply chain policy Draka is just starting to develop policies regard-ing corporate social responsibility (CSR). The company doesn’t produce sustainability reports, so far preferring to include CSR information in its annual report. In January 2009, Draka published a Group Safety, Health & Environment statement for all its operating companies.223 Almost all Draka companies have management systems in place for safety, health and environment. While its headquarters may be making quite some efforts to ensure sound health, safety and envi-ronmental practices at its global operations, Dra-ka does not yet have policy outlined on supply chain responsibility including mining products. The company states that it mainly buys cop-per from suppliers that are ISO-14001 certified. ISO-14001 is a standard for environmental man-agement systems, set by the International Stand-ards Organisation (ISO). ISO-14001 does how-ever not take into account the origin of copper products and mining practices, and these are not part of the requirements which Draka’s suppliers have to meet to get the certification.
QuestionnaireInstead of filling in the questionnaire on copper mining, the company sent a letter to Friends of the Earth Netherlands including an invitation for a meeting.224 This meeting between representa-tives of Draka and Friends of the Earth Nether-lands took place on 18 March 2009. After the meeting, additional information was provided by Draka. In the Netherlands, Draka processes about 22,000 tonnes of copper annually, accounting for more than 7 per cent of imports of copper and copper objects into the Netherlands. To produce cables, only primary copper is used. Recycled copper is never used to produce cables. The company mainly buys copper rods with an eight-millimetre diameter, to be further processed into thinner wire in its processing plants in the Neth-erlands. Draka states that many processing operations have been carried out between the mining of the copper and its purchase of copper rod; this makes the global supply chain rather complex. Producers of copper cathodes may purchase copper ore from several mines and Draka’s cop-per rod suppliers may get their copper cathodes from several plants. This supply chain does not m
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appear to be overly complex to Friends of the Earth Netherlands. The company has made enquiries among its suppliers of 8mm copper rods to the Neth-erlands. Draka states this survey shows that the vast majority of the copper their suppli-ers use originates from European mines. This is explained by the relatively high costs for transporting copper ore and copper cathodes. According to the US Geological Survey, Euro-pean copper is mostly produced by Russia and Poland.225 Draka states that a part of its copper may come from Chile, because this country is the world’s main producer of copper. Furthermore, Draka stated it only buys Lon-don Metal Exchange (LME) Grade A certified copper and always turns down cheaper offers lacking LME certification. Therefore, the compa-ny states it is certain that it does not use copper mined in the DRC. According to Draka, copper mined in the DRC does not get LME certification.
3.6 Philips
General informationWith a revenue of 27 billion euros in 2008 and 121,000 employees worldwide, the Philips Group is a giant in the electronics industry. Philips is headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The company has three main divisions: Healthcare, Consumer Lifestyle and Lighting. Philips claims to be number one globally in home healthcare, lamps, electric shavers, car-diac ultrasound, cardiovascular X-ray, patient monitoring systems, professional lighting, light-ing electronics, automotive lighting, electric male grooming products and automated exter-nal defibrillators. 226
Supply chain policy In its 2008 annual report Philips states: ‘We con-sider our suppliers as partners in our sustain-ability initiatives, taking care of the environment and of workers’ lives.’227 Philips requires its sup-pliers to comply with its Supplier Sustainability Declaration of December 2006. This declaration consists of the Electronic Industry Code of Con-duct, made by the Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), plus a Philips annex on Right of Free Bargaining and Freedom of Association.228
The EICC code of conduct will be renewed in 2009. The present Philips declaration contains,
Philips radio (1931)
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among other standards, similarities with the val-ues stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna-tional Labour Organisation. The company identifies risk suppliers based on the Maplecroft list229 of risk countries with regard to human rights. These risk suppliers are monitored through audits, nearly 60 per cent of which are conducted by external auditing bod-ies. A total of 277 initial and continual conform-ance audits and 295 resolution audits focus-ing on zero-tolerance issues were carried out in 2008. The company claims all zero-tolerances from 2007 and those from the first three quarters of 2008 have been resolved. Most zero-tolerance issues in 2008 were: emergency preparedness (blocked fire exits); occupational safety (immedi-ate threats to health and safety); working condi-tions (exposure to hazardous substances); work-ing hours (continual seven-day work weeks); and lack of environmental permits. Most limited-tol-erance issues in 2008 were: improper handling/processing of chemical waste; working hours (above legal limits/60 hours a week); wages and benefits (below minimum wage standards and absence of legal overtime payment); environ-mental performance objectives not meeting legal requirements; lack of industrial hygiene (lack of personal protective equipment); occu-pational injury and illness (no medical treatment facility). Philips is quite transparent regarding its efforts to improve labour rights and fulfilment of environmental requirements by its suppliers. Regarding the metals Philips uses and on mining practices, however, the company is less transpar-ent. In its 2008 annual report it only discloses that it is also an active member of an Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC) working group on the health and well-being of people working in the mining industry.230
QuestionnairePhilips uses several metals in its electronic prod-ucts. For this report, Friends of the Earth Neth-erlands (FoE NL) examined only Philips’ supply chain responsibility regarding its tin purchases. Philips uses tin mainly as solder in electronic products, for instance in printed wire boards and for lighting. Philips filled in the question-naire sent by FoE NL231 and also met with FoE NL on 19 January 2009. On Tuesday 28 April, Philips provided some additional information, in response to the FoE NL draft report. Philips states that it uses 400 tonnes of tin
per year, in products put on the market world-wide. This represents about 0.1 per cent of global tin mining. Philips itself only buys tin for its lighting products, less than 0.05 per cent of annual global production. The remainder of the tin used is mostly for solder (on printed wire boards, etc.) in electronic assembly. Philips has been outsourcing all electronic assembly to a number of suppliers of electronic manufactur-ing systems. All of these companies source their tin independently. Philips does not buy tin in the Netherlands; the manufacturing sites for its light-ing products are located outside of the Nether-lands. Regarding tin originating from the DRC, Philips states: ‘Our suppliers are required to sign a declaration on non-sourcing from the DRC.’ The company stated it is not aware at this time of the origin of primary tin used in its products. It also has no knowledge of the amount of recy-cled tin used in its products: ‘Recycled tin goes back into the chain further than we maintain or can maintain.’ Philips previously requested and received a declaration from all its tantalum sup-pliers that they do not source from the Demo-cratic Republic of Congo, as part of the compa-ny’s efforts to encourage suppliers to act respon-sibly when procuring materials from third parties. In 2009, Philips will be further investigating its supply chain with regards to tin sourcing.
Coordinated industry responsePhilips stated that the issues raised by FoE NL are grave and not easily solved due to: the par-ties involved; the non-transparent way metals are traded; and the fact that Philips does not have contractual relationships with the extractive industry. The company states it is actively seek-ing a coordinated industry response, considering this the best way forward. According to the com-pany, through its active involvement in the EICC Extractives Working Group, it is contributing to a concerted effort to increase transparency in the supply chain with the means and influencing mechanisms that are available to the company. Philips thinks the EICC would be interested in seeing whether there is an analysis for the rank-ing of tin in front of other metals because of its problems related to environment, human rights and labour rights. The EICC has already made a statement on the sourcing of tantalum from the DRC in February 2009.232
Philips requested that the Extractive Indus-tries Transparency Initiative (EITI) be included in this report. Philips believes the EITI platform is an important way for EICC to engage in inter-
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sectoral dialogue, as the EITI is closer to the min-ing industry and their initiatives could be a big help in creating further transparency and social responsibility. The EITI is a coalition of governments, com-panies, civil society groups, investors and inter-national organisations which aims to strength-en governance by improving transparency and accountability in the extractives sector. When governance is weak, exploitation may result in poverty, corruption and conflict instead of large revenues to foster growth and reduce poverty.233 So far EITI has not involved itself much in envi-ronmental, human rights and labour rights issues with regard to mining.
3.7 Heineken
General informationHeineken is one of the world’s largest beer breweries. Its leading brand is Heineken, but the Group brews and sells more than 200 beers and ciders. The company has a global network of distributors and 125 breweries in more than 70 countries. The revenue of Heineken worldwide totalled 14 billion euros in 2008 and the compa-ny employed 54,000 people. The volume of beer sold within the Nether-lands was 5.4 million hectolitres in 2008, while consolidated beer volume of the Heineken Group was 125.8 million hectolitres. Heineken has about 4,000 employees in the Netherlands, excluding the 900 people working at its head-quarters in Amsterdam.234 This report reviews the use of aluminium and tin in the beer cans Heineken sells in the Netherlands.
Supply chain policyHeineken asks suppliers to sign the Heineken Supplier Code, which urges them to comply with internationally recognised standards on business conduct, human rights and the environment, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna-tional Labour Organisation.235
The Supplier Code outlines eleven princi-ples that Heineken deems most relevant for its suppliers. The company’s principles related to human rights are:
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• Working conditions should allow safe working practices and support the occupational health of the employees;
• Employees should be treated fairly concerning reasonable working hours, periodic leave and remuneration for work performed;
• Heineken makes allowances for negotiations leading to collective agreements;
• People are employed based on the principle of equal opportunity, without distinction to race, colour, gender, religion, affiliation or origin;
• Heineken does not participate in child, forced or bonded labour.
On environmental matters the Supplier Code states there should be compliance with all appli-cable legislation and standards. Furthermore, production processes should be designed to make efficient use of available resources and to minimise the environmental impact. Heineken is working towards meeting its tar-get of full implementation of the Supplier Code in the 2010. In 2008, Heineken conducted audits at 25 per cent of its supplier base; these audits are part of the regular global quality audits executed by Heineken personnel and are limited to its direct suppliers. While most suppliers in western Europe have already implemented the Supplier Code, implementation by most of the suppliers in other parts of the world has yet to take place.
