misunderstood middle ages
DESCRIPTION
A presentation originally given in Powerpoint in 2013 to University of the Third Age members in Sydney .TRANSCRIPT
THE
MISUNDERSTOOD
MIDDLE AGES
A BAD PRESS !
“There is something dark and wintry about the atmosphere of the Middle Ages”
“The obscure and fanatical days of the Middle Ages”
“In the absence of evidence – superstition . It’s a Middle Ages thing”
“The philosophers of the Middle Ages demonstrated that the Earth did not exist and it was flat”
HISTORY HAS CONTEXT AND CONTENT
Historians often define and give give value laden names to historical periods to give emphasis to their own times , convictions and areas of expertise
Thus Renaissance historians in the 16th century talked of “The Middle Ages when human consciousness lay dreaming or half awake” in their attempt to revive Greek and Latin learning and diminish the achievements of the Middle Ages
We shall take a look at some of the major achievements of the Middle Ages and show how they anticipated many modern institutions and thinking
THE MIDDLE AGES –WHEN WERE THEY ?
Early Middle Ages from 500 to 1000 A.D. Barbarian incursions , shift of power from Rome to Constantinople
High Middle Ages from 1000 to 1200 A.D . Balance of power back to Western Europe . Economic , social , commercial , intellectual growth
Late Middle Ages from 1200 to 1500 A .D . Growth of city states and national monarchies . Inspiration from the Classical era . Development of the Renaissance
MAJOR NATURAL EVENTS
Mediaeval Cooling 500-900 ,severely affecting agriculture and economic growth
Mediaeval Warming 900-1300 giving rise to agricultural , economic and population growth
The Little Ice Age 1300+ giving rise to famine , depopulation , war and disease
The Black Death 1348-50 , estimated to have killed at least 30% of Europe’s population .
THE TURBULENT MIDDLE AGES
The 100 years war
Expansion of Islam
The Crusades
Medieval warming
Agricultural growth
Economic growth
Population growth
The Little Ice Age
The Black Death
The fall of Byzantium
The growth of universities
The flourishing of art and architecture
The growth of philosophy
The development of science and technology
The creation of capitalism
The Papal revolution
Geographical exploration
The discovery of the New World
SOME MEDIAEVAL MYTHS
It was believed that the earth was flat and centered on Jerusalem
Philosophers debated how many angels could stand on the head of a pin
There were massive programmes of witch burning
Mediaeval lords had a right to sexual relations with the newly married wives of their serfs
Medical dissection was forbidden by the church
Interest on money was forbidden
Etc , etc
THE RENAISSANCE MYTH
A construct of the 17th century alleging -
The sudden dawning of new thinking after 1500 based on that of Greece and Rome after 1000 years of darkness
The spread of new ideas , the advance of science the reform of religion , the development of capitalism , the discovery of the New World
To include typical Renaissance figures the period was sometimes extended backwards from 1500 by 300 years to include much of the Middle Ages !
NO KINGS OR QUEENS !
NO KNIGHTS , NO BATTLES !
