Misconceptions About Motivation

1. Some people just aren’t motivated.

2. Motivation is something you do TO others.

3. A happy worker is a productive worker.

Why is motivation important?Why is motivation important?

Motivation determines effort and effort is one determinant of performance

Motivated workers don’t need constant supervision

Motivated workers are more likely to show up Motivated workers can provide a competitive

advantage through ideas and customer service

Content Theories of Motivation

- Help us understand what motivation IS

- Assume behavior to be goal directed

- Needs (unsatisfied) are the source of motivation

- Need = an internal state of deficiency

-Needs Tension Behavior to reduce the tensionby satisfying the need(Homeostasis)

-At certain times some needs will be more important than others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Security

Physiological

Need Prepotency

Need Progression

Premises:

5 level hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Premises:

A 3 level hierarchy

Need Progression

Need Regression

Argyris’ Immaturity-Maturity Theory

Immaturity Maturity Passivity Activity

Dependence Independence

Few ways of behaving Diverse behavior

Shallow interests Deep interests

Short time perspective Long term perspective

Subordinate position Superordinate position

Causes of Employee Satisfaction

Traditional View

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

Low Pay High pay

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

- Hygiene +Hygiene - Motivators + Motivators

Herzberg’s Hygiene & Motivator Factors

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Pay Achievement

Working Conditions Recognition

Security Work Itself

Fringe Benefits Responsibility

Company Policies Growth Potential

Interpersonal Relations

Supervision

Assessment of HerzbergAssessment of Herzberg

Contributions Criticisms

1st to argue that job content Assumed satisfaction design was important causes motivationAdvocated job enrichment as Ignored individual a motivational strategy differences. Not Easy to understand, intuitively everyone wants an appealing enriched jobExplained why “more” “Method bound” hygiene factors won’t increase motivation

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Needs Characteristic Preferences

Need for Affiliation Like to work with their friendsOpportunities to communicate

Need for Power Control over othersAttentionRecognition

Personal vs. Institutional

Need for Achievement Like to set own goals“Challenging” goalsLike immediate feedbackLike individual responsibility

Critique of Need Satisfaction Models

Need Satisfaction Alternative Model

Job Characteristics

Need Fulfillment Needs

Job Attitudes

Job Behaviors

Job Attitudes

Job Behaviors

(Objective)Job Characteristics

(Imputed/perceived)

Needs

Process/Choice TheoriesProcess/Choice Theories

The decision to expend effortThe level of effort to exertHow effort can be made to persist over

time

They seek to help us understand the processes behind the choices we make:

Expectancy Theory

Employee’s ManagerialPerception Definition Question Implications

Valence the perceived value Do I value the Need to identify individual of a particular rewards offered? needs. outcome to an individual. Adjust available rewards to

meet those needs.

Instrumentality the perceived probability Can I achieve the Select workers with ability. that performance will desired level of Train workers to use abilities. lead to outcomes performance? Support workers with available

resources. Clarify performance goals.

Expectancy the perceived probability What rewards will Communicate P R possibilities that effort will lead to I get as a result of Confirm P R possibilities task performance my performance? by making ACTUAL

rewards contingent on performance.

Expectancy Theory Example

Perceived MotivationOutcomes V I E ForceHigh Salary 10 .8

IBM Fast Promotions 10 .6Prestige 10 .5Freq. Moves -20 .9

Sum V*I 1 .8 .8

High Salary 10 .4Fed. Fast Promotions 10 .1Gov. Prestige 10 .3

Freq. Moves -20 .3Sum V*I 2 1.0 2.0

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory Perceptions Reality

Effort Perf. Rewards Effort Perf. Rewards

E I V

Reasoning Behind Goal Setting

Direction specific goals direct your focusto relevant activities.

Effort need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficultgoals

Persistence specific, difficult goals encourageyou to persist longer at a task thanwould be the case with less difficult or vague goals.

A Model of Goal Setting

Performance GoalIntentionsPast Performance

Goal Setting Process

AssignedParticipative

Goal Content Specificity Difficulty

Knowledge of Goal Goal Results Attributes Aspirations Outcomes

+

Goal Difficulty ControversyGoal Difficulty Controversy

Goal Setting Theory N Ach Expectancy Theory

H H H

M M M

L L L

Easy Medium Hard Easy Medium Hard Easy Medium Hard

Goal Difficulty Goal Difficulty Goal Difficulty

PERFOMANCE

A Modified Model of Goal SettingA Modified Model of Goal Setting

Past Performance

Goal Intentions

Performance

Goal Content Specificity Difficulty

Goal Setting Process Assigned Participative

Individual Differences

Personality (Self efficacy)Needs (N Ach)Cognitions (attributions)Perceptions (expectancies)

The Role of Incentives

Performance Level

Low

High

Perceived Goal Difficulty

Easy HardPieceratebonus

Criticisms of Goal SettingCriticisms of Goal Setting

•Difficult to Sustain

•Works best on simple jobs

•Encourages Game-Playing

•Another Control Device

•Can become an obsession (Means-end reversal)

Equity Theory Perceptions

1. Perceptions of outcomes received

2. Perceptions of inputs required

3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a “Referent” other

OI OO

II IO

=

Equity

OI OO OI

II IO II

< >OO

IO

or

Inequity

O/I O/I

Under Reward Over Reward

Equity Theory Reactions

Equity Inequity

Motivation to Motivation to reducemaintain current inequity:situation 1. Change inputs

2. Change outcomes3. Alter perceptions of self4. Alter perceptions of other5. Change referent other6. Leave the situation

Equity SensitivityEquity Sensitivity

Under Reward Equity Over Reward

Satisfaction

High

Low

Entitleds

Benevolents

Equity Sensitives

Justice PerceptionsJustice Perceptions

Distributive Justice

Procedural Justice

Interactive Justice

A Perspectives Approach to MotivationA Perspectives Approach to Motivation

Motivation Questions

What is it? How does it work?(Content Theories) (Process Theories)

Maslow’s Hierarchy Expectancy TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory Equity TheoryHerzberg’s 2 Factory Theory Goal Setting TheoryMcClelland’s Learned Needs

Rational Economic Theory Reinforcement TheoryScientific Management

Internal

External

Location ofthe PrimeMover

Questions Approach to Motivation TheoryQuestions Approach to Motivation Theory

1. What energizes behavior?

2. What channels energized behavior?

3. How can one maintain energized behavior?

An Integrated Model of Motivation

Individual Factors Environmental Factors

Needs Tension EnergizedEffort

Alternative Associated Actions Outcomes1. 1.2. 2.3. 3.Etc. Etc.

Selection of an alternative

Effort

Ability

RolePerceptions

Actual ActualPerformance Rewards

Equity Perceptions Satisfaction

Implications of Motivation Theory for Managers

1. Managers can influence employee motivation.2. Motivation is not the ONLY cause of performance.3. Some factors managers have control over, others they do not.4. Managers who fail to discriminate have no power.5. Managers need to diagnose the cause of low performance before taking action.6. Establishing goals to direct behavior is important to any motivation program.7. Rewards can be a powerful tool, IF...

Typical Reasons Why Workers Fail to PerformTypical Reasons Why Workers Fail to Perform

Reason Potential Managerial Problem1. Doesn’t understand Inability to impart public knowledge directions (poor communicator)2. Lacks ability Selection, transfer, termination problem3. Dislikes the work Selection, placement or job design

problem4. Rewards are not viewed Lack of understanding of needs of

as rewards workforce; or satisfaction problem5. No relationship between Lack of discrimination problem

work output and rewards6. Employees are in a Working from the value system of the

different career stage than manager rather than from the manager subordinate’s value system