QuestionnaireHeineken filled in the questionnaire on tin and aluminium use and provided additional informa-tion. Packaging materials are centrally purchased by Heineken and therefore all packaging materi-als are subject to the Supplier Code and Supplier Code audits. In the Netherlands, Heineken236
buys ready-made steel and aluminium cans from Ball, Rexam, Crown and Can Pack can suppliers. Of the cans Heineken puts on the market in the Netherlands, 95 per cent are made of tin-coated steel. Aluminium cans account for the remaining 5 per cent. Aluminium is used for spe-cially shaped cans and lids for the steel cans. The tin content of beer cans put on the Dutch mar-ket is estimated by Heineken at 12.5 tonnes per year. The tin content of Vrumona cans, a supplier of non-alcoholic beverages owned by Heineken, is estimated at 4.5 tonnes. Heineken states it is not aware of any social or environmental problems concerning the min-ing of bauxite and tin. Nor does the company know the origin of the mining products, since only ready-made cans are purchased from vari-ous can suppliers.
Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid-ers Heineken a small player in the Dutch mar-ket regarding tin and aluminium use. On the global market, the picture will be quite different, considering that around 2 billion beer cans are filled annually in the Netherlands by beer brew-ers and Heineken is the main exporter of beer in the Netherlands.237 Globally, therefore, Heineken uses much larger amounts of tin than it uses for the Dutch market. Thus, it is remarkable that the company does not have a supply chain policy in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while Philips for instance does have a supply chain policy, to some extent, for its global metal use.
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3.8 Coca-Cola
General informationCoca-Cola Enterprises Inc. is the world’s larg-est marketer, producer and distributor of Coca-Cola products. It operates in 46 US states and Canada, and is the exclusive Coca-Cola bottler for all of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Luxem-bourg, Monaco and the Netherlands. Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. has its headquarters in the USA and is listed on the New York Stock Exchange.238 In 2007, Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. had a world-wide revenue of $21 billion and employed 73,000 people. It sold 42 billion bottles and cans. Coca-Cola Enterprise Netherlands had a rev-enue of 473 million euros in 2007; it employed 801 people. It sold 576 million litres of bever-ages to the Dutch market, a 20 percent market share of non-alcoholic beverages. Coca-Cola Enterprise Netherlands sells carbonated soft drinks, water, fruit juices, sports drinks, energy drinks and iced tea.239 For this report, the use of aluminium and tin in the cans Coca-Cola sells was reviewed.
Supply chain policyCoca-Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE) has intro-duced guidelines for its suppliers. Suppliers are required to meet the following standards: • Laws and Regulations: Supplier will comply
with all applicable local and national laws, rules, regulations and requirements in the manufac-turing and distribution of our products and sup-plies and in the provision of services.
• Forced Labor and Abuse of Labor: Supplier will not use forced, bonded, military or compulsory labor. Supplier will comply with all applicable local and national laws on abuse of employees and will not physically abuse employees.
• Supplier will comply with all applicable local and national laws on: Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining; Discrimination; Wag-es and Benefits; Work Hours and Overtime; Health and Safety; Environment; Child Labor.240
All suppliers of cans to Coca-Cola have signed the guidelines. The guidelines state that sup-pliers must also ensure that their suppliers and/or subcontractors comply with the guidelines. Coca-Cola does not monitor its suppliers. The company states it has confidence in the way its suppliers do business. It is noteworthy that CCE does not ask its suppliers to uphold the values stated in the Uni-versal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core
Conventions of the International Labour Organi-sation. This, including the lack of montoring, makes the guidelines rather weak. CCE Netherlands did not report on the origin of the mining products Coca-Cola uses for its cans, nor was any information given on the cir-cumstances under which the mining takes place in its 2007 annual sustainability report or in any other public document.
QuestionnaireCCE filled in the questionnaire on tin and alu-minium use and provided some additional infor-mation. CCE241 buys aluminium, through intermediate parties, at the London Metal Exchange. These parties ensure aluminium supplies to manufac-ture the lids of the steel cans. Tin is used for steel cans with a protective layer. Purchased tin is already part of the cans CCE buys from its two can suppliers, Ball and Rexam. According to its suppliers approximately 30 per cent of the tin comes from recycled material. CCE stated it puts 900 tonnes of alumini-um and 18 tonnes of tin on the Dutch market yearly. Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid-ers Coca-Cola Enterprises a small player on the Dutch market regarding tin and aluminium use. Globally, however, the company may use large amounts of tin. Thus, it is remarkable that the company does not have a supply chain policy in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while Philips for instance does have a supply chain policy, to some extent, for its global metal use.
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An earlier report on mining and trade links with the Netherlands In March 2008, Greenpeace Netherlands pub-lished a report on coal mining with many similari-ties to this one. Dutch power companies import-ed 8.5 million tonnes of coal in 2006, of which some 85 per cent originated from South Africa, Colombia and Indonesia. In these countries envi-ronmental and human rights problems exist in the mining sector. The rights of local communi-ties and miners are often ignored. Furthermore, coal mining causes pollution of drinking water, emissions of the greenhouse gas methane and brings about forest destruction.242
Following the Greenpeace report, a Dutch member of parliament questioned the Minister of Economic Affairs (Ms Maria van der Hoeven) and the Minister of the Environment and Spatial Planning (Ms Jacqueline Cramer) on the issue. The ministers answered: ‘We expect Dutch pow-er producers to pursue corporate social respon-sibility (CSR) and attend to issues in the coal sup-ply chain. We expect them to take action against situations and circumstances which may be socially unacceptable. However, at present there is no monitoring of the level of sustainability that Dutch companies pursue regarding the coal sup-ply chain. (…) We encourage Dutch power pro-ducers to explore opportunities and routes to be followed.’243
Like the Greenpeace report, this report on tin, bauxite and copper shows that a clear need still exists for action by governments and compa-nies to ensure better mining practices.
Dutch government policy regarding the supply chains of companiesThe Dutch government is increasingly taking initiative to promote supply chain responsibility among companies. The most important initia-tives are reviewed below, with a specific focus
on CSR benefits for the mining sector. The general CSR policy of the Dutch government is that companies should be encouraged to vol-untarily improve their transparency and supply chain responsibility. Although the Dutch govern-ment is not currently planning to develop more regulations for companies, they are conducting research into possibilities for chain accountability.
1) New initiative from the Dutch Social and Economic Council The SER, an advisory body to the Dutch govern-ment, has recently started an initiative, which has the support of the Dutch government, to enhance the commitment of enterprises to exert a positive influence on the social and environ-mental policy of their suppliers.244 Major employ-ers’ associations and trade unions are members of this SER-committee that deals with Corporate Social Responsibility. Every year, starting in 2009, the SER will draw up an annual progress report on the subject of the supply chain responsibility of Dutch com-panies. The report will review the number of companies reporting along described lines, the various subjects that they cover in their reports, best practices, and any problems and challenges encountered. Companies will be encouraged to issue public reports on CSR, including supply chain responsibility. The SER initiative requires that international enterprises use a normative framework to iden-tify what should be expected of enterprises with respect to supply chain responsibility. This frame-work consists of the following:• The ILO Declaration on Fundamental Princi-
ples and Rights at Work, reaffirmed in 2008. This concerns freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining, and the ban on forced labour, child labour and discrimination.
• The ILO’s Tripartite Declaration of Principles
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concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (2000).
• The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enter-prises (2000).
• Recommendations of the International Cham-ber of Commerce (ICC) on Supply Chain Responsibility (2007).
The SER also requires that reporting standards be based on guidelines issued by the Dutch Accounting Standards Board. The Board will supplement its guidelines by 1 July 2009 with recommendations for international supply chain responsibility. The SER plans to commence an evaluation of the initiative in the second half of 2011 and will complete this evaluation by 1 July 2012. Confi-dent that the necessary progress will be made between now and that date, the Council does not believe there is a need to propose legisla-tion in this area during that period. However, Friends of the Earth Netherlands thinks that although voluntary mechanisms might be a good way for companies to improve their performance on supply chain responsibility, regulations are also needed to ensure all Dutch and European companies have to abide by the same rules and regulations. It is not yet known what the SER initiative will mean to companies involved with unaccept-able mining in developing countries. There is no obligation for companies to map out their supply chain, identify CSR problems along the chain and work on solutions for the problems.
2) Transparency benchmark on CSR re-porting by Dutch companiesIn recent years, the largest Dutch companies have been benchmarked annually on the trans-parency of their CSR reporting. The latest trans-parency benchmark, published February 2009, reviewed the CSR reporting of 170 companies. One of the ten aspects reviewed was the sup-ply chain responsibility of the companies. The report as well as the Minister for Foreign Trade (Mr Frank Heemskerk) concluded that compa-nies had paid more attention to supply chain responsibility compared to the benchmark of a year ago. However, this could only be concluded for the 20 leading companies – the remainder of the companies had scores that left much to be desired regarding their reporting on supply chain responsibility.245
Of the seven companies reviewed in this report on their responsibility towards min-ing practices, Philips scored highest on supply chain responsibility, considerably better than
Heineken, which in turn scored considerably better then Corus. Draka had the lowest score. Coca-Cola, Cookson and the Klesch Company were not reviewed, as they are not Dutch com-panies. Corus participated voluntarily in the bench-mark review: it was no longer required to do so, as since its acquisition by Tata Steel it was no longer a Dutch-based company. Corus states it participated even though it knew it would have a lower overall score than in earlier years, due to the fact that its financial figures are no longer separately published, but incorporated into the Tata figures.