MAJOR ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
Architecture
Art
Literature
Philosophy
Science and Technology
Universities
Capitalism
Monasticism
The Papal Revolution
ARCHITECTURE
In the early middle ages 800-1100 the Romanesque style was a development of Western Roman and Byzantine architecture
Characterised by thick walls , round arches and a general massiveness and symmetry and spreading across Europe
Many monasteries (Vezelay),castles(Tower of London) and cathedrals(Durham) were built in this style
ARCHITECTURE
Increasing wealth both secular and ecclesiastical , the growth of cities and the refinement of theological thinking found expression in the Gothic style of architecture
This manifested itself primarily in Gothic cathedrals of which there were hundreds spread throughout Europe
They integrated in a monumental framework major architectural and artistic innovations
GOTHIC CATHEDRALS The pointed arch and rib vaulting channelled weight
onto columns and enabled the vaulting of irregular spaces
The flying buttress took load bearing from the walls and enabled infilling of the walls with glass
Stained glass was used to create light , colour and an artistic medium on a large scale
Height was also a major feature , internally to 50 , externally to 160 metres
All features were combined in defined geometric proportions and with extensive use of symbolism and colour
All this required near professional architectural and complex logistical and financial planning skills
“Of all the monuments to human
achievement there is none to match
these towers of tracery and glass that
burst into the light of Northern Europe
before the year 1200”
“There were no further basic principles of
architecture until the invention of steel
and concrete and reinforced concrete
buildings”
“The cathedrals were built by the
common consent of the townspeople and
for them by common masons”
THE BEST IN THEIR CLASS
A ranking 1 to 20 of the most excellent in major fields of the arts and sciences
Based on the combined judgement of a wide variety of the most knowledgeable people in each field
Reflects those achievements which have endured across the centuries
ART
Covered many locations , movements and
media
Early influences were Byzantine , Germanic and
Islamic art
Romanesque art was very inventive, vigorous
and expressive with a strong religious emphasis
Gothic art gradually changed from the 13th
century into the expression of religious , natural
and personal themes known inappropriately as
Renaissance art
GIOTTO 1266-1337 8
DONATELLO 1386-1466 14
JAN VAN EYCK 1395-1441 15
MASACCIO 1401-1428 18
LEONARDO DA VINCI 1452-1519 4
DURER 1471-1528 6
RAPHAEL 1483-1520 3
LITERATURE
Religious and secular , much of it anonymous
Courtly love , epics and political content
Beowulf 8th-11th century
Wolfram von Eschenbach 1170-1220
Dante 1265-1321 3
Boccaccio 1313-1375 15
Geoffrey Chaucer end of 14th century
Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527
Petrarch 1304-1374 12
PY PP
P
PHILOSOPHY
Peter Abelard 1079-1142 was a leading philosopher , theologian and preeminent logician
Helped establish the authority of Aristotle over Plato
Made major contributions to ethics
His affair with Heloise ended his career
He is buried with her in Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris
A highly aggressive debater he made many enemies
PHILOSOPHY
Thomas Aquinas 1225-1274 6 was responsible for the systemization of Latin theology
Used the Scholastic Method , built around arguments for and against a proposition
Used the thinking and logic of Aristotle to create an unparalleled synthesis of Christian and Pagan philosophy and theology
Reinforced the use of reason in the interpretation of natural events
Showed that Aristotle could be in error e.g. that the world was not eternal , and so mediaeval philosophers could move beyond the Greeks
PHILOSOPHY
Duns Scotus 1265-1308 developed further logical arguments to show that it was not necessary to accept Aristotle’s world view
William of Ockham 1288-1348 introduced the idea of looking for simplest explanations “Ockhams Razor” and a strong emphasis on empiricism . He introduced logical innovations which would be taken up by 20th century mathematical logic
THE PRIMACY OF REASON
“It is possible to achieve an understanding of the rational order inherent in nature , an understanding as complete as the extent that human knowledge progresses” Adelard of Bath 1080-1152
“Authority is inferior to reason because it deals with opinions about truth rather than truth itself . Only reason can settle the question” Peter Abelard 1079-1142
Reason became a moral obligation of the highest order
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
In the Middle Ages the empirically based philosophical approach of Aristotle took over from that of Plato and his Physics underpinned the approach to science
Mediaeval scholars beginning in Oxford emphasised the need for ideas , however attractive , to be complemented and tested by observation and experiment
Robert Grosseteste 1170-1253 and Roger Bacon 1214-1294 took forward this approach especially in optics
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
In 1284 spectacles were invented in Florence
Witelo 1250-75 wrote a book on optics which became the standard text for 200 years
At about the same time the mechanical clock was invented in England .
Richard of Wallingford 1292-1336 built a clock which incorporated an astrolabe and tide timer and showed star positions and lunar eclipses
Meanwhile at Oxford……..