3) Procurement policy of the governmentThe Dutch government’s objective is that pur-chases by the State government are 100 per cent sustainable by 2010. Seventy-five per cent of purchases by municipalities will be required to be sustainable by 2010; provinces and water boards should aim for 50 per cent. The government already has defined mini-mum criteria for a range of products, among other environmental criteria. Social criteria are still to be defined by the Dutch government. This is expected to be completed by June 2009. At the moment, the government is leaning towards fulfilment of the ILO Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and commitment to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). ILO labour standards (wages, working hours, working condi-tions) may provide additional standards for some products.246 It has not yet been decided how far
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responsibility reaches in the supply chain and how verification will take place. The environmental criteria do not thus far include criteria related to mining practices. The social criteria may however have some influence on companies that use mining components in their products. For instance, the worst forms of child labour are found in some mining sectors. Companies that want to do business with the government may be required to map out their supply chain and work on alternatives to child labour. FoE NL believes social criteria should include safety and health standards for miners and communities around mines. Governmental procurement policies should set an example. While companies are con-cerned about sourcing materials fuelling the war in eastern Congo, procurement standards for government computers and other electron-ics still include no criteria regarding tin use from the DRC. The same lack of attention to mining practices applies to the aluminium content of cars bought by the government, or the copper content of euro coins that are produced in the Netherlands.
4) Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative To supplement several existing market initiatives, the Dutch government and several stakehold-ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH).247 Government, private sector, labour unions and non-governmental organisa-tions want to jointly implement sector improve-ment programmes for timber and other forest products, soy, natural stone products, cocoa, tea and tourism. The government has no special chain initiatives pending with regards to mining products.
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Tin: depleting resources? The reserve base of tin according to U.S. Geo-logical Survey (USGS) data is estimated at 11 million tonnes. This means that at the present consumption level, there are nearly 40 years left of virgin tin use, calculating a zero economic growth rate. Assuming a modest annual growth of economies at 2 per cent, the well-known sci-entific environmentalist Lester Brown has sug-gested tin resources could be depleted within 20 years.248 In the period 1998-2007 tin mining production has actually increased 3.7 per cent annually.249
The USGS data on the reserve base do not include countries like the Democratic Repub-lic Congo (DRC), Vietnam and Burma. In 1997, a reserve base of 0.5 million tonnes was listed for the DRC.251 The organisation ITRI works on behalf of many of the world’s major tin-produc-ing companies and is dedicated to expanding tin use.252 Concerning tin reserves, ITRI ‘believes that the supply of tin can be guaranteed for significantly longer than the 15-25 years that is sometimes quoted in general literature.’ Accord-ing to ITRI, at present it is not possible to obtain any more information than the USGS reserve base. ITRI argues that the tin industry usually only confirms reserves for a time period of 10 to 20 years.253
Copper: depleting resources? Globally, only 1,000 million tonnes of copper are labelled as having the potential to be mined in the future. Global copper mining produc-tion amounted to almost 16 million tonnes in 2008.254 Does this therefore mean we only have 60 more years of copper use to go? Or even less, as economic growth may again spur great-er use? Assuming a modest annual 2 per cent growth of economies, copper resources could
be depleted within 25 years. The 1,000 million tonnes of copper men-tioned above refers to the known reserve base of copper. The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economically attrac-tive (550 million tonnes) as well as less economi-cally attractive to mine.255
The reserve base however does not take into account yet unexplored deposits of copper – a significant number of these exist. A preliminary assessment indicates that global land-based resources exceed 3,000 million tonnes. Deep-sea nodules are estimated to contain another 700 million tonnes of copper.256 An extensive 2008-study concluded that the Andes Mountains have 750 million tonnes of undiscovered cop-
Chapter 5 Preliminary research on the use of copper and tin resources
Reserve base (million tonnes)
Percentage
China 3.5 31%
Brazil 2.5 22%
Malaysia 1.2 11%
Peru 1.0 9%
Indonesia 0.9 8%
Bolivia 0.9 8%
Russia 0.35 3%
Australia 0.3 3%
Thailand 0.2 2%
Other countries 0.3 3%
around 11
Known reserves in the earth’s crust: tin250
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per resources, but it also stated that a significant amount will not be available (urban areas, high biodiversity areas, areas with threatened surface and groundwater supplies).257
Will the future take care of itself?At the beginning of 2009, the World Bank released its report ‘Global Economic Prospects, Commodities at the Crossroads’. The authors of the World Bank report are rather optimis-tic about future metal supplies. Here are some statements from the report:• Reserves are really a measure of the inventory
that producers have readily available for future delivery, rather than a measure of the physical quantity remaining of a commodity.
• The existence of ample (and growing) reserves, and a history of significant improvements in the technology with which resources are found and extracted, suggests that supply will continue to rise in pace with demand.
• True resource exhaustion is unlikely not least because, as resources become scarcer, their prices rise, consumption declines, and alterna-tives that once may have been uneconomic are substituted for the scarce (and expensive) com-modity.
• Although the quality of newly discovered mines tends to be lower on average than older ones, technological improvements have reduced the cost of producing most metals over the past 50 years. For example, production costs of a tonne of copper between 1985 and 2002 declined by 18 to 28 percent.
• Supply prospects for metals depend on the competing forces of resource exhaustion and the declining quality of new sources, on the one hand, and the pace of new discoveries and improvements in the technology with which commodities are discovered and extracted, on the other.258
Or should we care for the future?The scientist André Diederen, working for Dutch research institute TNO, has quite different views than the ones expressed in the World Bank report.259 He states that during the next few dec-ades we will encounter serious problems mining many important metal minerals at the desired extraction rates. Amongst these are all precious metals (gold, silver and platinum-group metals), zinc, tin, indium, zirconium, cadmium, tungsten, copper, manganese, nickel and molybdenum. The implications of metals scarcity might affect our entire industrial civilization. Firstly, other metal minerals will not be acceptable sub-
stitutes for the scarce metals. Secondly, large-scale conversion towards more sustainable forms of energy would be slowed down by a lack of sufficient platinum-group metals, rare-earth met-als and scarce metals like gallium. This includes large-scale application of high-efficiency solar cells and fuel cells and large-scale electrification of land-based transport. Finally, to sustain and increase current production rates, resources have to be extracted at ever more distant locations (including deep mining and ocean floor min-ing) and at ever lower ore grades which require exponentially more energy to extract. Diederen believes we should impose a co-ordinated policy of managed austerity to address metal minerals. Firstly, he defines ‘the elements of hope’. This is a group of abundantly avail-able elements. Iron and aluminium are included, though required energy to extract these might grow exponentially due to the availability of lower ore grades only. The elements of hope are supposed to replace scarce metals, whereby a challenging task is to realise the same function-ality of products. Another part of the toolbox is reserved for ‘frugal elements’. These elements should only be applied in mass for applications in which their unique properties are essential. Copper is one of the frugal elements. Finally a small corner of the toolbox is reserved for the ‘critical elements’, which should be saved for the most essential and critical applications. Tin is one of these metals.260
Researchers Gordon, Bertram and Graedel have estimated that around 200 kilograms of copper per capita is needed to supply the serv-ices which the residents of wealthy nations such as Switzerland, Australia or the United States are accustomed to. Nations such as South Africa and China would have to increase their aver-age per capita copper stock-in-use by seven or eight times to achieve the same level. Gordon, Bertram and Graedel conclude that, with present technology, virgin stocks of copper appear inad-equate to sustain a developed-world service level for all the Earth’s peoples. There are not enough copper resources for global adaption of the lifestyle of wealthy nations.261
Recyclable copper reservoir The European Copper Institute – representing the world’s mining companies and the Europe-an copper industry – states in its press informa-tion kit of January 2009: ‘Copper is 100 per cent recyclable, with no loss of its performance. It is estimated that 80 per cent of the copper pro-duced by mankind is still in use.’262
53
Therefore, let us consider how recycling could contribute to a sustainable cycle. Global production of copper from mining and recy-cling in the period 1900-2007 was 500 million tonnes.263 If 80 per cent of this copper would indeed still be in use, a maximum global cop-per reservoir above the ground of around 400 million tonnes exists. Estimates on in-use stock for North America and Western Europe show this figure may be too optimistic.264 Much of the copper in these regions has been disposed of in landfill: it was not and probably never will be recycled however. In a 2007 study, Gómez, Guzmán and Tilton state that the input of secondary copper dur-ing the production of copper is not increasing, though every year more and more copper con-tent in waste should become available world-wide. The authors of the study note that recy-cling rates are declining. According to them this is caused by decreasing prices of new copper since the early 1970s, largely driven by primary copper producers successfully reducing their production costs. Virgin copper has apparently become cheaper than recycling home-grown copper.265 From an environmental point of view, the recycling of copper is more beneficial than the
extraction of virgin copper. According to the Bureau of International Recycling, the creation of secondary raw copper only requires 15 per cent of the energy needed to produce copper from primary raw materials.266 Decisions to recycle however will be made on the basis of total recy-cling costs (including personnel costs), compared to the costs of virgin copper. The next section will show that the recyclable copper reservoir is still being poorly extracted.
Recycling rates for copper In 2006 the International Copper Study Group (ICSG) published an extensive study on how much copper was recycled in Western Europe in 1999, in comparison with the copper content of products that entered the recycling system in Western Europe (exports of used products were excluded). ICSG determined the so-called ‘end-of-life recycling efficiency rate’ was between 63 and 67 per cent.267
The following table shows the recycling rates according to ICSG for all waste categories:
Some factors hinder the recycling of copper:1. Not recyclable. The copper content of dissi-
pative applications such as powders or chemi-
The Chinese village Guiyu is one of the biggest e-waste centers of the world. Copper and tin are recycled under very unhealthy conditions for the workers.
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cals (82,000 tonnes) is, in general, not avail-able for recycling back into the copper loop.269 Also, small bits of some copper products may be lost to the environment during use, for instance due to wear of car brakes and water pipes.270
2. Lost into metal recycling loops. In the 2006 ICSG study it was estimated that 144,000 tonnes of copper went into steel and alumin-ium recycling loops in Western Europe. In the case of aluminium, copper is usually regarded as a valuable addition to aluminium casting alloys. In the case of steel, copper trapped in the steel (for instance, small and medium-sized electric motors in car-shredding steel) is seen as decreasing the quality of steel.271 A study based on samples taken nationwide from scrap in Japan showed copper content in steel scrap to be at worrying levels, decreasing the qual-ity of newly made steel.272 Some new recycling techniques might be able to increase separa-tion of copper.273
3. Disposal and other losses. This category forms the biggest portion, 661,000 tonnes, of lost recycling in the 2006 ICSG study. Disposal means landfill. Other losses are mainly incinera-tion slag used as road fill or construction mate-rial.
4. Exports. ‘E-waste’ (waste electrical and elec-tronic equipment) in particular is oftentimes exported to countries like China, India and West Africa. Because many of the e-waste exports are illegal274, it is not clear how many are exported and how much copper is recycled. Some e-waste might be eventually dumped.
If not dumped, the copper will probably be recycled to some extent. The Netherlands also exports used cars to Eastern Europe and Africa, of which the recycle rate is not known.
5. Not collected. In 2007 there was an extensive review of the EU directive Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) by United Nations University.275 The university calculated how much WEEE waste should have accumulat-ed in the EU-27 in 2005. It was calculated that 8.3 million tonnes of WEEE waste should have become available. However, only 2.2 million tonnes, 27 per cent, were actually collected within the EU. The collection figures of Norway and Switzerland were compared with those of the EU-27 as a reference. The two countries turned out to have better collection rates than the EU-27, with the exception of Sweden.
Tin recyclingRecently ITRI announced: ‘We are particularly pleased to be able to suggest a provisional fig-ure of 27 per cent for the recycling rate of tin – something that has not been possible in the past due to lack of information’.276
The industry-led Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) program states: ‘The use of such scarce metals as silver and tin requires stimu-lating the collection and recycling of waste of electric and electronic equipment. Especially the nowadays low recycling rates of tin call for more effective technologies to recycle solders from used printed-wiring-boards.’277
About 14 per cent of tin use is for chemi-cals.278 Tin chemicals have end uses that are
Available for recycling
(ktons)
Recycled copper (ktons)
Not recycled
(ktons)
Recycling rate
C&D: construction and demolition waste 755 535 220 71%
IEW: industrial electrical equipment waste 442 359 83 81%
INEW: industrial non-electrical equipment waste 506 394 112 78%
ELV: end-of-life vehicles 141 86 55 61%
WEEE: waste electric and electronic equipment 462 224 238 48%
MSW: municipal solid waste 144 47 97 33%
Dissipative uses (powders and chemicals) 82 0 82 0%
Total 2,532 1,645 887 65%
Recycling rates copper, per waste category, Western Europe 1999 268
55
nearly all dissipative: therefore, the tin content is not recyclable.279
For the year 2007, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that of all the TVs, cell phones and computer products ready for end-of-life management in the USA, 18 per cent were collected for recycling and 82 per cent were disposed of, primarily in landfills.280 The figure for collection however includes exports of e-waste to developing countries. Greenpeace estimates that the hidden flow of e-waste escap-ing responsible recycling in the US may be as much as 80% or more.281
In the Netherlands, 1.9 billion beer cans and 1.2 billion soft-drink cans were filled in 2006. Most of the beer was exported. Within the Neth-erlands, refillable glass makes up 64 per cent of the beer market, cans 26 per cent and non-refill-able glass 9 per cent.282 Within Europe 66 per cent of steel packaging is recycled. The recycling rate for the Netherlands was 83 per cent (steel and aluminium packaging).283 Today, the nomi-nal tin coating on each side of tinplate is only 0.000381 millimetres. Thus, the economics of de-tinning make it not nearly as profitable as it once was.284 While production waste of tinplate is usually recycled, it remained unclear when this report went to press to what extent the tin of used cans is actually recycled.
56
Aldel: Aluminium DelfzijlAPEAL: Association of European Producers of Steel for PackagingASM: artisan and small-scale minersCBG: Compagnie des Bauxites de GuinéeCBK: Compagnie des Bauxites de KindiaCCE: Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc.CNDP: Le Congrès National pour la Défense du PeupleCodeff: Friends of the Earth Chile, National Committee for the Defense of Flora and FaunaCODELCO: Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile, National Copper Corporation of Chile CSR: Corporate Social ResponsibilityDRC: Democratic Republic of CongoEICC: Electronic Industry Citizenship CoalitionEITI: Extractive Industries Transparency InitiativeFARDC: Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du CongoFDLR: Forces Democratiques de Liberation du RwandaFoE NL: Friends of the Earth NetherlandsGDP: Gross Domestic ProductICC: International Chamber of CommerceICSG: International Copper Study GroupIDH: Dutch Sustainable Trade InitiativeILO: International Labour OrganizationIMS: Intelligent Manufacturing SystemsISO: International Standards OrganisationITRI: organisation representing the world’s major tin producing companiesKCM: Konkola Copper MinesLME: London Metal ExchangeMCM: Mopani Copper MinesMONUC: United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of CongoMSC: Malaysia Smelting Corporation BerhadOECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentSABL: St Ann Bauxite LtdSER: Social and Economic Council, an advisory body to the Dutch governmentSO2: sulphur dioxideUDHR: Universal Declaration of Human RightsUNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUSGS: U.S. Geological SurveyWALHI: Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia or The Indonesian Forum for EnvironmentWEEE: Waste of Electrical and Electronic EquipmentWHO: World Health OrganisationZalco: Zeeland Aluminium Company NVZCCM-IH: Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Investment Holdings
Annex A Abbreviations
57
Questionnaire Your company and tin mining December 2008
Your contact details: Questionnaire:Please describe or send available documents about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-sibility policy, including information on human rights, labour rights and environmental issues.How is the purchasing of tin organised within your company?What is the amount of the metal tin, processed in the Netherlands into your products?How much of the metal tin, processed into your products in the Netherlands, is recycled tin?To what level does your company know where the not-recycled tin has been mined? Please name countries of origin, mining companies and mines.To what level does your company know where the recycled tin originates from? Please give spe-cifics on country and factory level.Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers of tin to your company?Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social and environmental criteria (based on your Code of Conduct for example) on the way tin is mined? a) If yes: please, describe further. b) If no: Why not?Are you aware of any social or environmental issues concerning the extraction of tin that is used in your products? If yes, please specify.How does your company ensure no tin is obtained from Burma and some mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo?What is the position of your company on resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
Questionnaire on resource use andand your companies’ import of aluminaDecember 2008
Questionnaire:Please describe or send available documents about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-sibility policy, including information on human rights, labour rights and environmental issues.How is the purchasing of processed bauxite (alu-mina) organised within your company?What is the amount of alumina processed in the Netherlands into your products?To what level does your company know where the bauxite has been mined of the alumina your company imports? And where is the bauxite processed into alumina? Please name countries of origin, mining companies, mines and factories.Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers of alumina to your company?Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social and environmental criteria (based on your Code of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is mined and processed? a) If yes: Please, describe further. b) If no: Why not?Are you aware of any social or environmental problems concerning the mining of bauxite and processing into alumina, before the alumina is imported by your company for further process-ing? If yes, please specify.How much of the aluminium, processed into your products in the Netherlands, is recycled alumin-ium?If your company also uses recycled aluminium, can you elaborate where the recycled aluminium originates from? Please give specifics on country and factory level.What is the position of your company on resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
Annex B Questionnaires sent to the companies
58
Questionnaire resource useand the mining of copper December 2008
Your contact details:
Questionnaire:Please describe or send available documents about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-sibility policy, including information on human rights, labour rights and environmental issues.How is the purchasing of copper organised with-in your company?What is the amount of copper, processed in the Netherlands into your products?How much of the copper, processed into your products in the Netherlands, is recycled copper?To what level does your company know where the not-recycled copper has been mined? Please name countries of origin, mining companies and mines.To what level does your company know where the recycled copper originates from? Please give specifics on country and factory level.Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers of copper to your company?Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social and environmental criteria (based on your Code of Conduct for example) on the way copper is mined? a) If yes: please, describe further. b) If no: Why not?Are you aware of any social or environmental issues concerning the extraction of copper that is used in your products? If yes, please specify.What is the position of your company on resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
Questionnaire on the mining product aluminiumDecember 2008
Your contact details:
Questionnaire:Please describe or send available documents about your company’s Corporate Social Respon-sibility policy, including information on human rights, labour rights and environmental issues.How is the purchasing of aluminium for cans organised within your company?What is the amount of aluminium used into cans by your company in the Netherlands?To what level does your company know where the bauxite has been mined from which the alu-minium eventually is made? Please name coun-tries of origin, mining companies and mines.Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers of aluminium to your company?Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social and environmental criteria (based on your Code of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is mined and aluminium is produced? a) If yes: please, describe further. b) If no: Why not?Are you aware of any social or environmental problems concerning the mining of bauxite and production of aluminium used for the cans of your company? If yes, please specify.How much of the aluminium, processed into cans in the Netherlands, is recycled aluminium?If your company also uses recycled aluminium, can you elaborate where the recycled alumini-um is obtained? Please give specifics on factory level.What is the position of your company on resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate.
Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.
59
All mentioned website links were still working on 16 and 17 April 2009.
1 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009 (the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was excluded in their figures), http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf Figures from the DRC included through: 1) ITRI (organisation working on behalf of the worlds’ biggest tin producing companies), ‘back-ground information sheet Cassiterite Production and Trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo, October 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/Sustainability/ITRI%20DRC%20information%20sheet%20v1.pdf 2) British Geological Survey, ‘World Mineral Production 2003–2007’, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/free_downloads/home.html#WMP
2 ITRI, ‘Long-term Trends in Tin-in-Concentrate Production, 1970 – 2006’, http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_TECHART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_TECHART_288264
3 Sandeep Joon, research analyst with SMC Comtrade Ltd, article ‘Tin: The unsung metal that shines far too high’, June 2008, http://www.commodityonline.com/ndtv/news/topstorydetails.php?id=9424&cont=2
4 ITRI, ‘data on tin use in 2007’, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_309008
5 Informations-Zentrum Weißblech, ‘tinplate areas of use’, http://217.113.39.66/Usage.375.0.html
6 Article, ‘China cuts tin export quotas’, 22 October 2008, http://www.chinamining.org/Policies/2008-10-22/1224640918d18388.html
7 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL as viewed on 10 April 2009
8 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
9 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.pdf
10 AWR Lloyd, ‘Mining Journal Annual Review, Thailand’, October 2006 and August 2005. http://www.awrlloyd.com/pdf/MiningJournalAnnualReview%28Oct06%29THAILAND.pdf, http://www.awrlloyd.com/pdf/ThailandMiningSectorforMiningJournalAnnualReview%28Aug05%29.pdf
11 PT Timah website, ‘Leading Tin Companies’, http://www.timah.com/images/stories/ir_kontribusi/leading%20tin%20companies.pdf
12 Somchai Thamprasertwong, Thaisarco, phone interview on 23 November 2007. In a report by Finn-watch ‘Connecting components, dividing communities. Tin Production for Consumer Electronics in the DR Congo and Indonesia’, December 2007, http://www.finnwatch.org/pdf/DRCwebversio.pdf
13 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009.
14 The average price of a ton of refined tin was around $15,000 in 2007. Website London Metal Exchange, http://www.lme.co.uk/tin_graphs.asp One Euro was worth 1,37 dollar on average in 2007, http://www.x-rates.com/d/USD/EUR/hist2007.html
Endnotes
60
Assumed is that 85% of the 46 million Euro worth raw materials bought by Alpha-Fry, was refined tin. This results in an estimation of 3,500 tonnes of tin imported by Alpha-Fry in 2007.
15 Corus IJmuiden, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 6 March 2009.
16 Website European Aluminium Association, ‘A Brief Introduction to Aluminium, 1999, lecture pre-pared by Toralf Cock, Skanaluminium, Oslo, http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/lectures/110001.pdf
17 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, bauxite and alumina, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf
18 Website aluminium manufacturer RUSAL, ‘Aluminium Industry’, http://www.aluminiumleader.com/en/serious/industry/
19 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, aluminum’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2009-alumi.pdf
20 Commodities Now, Jim Steel (Refco), ‘Aluminium: Growing Demand & Fund Activity’, December 2003, http://www.commodities-now.com/content/market-areas/metals-and-mining/ma-article-9.pdf
21 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009.
22 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009.
23 Website aluminium manufacturer Alcoa, ‘San Ciprián Smelter’ http://www.alcoa.com/locations/spain_san_ciprian/en/about/profile.asp
24 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm
25 Wikipedia, ‘copper’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper
26 Copper Development Association Inc., ‘Copper Supply & Consumption 1987–2007’, copper con-tent of world mine production 2007, http://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/pdfs/annual_data.pdf
27 Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, calculated from fig-ures 1960-2007, page 64. http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf
28 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf
29 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America v.103, n.5, 31 January 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
30 Website Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, http://www.rijnland.net/baggeren_in_rijnland/bagger-en_algemeen/vervuiling_van/informatie_per_stof/koper
31 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf
32 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007, page 117. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf
33 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009. http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf
34 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009.
35 Personal communication Martin de Koning, public affairs manager Draka Holding, 18 March 2009.
36 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf
37 ITRI, ‘Timah profit and production fell in 2008’, 28 January 2009. Refined tin means pure tin after smelting. Tin-in-concentrate is a term used for tin before it is smelted. http://www.itri.co.uk/
61
pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309480
38 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869
39 Reuters, ‘Indonesian police stop Timah’s suction dredge vessels’, 18 March 2009, http://in.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idINJAK47393220090318
40 The Jakarta Post, article ‘Timah to spend $21.3 million to buy new vessels’, 6 January 2009, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/01/06/timah-spend-213-million-buy-new-vessels.html
41 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Timah slows investment on project delays’, 28 January 2009, http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/dUKJAK36890220090128?sp=true
42 Ocean Engineering, article ‘A bucket wheel dredge system for offshore tin mining beyond the 50 m water depth’, 2002.
43 Website IHC Holland, ‘Cutter Suction Dredger PULAU TUJUH latest in a long tin line’, 2005, http://www.ihcholland.com/fileadmin/documents/news/news_archieve3/pd163_18_19.pdf
44 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869
45 BusinessWeek, Special Advertisement section ‘Indonesia, sustaining the commodity dividend’, 2008.
46 Website PT Timah, ‘Integrated Tin Mining’, http://timah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=28&Itemid=38
47 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
48 Reuters, Ed Davies and Fitri Wulandari, ‘Indonesian tin industry hits a slump’, 21 October 2008.
49 ITRI, ‘Koba Tin boosts mine production’, 6 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308912
50 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Koba Tin faces 2nd illegal mining probe’, 29 February 2008, http://www.reu-ters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSJAK16405120080229
51 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
52 ITRI, article ‘New Bangka smelter starts commissioning’, September 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_294306
53 Reuters, ‘Indonesian tropical island torn apart by tin mining’, 8 April 2007, http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSSP9517220070410?sp=true
54 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop-ment (WBCSD), September 2001.
55 Antara news, ‘Coral reef in Bangka Belitung damaged’, 9 April 2007, http://www.antara.co.id/en/arc/2007/9/4/coral-reef-in-bangka-belitung-damaged/
56 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop-ment (WBCSD), September 2001.
57 Wikipedia, ‘coral reefs’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef
58 Agribusinessweek, ‘Philippines’ Coral Reefs on the Verge of Extinction’, 12 July 2008, http://www.agribusinessweek.com/philippines-coral-reefs-on-the-verge-of-extinction/
59 University of Bangka Belitung, Indra Ambalika Syari, head of fisheries research, article ‘Stop the environmental damage to land and Sea in Bangka-Belitung now’, 23 January 2009, http://www.ubb.ac.id/menulengkap.php?judul=Hentikan%20Kerusakan%20Lingkungan,%20di%20Darat%20dan%20Laut%20Bangka%20Belitung%20Sekarang%20Juga&&nomorurut_artikel=267
60 Walhi, press release ‘Menghisap Timah Memanen Bencana’, 6 March 2009, http://www.walhi.or.id/websites/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66:menghisap-timah-memanen-bencana&catid=53:pembuangan-limbah-tambang-ke-laut&Itemid=14
61 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘ Trading Conflict for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April
62
2009.
62 International Rescue Committee (IRC) , factsheet ‘Congo Crisis’, 2007, http://www.theirc.org/resources/2007/congo_onesheet.pdf
63 United Nations, ‘United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), mandate’, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/monuc/mandate.html
64 Global Witness, ‘Recommendations on due diligence for buyers and companies trading in minerals from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and for their home governments’, November 2008.
65 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
66 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘Trading Conflict for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April 2009. Email from Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness), 29 April 2009.
67 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
68 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.pdf
69 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu-ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773.pdf
70 Reuters, ‘DR Congo’s curious peace deal with ex-Nkunda rebels’, 26 March 2009, http://www.nation.co.ke/News/africa/-/1066/553236/-/item/1/-/7ehe1tz/-/index.html
71 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
72 Nicholas Garrett, The Extractives Industries Transparency Initiatiative (EITI) & Artisanal and small scale mining, EITI, Draft, October 2007.
73 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Factsheet ‘Kahuzi-Biéga national park, Democratic Republic of the Congo’, http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Kahuzi-Biega.pdf
74 Robbins, M. & Williamson, L. 2008. Gorilla beringei. In: IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threat-ened Species, www.iucnredlist.org
75 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf
76 ITRI, ‘Bolivian government supports tin production’, 27 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309421
77 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf
78 ITRI, ‘Bolivian state tin companies could merge’, 6 April 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_311385
79 IPS, article ‘Labour-Bolivia: Childhood in the Pits’, José Luis Alcázar, 4 October 2005,
http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=30525
80 Anti-Slavery International, ‘Compliance with ILO Convention No.182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (ratified in 2003), The worst forms of child labour in Bolivia, July 2006, www.antislavery.org/archive/briefingpapers/ilo2006bolivia_childlabour.pdf
81 International Labour Organization (ILO), International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), ‘Worst forms of child labour’,
63
http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/WorstFormsofChildLabour/lang--en/index.htm
82 Center for International Studies and Cooperation (Canada) and Fundacion MEDMIN (Bolivia), report, ‘Child labourers in the Bolivian mining sector: their perspective’, March 2006.