THE MERTON CALCULATORS
Thomas Bradwardine 1209-1349 , Richard Swineshead fl1340-55 , William Heytesbury 1313-73 applied mathematics to Aristotelean problems of motion
In the process they developed the concept of logarithms and formulae for motion under gravity
The development of science then moved across the Channel
THE APOGEE OF MEDIEVAL SCIENCE
The cathedral school of Chartres in the early twelfth century under Thierry became a focus of scientific thinking
“In a period of fifteen to twenty years in the middle of the twelfth century a handful of men were consciously striving to launch the evolution of Western science and undertook every major step needed to achieve that end”
“Thierry will probably be recognised as one of the true founders of Western science”
THE APOGEE OF MEDIEVAL SCIENCE
Fibonnaci 1170-1250 19 introduced and developed the application of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
At the University of Paris Jean Buridan 1300-61 solved the problem of orbital motion
Nicolas Oresme 1325-82 wrote treatises on mechanics and mathematics which found their way across Europe . He was an implacable opponent of astrology
Nicholas of Cusa 1400-64 said that the Earth was not at the centre of the universe
Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519 3 spanned a number of technological areas
PUTTING IDEAS ON PAPER
Johann Gutenberg 1398-1468 developed
moveable type , the printing press and
smudge free ink to use with paper
This enabled the cheap and rapid
transmission and preservation of ideas
His ideas have been classed as one of the
most influential events in history
Luther 1483-1546 and his opponents made
great use of it
BUT WAIT THERE’S MORE !
Water mills and their applications
Windmills and their applications
Horse collars , shoes , saddles and stirrups
The heavy plough and harnesses
Cart axles and brakes
The three field system and aquaculture
The round ship , stern rudder and compass
Cannons
Cloth making machinery
Chimneys and fireplaces
Etc , etc
THE LEVERS OF MEDIAEVAL SCIENCE
The translation of Greco Arabic science and natural philosophy into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries
The emergence of a class of theologian/natural philosophers who integrated these disciplines in a way that did not happen in Islam or the Christian East
The universities , whose existence and curriculum of science , logic and natural philosophy was the first in history and persisted for 450-500 years
UNIVERSITIES
An utterly new phenomenon in world history
Had faculties , courses of study ,
examinations and degrees
Distinguished between undergraduate and
graduate study
Eighty one universities had been established
by the reformation
750,000 students graduated between 1350
and 1500 !
UNIVERSITIES
Formed themselves into corporations guaranteeing autonomy
Often established by but not beholden to popes and kings
Could survive the death or departure of the founding members
The world’s first true university was the law school in Bologna 1158 . The students were in charge and employed the masters to teach them !
Universities excelled in specific subjects such as law , arts , medicine and theology
UNIVERSITIES
Lecturing changed from transmission of texts
perhaps with commentary to disputations
where masters and students argued until the
topic was determined by a senior master
The logical process used was that of Aristotle
but expanded as the Middle Ages progressed
Gave rise to Scholasticism which featured
the use of reason in the process of dialectic
or resolution of opposing positions
UNIVERSITIES
The existence , nature and importance of universities was recognised outside Europe
“We further hear now that the philosophical sciences are greatly cultivated in the land of Rome and along the northern shore of the country of the European Christians . They are said to be studied there again and to be taught in numerous classes . Existing systematic expositions of them are said to be comprehensive , the people who know them numerous and the students of them very many” Ibn Khaldun 1332-1406
CAPITALISM
What is it ?