83 Official Journal of the European Union L 66/1, ‘Council regulation (EC) No 194/2008 of 25 Febru-ary 2008, renewing and strengthening the restrictive measures in respect of Burma/Myanmar and repealing Regulation (EC) No 817/2006’, 10 March 2008, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:066:0001:0087:EN:PDF
84 Friends of the Earth Netherlands, report ‘Sanctioned but not stopped. Research on timber trade between the European Union and Burma’, February 2009, http://www.milieudefensie.nl/english/publications/Birmarapportdefinitief.pdf
85 ITRI, ‘China production slumps in December’, 22 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309315
86 Asian Metal Ltd., ‘2008 Annual Report on Tin Market’, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2008xi_en.pdf
87 Of the refined tin exports in 2008 by China 41 per cent went to the Netherlands and 36 per cent to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2008xi_en.pdf Of the refined tin exports in 2007 by China 27 per cent went to the Netherlands and 27 per cent to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2007Sn_en.pdf
88 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Singapore’, August 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-sn.pdf
89 The new light of Myanmar, article ‘Secretary-1 attends opening of OG ward at Lashio General Hospital, Lonni Tin Smelting Plant in Longhtan’, 28 January 2003, http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/NLM-2003/enlm/jan28_head1.html Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs2/copperMetal.pdf
90 Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs6/NLM2009-01-17.pdf
91 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Burma’, April 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bm.pdf
92 Reuters, ‘Singapore’s Tin opens smelter in Indonesia’, 14 february 2008, http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINJAK24365320080214?sp=true\
93 Reuters, ‘interview-Thai Tongkah sees higher ‘09 profit, hunts for mines’, 14 April 2009, http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/markets/100066660-1-interview-thai-tongkah-sees-high-er-%252709.html
94 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bauxite and Alumina’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf
95 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Minerals Information’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/
96 Jamaica Bauxite Institute, ‘Jamaica’s bauxite & alumina industry’, 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/JBI_An%20Overview_of_Jamaica%27s_Bauxite_Industry.pdf
97 Dr. Carlton E. Davis, Cabinet Secretary of the Government of Jamaica, Speech ‘The Global Eco-nomic and Financial Crisis and the Jamaican Bauxite and Alumina Industry’ at the ILO Tripartite Caribbean Conference on the Theme: Promoting Human Prosperity beyond the Global Financial Crisis - Seeking Sustainable Solutions Through Social Dialogue, Kingston, Jamaica, April 1 – 2, 2009, http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/portal/images/stories/contenido/pdf/ILOinCaribbean/Meetings/GFC09/Davis2-GFC.pdf
98 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa’s roots in Jamaica’, http://www.alcoa.com/jamaica/en/home.asp
99 Website RUSAL, ‘Windalco’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/windalco.aspx Website Windalco, http://www.windalco.com/About%20Us/history.htm
100 Website Hydro, ‘Temporary production shutdown at Alpart’, 18 March 2009. http://www.hydro.com/en/Press-room/News/Archive/2009/03/Temporary-production-shutdown-at-Alpart/
101 Website Noranda Aluminum Holding Corporation, http://www.norandaaluminum.com/StAn-
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nBauxite/
102 Government of Jamaica, Ministry of Mining and Telecommunications, ‘The National Minerals Poli-cy: Sustainable Development of the Minerals Industry’ , DRAFT January 2009.
103 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom-mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf
104 Inter Press Service, ‘Environment-Jamaica: Bauxite Mining Blamed for Deforestation’, 6 April 2001, http://forests.org/archive/samerica/bauxmini.htm
105 Tommy Johansson, ‘Jamaican Deforestation and Bauxite mining, applying the Coase theorem’, Master’s Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, 2003.
106 Marbek Resource Consultants in association with Claude Davis & Associates, ‘Country Environ-mental Assessment for Jamaica’, submitted to the Inter-American Development Bank, DRAFT, January 2007, www.iadb.org/IDBDocs.cfm?docnum=871957
107 Website Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, http://www.pcj.com/dnn/Statisticsbyactivity/tabid/143/Default.aspx
108 Jamaica Observer, Karyl Walker, ‘Dust, stench and claim of impotence: Pollution killing us, say communities near bauxite plants - Firms insist waste not toxic’, 11 February 2007, http://www.cor-pwatch.org/article.php?id=14348
109 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., ‘Environmental Impact Assesment for Proposed Construction of New Dry Residue Disposal Area by Jamalco’, 20 April 2007, on website of National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government, http://www.nepa.gov.jm/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco-DRDA6/EIA%20for%20Proposed%20Construc-tion%20of%20New%20Dry%20Residue%20Disposal%20Area%20%28DRDA%206%29%20by%20Jamalco%20-%20April%202007.pdf
110 Environmental Engineering Science, Sameer Khaitan, David A. Dzombak and Gregory V. Lowry. ‘Chemistry of the Acid Neutralization Capacity of Bauxite Residue’ Volume 26, Number 00, 2009. Windalco, presentation ‘Introduction to Windalco’, June 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/WINDALCO%20Presentation%20to%20MCOC%20%28Membership%20Mtg%20-%205%20June%202008%29.pdf
111 US Army Corps of Engineers, ‘Water Resources Assessment of Jamaica’, February 2001, http://www.sam.usace.army.mil/en/wra/Jamaica/Jamaica%20WRA%20-%20English.pdf
112 RPS Group plc and Alcan inc., ‘Mount Rosser Rehabilitation Project’, November 2006.
113 Jamaican government, Jamaica Information Service, press release ‘Red Mud Pond at Mount Rosser to be Rehabilitated’, 6 June 2007, http://www.jis.gov.jm/development/html/20070606t120000-0500_12173_jis_red_mud_pond_at_mount_rosser_to_be_rehabilitated.asp
114 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom-mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf
115 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., Environmental impact assessment for 2.8 million metric tonne per year efficiency upgrade at Jamalco, 2004, on website of National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government, http://www.nrca.org/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco/cover.pdf
116 Cockpit Country Stakeholders Group in association with Jamaica Environmental Advocacy Net-work (JEAN) , fact sheet ‘ save Cockpit Country’, 2007, www.jamentrust.org A lot of information on Cockpit Country, including a petition to save the area from bauxite mining can also be found at www.cockpitcountry.org
117 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm
118 BBC news, ‘Guinea announces mining reforms’, 15 January 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7831850.stm
119 Website Halco Mining, http://halcomining.com/en/home.asp
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120 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/home.asp
121 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pag-es 192 and 193 http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf
122 Website Mining Technology, ‘CBG Bauxite (Aluminium Ore) Mining Operations, Guinea’, http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/cbg/
123 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pages 192 and 193, http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf
124 Website Global Alumina Corporation, http://www.globalalumina.com/oper_overview.php The Social and Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the project be found on: http://www.guineaalumina.com/index.php?id=40
125 Website Conservation International, Centre for Environmental Leadership in Business, http://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/alcoa.xml
126 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/refinery_project/background.asp
127 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Guinea’, December 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-gv.pdf
128 Website RUSAL, ‘Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK)’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/kindia_factory.aspx
129 Website RUSAL, ‘Friguia alumina refinery (Guinea)’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/fria_factory.aspx
130 Bloomberg, ‘Guinea Weighs Action Against Rusal Over Alumina Plant’, 13 April 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601116&sid=aEnL3CUu63gY&refer=africa
131 Website RUSAL, ‘UC RUSAL and China in the global aluminium industry: potential for co-opera-tion’, September 2008, http://www.rusal.ru/UploadedFiles/22.09.2008_CRU_Eng.pdf
132 Website Navasota Resources Ltd., http://www.navasota.com/s/Overview.asp
133 Reuters, ‘Guinea wants more benefit from bauxite, PM says’ , 13 February 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idUSL1317093520080213
134 Mining Top News, ‘Japan, Brazil cos win Guinea bauxite permits’, 9 August 2006, http://www.miningtopnews.com/japan-brazil-cos-win-guinea-bauxite-permits.html
135 Navasota Resources Ltd., brochure ‘Developing a World Class Bauxite Deposit in Guinea,West Africa’, Fall 2008, http://www.navasota.com/i/pdf/NAV-4pgr-Feb4-09.pdf
136 SOFOFA, Federation of Chilean Industry, ‘Chilean Economy in figures 1987 – 2007’, http://www.sofofa.cl/english/figures_2008.pdf
137 COCHILCO, Chilean Copper Commission , ‘Investment in the Chilean Copper and Gold Mining Sector Estimations for 2008-2012, Revised to August 2008’, http://www.cochilco.cl/Archivos/destacados/20081211230704_918-investment-chilean-copper-gold-mining.pdf
138 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
139 Reuters, ‘Chile calls on miners to further cut water use’, 6 April 2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssEnergyNews/idUSN0648821120090406
140 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
141 Reuters, ‘As South American rivers dry up, miners tap ocean’, 21 February 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN21383591
142 New York Times, ‘Chilean Town Withers in Free Market for Water’, by Alexei Barrionuevo, 14 March 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/15/world/americas/15chile.html?_r=1
143 Ana Zúñiga, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division Chilean Copper Commission, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, april 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf
144 Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Statistics Netherlands, and University of Wage-
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ningen, ‘Compendium on environment and nature, Household energy consumption per capita, 1950-2007’. Energy use within households in the Netherlands (gas, electricity) was 34,0 gigajoule per capita in 2007. http://www.milieuennatuurcompendium.nl/indicatoren/nl0036-Huishoudelijk-energieverbruik-per-inwoner.html?i=6-40
145 New York Times, editorial ‘Patagonia Without Dams’, 1 April 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/01/opinion/01tue3.html?ex=1364702400&en=f02daaa4c1685e30&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
146 International Rivers, fact sheet, ‘Patagonia’s Wild Rivers at Risk’, February 2009, http://internationalrivers.org/files/Patagonia_factsheet_FINAL0209.pdf
147 Website Patagonia Sin Represas (Patagonia Without Dams), http://www.patagoniasinrepresas.cl
148 Inter Press Service, Daniela Estrada, article ‘Patagonia dams on hold’, 20 November 2008, http://www.probeinternational.org/index.php?q=latest-news/news-and-opinion/patagonia-dams-hold
149 Website Natural Resources Defense Council, http://www.savebiogems.org/patagonia/
150 Jaime A. Solari, Ph. D. Metallurgy, Imperial College London, ‘Environmental Management of Chil-ean Copper Smelters: Economic and Technical Options’, ICSG meeting, Lisbon, April 2008, www.icsg.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=65&Itemid=62
151 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 minerals yearbook, Peru’, April 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-pe.pdf
152 Reuters, ‘UPDATE 1-Peru’s key metals production rises in 2008’, 22 January 2009, http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUKN2254412820090122
153 Oxfam America, report ‘Mining conflicts in Peru: Condition critical’, March 2009, http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/briefing_papers/mining-conflicts-in-peru-condition-critical/Mining-Conflicts-in-Peru-Condition-Critical.pdf
154 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 minerals yearbook, Peru’, April 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-pe.pdf
155 Peru Support Group, report ‘Mining and Development in Peru With Special Reference to The Rio Blanco Project, Piura’, March 2007, http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/pdfs/Mining%20and%20Development%20in%20Peru.pdf
156 London Mining Network, ‘News about Monterrico Metals’ Rio Blanco project, Peru’ from the Vicaría del Medio Ambiente de Jaén VIMA, 8 April 2009, http://londonminingnetwork.org/2009/04/news-about-monterrico-metals-rio-blanco-project-peru/
157 Peru Support Group, report ‘Mining and Development in Peru With Special Reference to The Rio Blanco Project, Piura’, March 2007, http://www.perusupportgroup.org.uk/pdfs/Mining%20and%20Development%20in%20Peru.pdf
158 Oxfam America, report ‘Mining conflicts in Peru: Condition critical’, March 2009, http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/briefing_papers/mining-conflicts-in-peru-condition-critical/Mining-Conflicts-in-Peru-Condition-Critical.pdf
159 Blacksmith Institute, report ‘The World’s Worst Polluted Places, The Top Ten of The Dirty Thirty’, September 2007, http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/wwpp2007/finalReport2007.pdf
160 Website Renco group, http://www.rencogroup.net/companies/doerunperu.html
161 Website Doe Run Peru, http://www.doerun.com.pe
162 Jubilee Debt Campaign, ‘A new debt crisis? Assessing the impact of the financial crisis on devel-oping countries’, written by Sarah Edwards, March 2009.
163 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
164 Konkola Copper Mines plc, http://www.kcm.co.zm/
165 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Zambia’, March 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-za.pdf
166 Reuters, ‘Zambia’s Konkola shuts Nkana smelter’, 19 February 2009, http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINLJ31631520090219?sp=true
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167 Website Konkola Copper mines, http://www.kcm.co.zm/expansion_projects.php
Reuters, ‘African copper belt, future of the industry?, 3 April 2009, ‘At Konkola Deep the copper content is as high as 3,5 percent with low sulfur and low iron,’ Tim Smith, manager of the copper division at SNC-Lavalin Group, a Canadian engineering company active in the region,
http://www.miningweekly.com/article/african-copper-belt-future-of-the-industry-2009-04-03
168 Website Equinox Minerals Ltd., http://www.equinoxminerals.com/
169 Website ZCCM Investments Holdings Plc (ZCCM-IH), http://www.zccm-ih.com.zm/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=17&Itemid=7
170 Reuters, ‘Zambia dam among IFC’s first casualties of the financial crisis’, 16 December 2008, http://www.bicusa.org/en/Article.10986.aspx
171 Open Society Institute of Southern Africa (Johannesburg), Third World Network Africa (Accra), Tax Justice Network Africa (Nairobi), Action Aid International (Johannesburg), Christian Aid (Lon-don), report ‘Breaking the Curse: How Transparent Taxation and Fair Taxes can Turn Africa’s Min-eral Wealth into Development’, March 2009.
172 Government of Zambia, Ministry of finance and national planning, ‘copperbelt environment project’, 12 August 2008.
173 Lusaka Times, ‘Mufulira water contamination victims in stable condition’, 4 January 2008, http://www.lusakatimes.com/?p=1824
174 Personal communication Anne-Sophie Simpere, campaigner financial sector, Friends of the Earth France, 9 april 2009.
175 Bench Marks Foundation in collaboration with the Peace, Principles and Participation Initiative (PPP) and supported by the Netherlands Institute for Southern Africa (NIZA)‘ report ‘Corporate social responsibility in the Zambian mining industry’, 2008.
176 Scotland’s aid agency SCIAF, Christian Aid and Simon Chase at ACT South-Africa, ‘Undermining development?, Copper mining in Zambia, October 2007.
177 Occupational Medicine, short report ‘Injuries and fatalities in copper mining in Zambia’, by Pru-dence Michelo, Magne Bratveit and Bente E. Moen, University of Bergen, Norway, 13 March 2009.
178 Financial Times, ‘China’s Africa embrace evokes imperialist memories’, John Reed, 27 September 2006.
179 Dow Jones Newswires, ‘Zambia’s Miners Pay High Price For Copper Boom’, by Jackie Range, 12 October 2005.
180 FREEPORT-McMoRan COPPER & GOLD INC., Annual Report 2008.
181 FREEPORT-McMoRan COPPER & GOLD INC., Annual Report 2008.
182 AFP, ‘Norway’s pension fund blacklists Rio Tinto over environment’, 9 September 2008, http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jip-1kPtccs5AlGL3uu-zDcsRa9Q
183 Office of the New York City comptroller William C. Thompson, Jr., ‘New York City Pension Funds call for review of Freeport McMoran’s environmental policies in Indonesia’, 5 December 2006, http://www.comptroller.nyc.gov/press/2006_releases/pr06-12-092.shtm
184 WALHI - Indonesian Forum for Environment, report ‘the environmental impacts of Freeport-Rio Tinto’s copper and gold mining operation in Papua’, Jakarta, 2006.
185 Ministry of Finance Norway, press release ‘The Government Pension Fund divests its holdings in mining company’ Oslo, September 9, 2008. http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8809
186 Ministry of Finance Norway, press release ‘The Government Pension Fund divests its holdings in mining company’ Oslo, September 9, 2008. http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8809
187 AFP, ‘US mining giant still paying Indonesia military, 22 March 2009.
188 New York Times, ‘Below a Mountain of Wealth, a River of Waste ‘, By Jane Perlez and Raymond Bonner, 27 December 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/27/international/asia/27gold.html
189 Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc. (FCX), annual report 2008, page 10 and 78, http://www.fcx.com/ir/AR/2008/FCX_AR_2008.pdf
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190 Website Freeport, July 2006.
191 Cookson Group plc, ‘2008 Results’, 9 March 2009. http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk/cookson/uploads/results/presentation/1CooksonGroupplc2008PreliminaryResults_090309.pdf
192 Buetow, Mike, “Tin Men, Or Why ‘Pb-Free Isn’t Free’,” Circuits Assembly, vol. 15 no. 11, 27 October 2004, http://circuitsassembly.com/cms/magazine/95/218
193 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years end-ed december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009.
194 Cookson Group plc, website and Annual Reports 2007 and 2008, http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk
195 Alpha-Fry Technologies B.V., financial report 2007 to the shareholders, 23 January 2009.
196 The average price of a ton of refined tin was around $15,000 in 2007. Website London Metal Exchange, http://www.lme.co.uk/tin_graphs.asp One Euro was worth 1,37 dollar on average in 2007, http://www.x-rates.com/d/USD/EUR/hist2007.html Assumed is that 85% of the 46 million Euro worth raw materials bought by Alpha-Fry, was refined tin. This results in an estimation of 3,500 tonnes of tin imported by Alpha-Fry in 2007.
197 website Vereniging Nederlandse Metallurgische Industrie, Information on tin, http://www.vnmi.nl/Smartsite.shtml?id=57767
198 Metaal Recycling Federatie, interview ‘Metaal Recycling Actueel, op werkbezoek bij Alpha Fry Technologies’, December 2004.
199 Cookson Drijfhout, Amsterdam, annual report 2007, 18 June 2008.
200 Cookson Group plc, Annual Reports 2007 and 2008, http://www.cooksongroup.co.uk
201 Website Corus group: http://www.corusgroup.com
202 Website Corus Packaging Plus, ‘Corus in the packaging industry’, http://www.coruspackaging.com/company.html
203 Corus, brochure ‘Packaging Plus news’, January 2009, http://www.coruspackaging.com/assets/files/CPP200810030_CPPNews_01.pdf
204 Eindhoven University of Technology, Master’s Degree Thesis by Philippe Bronckers, ‘Performance Evaluation of Manufacturing Systems at Corus Packaging Plus, 29 March 2008, http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra2/afstversl/tm/Bronckers2008.pdf
205 Website Corus, www.corus.com
206 Corus UK Limited, ‘Purchase Terms for the Purchase of Goods and Services, July 2007, http://www.corusgroup.com/file_source/StaticFiles/Purchase%20Terms%20for%20the%20Pur-chase%20of%20Goods%20and%20Services%20July%202007.pdf
207 Tata Steel, code of conduct, http://www.tatasteel.com/images/Tata-COC-2008.pdf
208 Corus IJmuiden, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 6 March 2009.
209 Corus MET B.V. , annual report 2007/2008 for the 15 months period ending 31 March 2008, 27 June 2008.
210 Personal communication by Eric van der Oest (manager public affairs Corus Netherlands) and René Boulonois (manager sustainable development Corus Netherlands), 9 March 2009.