“An economic system , wherein privately owned , relatively well organised and stable firms pursue complex commercial activities within a relatively free market taking a systematic long term approach to investing and reinvesting wealth in productive activities , involving a hired workforce and guided by anticipated and actual returns”
CAPITALISM - HOW IT STARTED
St Augustine 354-430 taught that commerce was not wicked and price was a function of the buyer’s desire as well as the producer’s costs
By the 9th century monastic estates , due to agricultural innovations, were producing surpluses which they sold to purchase other needs
Profits were reinvested , incomes mounted and the monasteries became de facto banks lending to the nobility
The capitalist components of trade , cash and specialisation came into being
CAPITALISM – THE MONASTIC STAGE
Monasteries grew into large complexes of buildings , churches , workshops , store houses , offices , schools , alms houses with a large population of dependents , workers and servants
This required the development of the processes of management of all factors of production at a tactical and strategic level
Commercial relationships required the use of cash
CAPITALISM – THE MONASTIC STAGE
By 1200 the use of cash by monasteries as a
basis of trade was widespread across Europe
They lent money at interest through loans or
mortgages
They utilised hired labour , which was more
productive than tenants or the monks
themselves
They had become capitalist organisations
They now began to examine capitalism’s
intellectual underpinnings
CAPITALISM –THE ITALIAN CITY STATES
Venice , Genoa , Florence and Milan in the 13th century took the monastic business model and developed it
The rational firm evolved with constant rules governing the development and operation of information , procedures and people
Double entry bookkeeping was developed and extensively used
A clear distinction was maintained between ownership and management
International trade grew but posed problems with transfers of large amounts of cash
CAPITALISM – EUROPEAN BANKS
Bills of exchange were developed so there was no need to transfer money
Insurance grew to minimise the “risk of ventures”
By the mid 13th century there was a network of Italian banks across Europe
They moved north to service the woollen industry and catalysed the development of capitalism in The Low Countries and England in the 14th and 15th centuries
THEOLOGY AND CAPITALISM
In the 12th century St Albertus Magnus said that the just price is what goods are worth in the estimation of the market at the time of sale
Interest was justified on credit to take into account risk or “adventure of the principal”
Profits and property rights were also justified by theologians
“They came up with generally favourable views in contrast to those of the previous six to seven centuries”
THEOLOGY AND CAPITALISM
Jean Buridan 1300-58 ,Nicholas Oresme
1325-82 Pierre Olivi 1248-98 and Cardinal
Cajetan 1468-1534 developed ;
Theories of money , foreign exchange , just
price , subjective value
Their work affirmed the importance of the
market in the economy , and was confirmed
in the 20th century after the labour theory of
Marx had been discredited
MONASTICISM
St Benedict in 529 composed his Rule and set up the monastery of Monte Cassino
The spiritual life was structured but non ascetic engaging with the world as indicated by the expression “laborare est orare”
At its height there were 37,000 monasteries
Each house was independent of the others
Foci of major contributions to the Middle Ages
MONASTICISM
Preserved and disseminated historic and current culture and knowledge
Introduced a wide variety of agricultural practices including irrigation in the rearing of crops and animals and transformed Europe from a wasteland into a profitable agriculture based economy
Developed also industrial processes based on wind and water power as well as mining and metallurgy
Provided a wide variety of charitable works including hospitals
THE PAPAL REVOLUTION
Before and after but dominated by Pope Gregory VII 1073-1085
A reorganisation of the Church and of the knowledge, values, laws and institutions of Europe
In an environment of microscopic political entities where political leaders corruptly filled church offices which were in turn corruptly administered
Gregory implemented the following measures as part of a change of culture in the church from internally individually focussed contemplation to externally organisationally focussed activism to transform the world for the better
THE PAPAL REVOLUTION
Abolition of simony , and lay investitures and appointment by the church of celibate bishops , abbots and priests
Reinvigoration and Christianisation of Roman law in civil and penal matters
Extension of law to constitutional matters giving rise to the constitutional state
The creation of universities with faculties of law and arts embracing the best of Greek and Latin traditions
Launching of programmes of religious change at both an emotional and intellectual level by St Francis 1181-1226 and St Dominic 1170-1221
THE BIRTH OF THE MODERN WORLD
Europe began strong demographic, urban , economic and geopolitical growth
Commenced its long term rise against other world civilisations
Between 1000 and 1500 Europe’s population grew faster than in any other part of the world
There was a doubling of wealth in terms of GDP per capita and Europe had overtaken China by the 14th century
The Eastern Empire ceased to exist -1453
The West was discovered -1492
STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS
Everyone knows that Isaac Newton in 1676
first used this phrase to show his
dependence on earlier scholars
But it was first used for the same reason by
Bernard of Chartres in the early 12th Century
It is to be hoped that this talk has provided
some understanding of the “giant people ,
institutions and processes” of the Middle
ages on whose shoulders modernity stands
NEXT WEEK
An in depth look
illustrated with
pictures and video of
the medieval figure
about whom more
has been written than
any other woman in
history