211 ITRI, ‘Statement of Progress: Towards a Responsible Cassiterite Supply Chain’ , February 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/ITRI%20statement%20of%20progress%20DRC%20Feb%202009%20FINAL.pdf
212 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli-cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm
213 PRNewswire, ‘Alcan Inc. reaches agreement in principle for the sale of its Vlissingen smelter to Klesch & Company Limited’, Paris, 31 May 2007, http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=199328
214 Klesch & Company Ltd, press release ‘Klesch & Company Ltd finalizes acquisition of aluminium smelters’, 5 February 2009,
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http://www.klesch.com/downloads//Corus%20Press%20Release%20050209.pdf
215 Website Zalco, http://www.zalco.nl/index_en.php
216 Zalco, Financial report 31 December 2007.
217 Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant, Ben Jansen, ‘Zalco schrapt 141 banen’, 19 November 2008, http://www.pzc.nl/regio/zeeland/4066436/Zalco-schrapt-141-banen.ece
218 Aldel, Sustainability report 2007 (in Dutch), http://www.aldel.nl/Inhoud/Frame-nl.htm
219 ANP (Netherlands national news agency), ‘Aluminium Delfzijl schrapt 185 banen’, 21 March 2009, http://www.nu.nl/economie/1936396/aluminium-delfzijl-schrapt-185-banen.html
220 Newsletter Van de Groep & Olsthoorn, interview with Klaas Roskam, director human resources of the Draka cable companies in the Netherlands, October 2007, http://www.vandegroep.nl/images/Nieuwsbrief%20okt.%202007.pdf
221 Draka, Annual report 2007.
222 Draka, Annual report 2005.
223 Draka, Group Safety, Health & Environment Statement, January 2009, http://www.draka.com/dra-ka/lang/en/nav/Sustainable_business/Corporate_Social_Responsibility/SHE_statement.pdf
224 Draka, letter Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment) to Friends of the Earth Netherlands ‘Questionnaire copper mining’, 12 February 2009.
225 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
226 Philips, annual report 2008.
227 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf
228 Philips, ‘Supplier Sustainability Declaration’, December 2006, http://www.philips.com/about/company/businesses/suppliers/suppliersustainability.page
229 Maplecroft website, Maplecroft is a source of quantitative and comprehensive ‘extra-financial’ and global risks indices, maps and data. This includes human rights, political risk, government risk, climate change, resource security, health and other areas of macroeconomic and societal risk, http://www.maplecroft.com
230 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf
231 Philips, mr. Jan Roodenburg, senior vice-president supply, development and sustainability, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 7 April 2009.
232 Global eSustainability Initiative (GeSI) and Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), ‘GeSI and EICC Statement on Mining of Metals’, February 2009.
233 Website Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), http://eitransparency.org/eiti/summary
234 Heineken N.V., Sustainability report 2008, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/live/files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/8773_Heineken_Sust_090409_FINAL.pdf
235 Heineken Supplier Code, 21 December 2005, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/live/files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/Heineken%20Supplier%20Code.pdf
236 Heineken, Hans Kroes, safety, health and environment manager Heineken Nederland Supply ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite mining’, 9 March 2009.
237 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre-sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf
238 Website Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc, http://www.cokecce.com/pages/homeContent.asp
239 Coca-Cola in Nederland, Maatschappelijk jaarverslag 2007.
240 Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc., Supplier Guiding Principles
241 Coca-Cola Enterprises Nederland, Robert Seegers, Public affairs and communication manager Nederland, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite min-
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ing’, 16 March 2009.
242 Greenpeace Netherlands, report ‘De wereld achter kolenstroom. De dubieuze herkomst van steenkool voor Nederlandse kolencentrales’, 2008, (The world behind coal power, the question-able origin of coal used in Dutch electric power plants). http://www.greenpeace.nl/news/steenkool-laat-wereldwijd-spoo
243 Dutch minister of Economic Affairs and Dutch minister of Environment and Spatial Planning, ‘answers to the questions raised by the Dutch parliamentarian Ms Wiegman-Van Meppelen Schep-pink (ChristenUnie)’, in Dutch language, 18 April 2008, http://static.ikregeer.nl/pdf/KVR31800.pdf
244 The Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands (SER), ‘Statement on International Corpo-rate Social Responsibility’, December 2008, http://www.ser.nl/en/Publications/Publications/2008/~/media/Files/Internet/Talen/Engels/2008/b27428/b27428_en_statement.ashx
245 Dutch minister of Foreign Trade, Letter to the Dutch parliament, 29 January 2009, 26485:64 Report PricewaterhouseCoopers on behalf of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, ‘Transparency Benchmark 2008, CSR-reporting’, January 2009.
246 Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, ‘sustainable procurement, operationalization Social Criteria (draft)’, 9 March 2009, http://www.senternovem.nl/duurzaaminkopen/Criteria/sociale_criteria/index.asp
247 English part of website Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH), http://www.duurzamehandel.com/page/Information_in_English
248 Lester R. Brown, ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble’, Earth Policy Institute, 2006, http://earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/PB2ch6_ss4.htm
249 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘tin statistics’, 30 October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/tin.pdf
250 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf
251 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, February 1997. In 1998, this reserve base wasn’t included in the data anymore, while it could not have been produced or appeared in the category ‘other countries’. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/660397.pdf
252 ITRI, brochure ‘Working with the Tin industry for a prosperous and sustainable future’, 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/ITRI_Brochure_12pp.pdf
253 ITRI website, ‘Long-term Availability of Tin’, http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_PARTART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_PARTART_296468
254 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf
255 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf
256 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf
257 U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008-1253, ‘Quantitative mineral resource assessment of copper, molybdenum, gold, and silver in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Andes Mountains of South America’, 2008. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1253/
258 The World Bank, ‘Global Economic Prospects, Commodities at the Crossroads’, 2009.
259 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009.
260 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009.
261 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5, 31 january 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
262 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009. http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf
263 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008,
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http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf and Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, page 64. http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf
264 It was estimated that in 1999 Western Europe (EU-15 included Switzerland and Norway) had a copper reservoir in use of around 78 million tonnes of copper and alloys. In 1999, the copper reservoir increased by around 2 million tonnes of copper and alloys. (source: Martin Ruhrberg, ICSG, ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. The copper stock in use in North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) for the year 1999 was cal-culated on 70 million tonnes of copper, being in use providing services. Around 56 million tonnes were estimated to have been placed in landfills. (source: R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5, 31 january 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html
265 Resource Policy, article ‘Copper recycling and scrap availability’, Fernando Gómez, Juan Ignacio Guzmán, John E. Tilton, August 2007.
266 Bureau of International Recycling, http://www.bir.org/aboutrecycling/index.asp
267 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
268 The recycling rate of C&D scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. The recycling rate of ELV scored probably low due the reuse instead of recycling of some copper com-ponents. WEEE scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. MSW suffered mainly disposal but also poor recycling performance.
269 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
270 Lars Landner and Rudolf Reuther, book ‘Metals in Society and in the Environment: A Critical Review of Current Knowledge on Fluxes, Speciation, Bioavailability and Risk for Adverse Effects of Copper, Chromium, Nickel and Zinc, 2004, chapter 3. Metal Cycles in Defined Geographical Areas, table 3.1. Principal uses of copper in the world, in 1990 (Joseph, 1999, Graedel et al., 2002).
271 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland.
272 Luben Savov, Elena Volkova, Dieter Janke from Institute of Iron and Steel technology in Freiberg (Germany), article ‘Copper and tin in steel scrap recycling’, in RMZ – Materials and Geoenviron-ment, 2003.
273 Website information on a Clean Scrap Machine, http://www.resteel.nl/en/index.htm
274 The European Union Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law (IMPEL Network), ‘Enforcement of EU Waste Shipment Regulation, learning by doing’, final report, June 2008. And:
Greenpeace International, report ‘Toxic Tech: Not in Our Backyard, uncovering the Hidden Flows of e-Waste’, February 2008.
275 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007.
276 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811
277 The Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) program is an industry-led, global, collaborative research and development program. Its members are drawn from eminent representatives from both industry and academia in each region. Government observers and the knowledgeable person-alities in manufacturing, also participate. The IMS organisation is currently comprised of five regions including the European Union, Japan, Korea, Switzerland, and the United States of America. http://www.ims.org/sites/default/files/254.4.4.18%202006%20March%20IMS%20Newsletter.pdf
278 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008,
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http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811
279 1) U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf
2) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). ATSDR is a federal public health agen-cy of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It states: ‘The major commercial applica-tions of tin chemicals are as PVC heat stabilizers, biocides, catalysts, agrochemicals and glass coat-ings,’ http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp55-c5.pdf
280 U.S. Environmental protection Agency, website, ‘Statistics on the Management of Used and End-of-Life Electronics’, http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/manage.htm
281 Greenpeace, report ‘toxic Tech: Switching On to Green Electronics’, February 2008, http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/Switching-on-Green-Electron-ics.pdf
282 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre-sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf
283 APEAL, the association of European producers of steel for packaging, represents 92 % of the total steel production for packaging in Europe. Its members are ArcelorMittal Packaging, Corus Packaging Plus, Rasselstein and US Steel Kosice. http://www.apeal.org/file.asp?filetype=doc/04/003/002/2007_apeal_recycling_press_release_-_uk.pdf
284 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf
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