model of blogging structure for intercultural communication environments in higher education

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Model of blogging structure forintercultural communicationenvironments in higher educationHyung Nam Kim aa The Grado Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 250 DurhamHall Blacksburg VA 24061 USAPublished online 03 Jun 2011

To cite this article Hyung Nam Kim (2012) Model of blogging structure for interculturalcommunication environments in higher education Interactive Learning Environments 206533-546 DOI 101080104948202010539897

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Model of blogging structure for intercultural communication

environments in higher education

Hyung Nam Kim

The Grado Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University 250 Durham Hall Blacksburg VA 24061 USA

(Received 28 May 2009 final version received 26 October 2010)

It is often observed that most international students are less likely to expresstheir opinions in class The lack of communicative engagement has negativeimpacts on studentsrsquo academic performance The objective of this article was toexplore a range of possible explanations for international studentsrsquo lack ofengagement in class discussions and to seek a way to model how an e-toolcould be applied to make international students more comfortable commu-nicating The present study viewed that those studentsrsquo communicationproblems are induced by the following multiple factors a sense of belongingto a minority cultural difference and communication apprehension Blogs werethus suggested to enhance those studentsrsquo communication contexts An idealmodel of blogging interactions between students and teachers was theoreticallyproposed

Keywords intercultural education environment communication blog highereducation

1 Introduction

11 Communication

Todayrsquos higher education environment emphasizes interactive communicationeducators attempt to encourage students to work together in teams In theeducational domain communication helps to create lsquolsquoshared meaningrsquorsquo whenstudents transmit information through discussions (Garvin-Doxas amp Barker2004) Xiao and Carroll (2007) observed that students with outstanding performanceoutcomes tended to focus on learning how to solve a problem or resolve an issue byexpressing and negotiating different views with other students It is clear thatinteraction among learners is a key to a successful learning process The nature of thecommunication climate influences learning environments (Fisher Eckstrom ampByrraju 2008) More specifically a learning environment with a supportivecommunication climate enables students to articulate their understanding andactively participate in a class discussion Defensive communication climates inhibitsocial interaction (Garvin-Doxas amp Barker 2004)

Email hykim7vtedu

Interactive Learning Environments

Vol 20 No 6 December 2012 533ndash546

ISSN 1049-4820 printISSN 1744-5191 online

2012 Taylor amp Francis

httpdxdoiorg101080104948202010539897

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

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12 International students in US higher education

Today an intercultural education environment is not uncommon a typical USclassroom includes students with various backgrounds in terms of culture languageand learning style International student enrollment in the United States has increasedconsistently since the 1950s (Misra amp Castillo 2004) International students nowconstitute a considerable percentage of those enrolled in US higher education (Davis2000) Open Doors 2006 (US Department of Statersquos Bureau of Educational andCultural Affairs 2006) reported that therewere 564766 international students enrolledinUShigher education institutions in the 2005 ndash2006 academic year In physical scienceand engineering fields international students for instance account for 40ndash48 oftotal students at the graduate level (Council of Graduate Schools 2006) The majorityof those international students 58 of total US international enrolments come fromAsia India accounts for most of the students followed by Mainland China with alarge increase in students from the Republic of Korea Hong Kong and Taiwan

13 Research problem

Todayrsquos classes tend to be carried out through cooperative learning strategies inwhich small teams are formed by including those heterogeneous students and use avariety of class activities to facilitate their understanding of a subject All studentsare expected to receive mutual benefits Students can not only learn individually butalso help their peer students It is often observed that most international students areless likely to express their opinions in class Many international students are lesslikely to contribute to communication activities Educators are concerned aboutthose studentsrsquo low levels of communication especially with American students(Brooks amp Adams 2002) Numerous studies have pointed out that the lack ofcommunicative engagement has direct negative impacts on studentsrsquo academicperformance (Boohar amp Seiler 1982 Brooks amp Adams 2002 Daly 1978 FullerVician amp Brown 2006 Garvin-Doxas amp Barker 2004 Jenkins 2000 Mori 2000Onwuegbuzie Bailey amp Daley 1999 Richmond McCroskey amp Scottsdale 1992Sidelinger amp Booth-Butterfield 2010) These studentsrsquo lack of communication inclass remains a major concern to todayrsquos researchers and educators

Based on a review of concurrent educational theories related to internationalstudents communication and e-tools this study seeks a way to model how an e-toolcould be applied to make international students more comfortable communicating inUS higher education settings The objective of the present study was to explore a rangeof possible explanations for international studentsrsquo lack of engagement in commu-nicationwith their peer students in class In addition it aims to theoretically investigatethe extent to which existing educational e-tools facilitate communication amongstudents The following sections present discussions of a theoretical perspective on thelack of communication a trend of studentsrsquo collaborationknowledge sharing throughlearning management systems and Weblogs as a means to foster the communication

2 Theoretical perspective

21 Three components causing the lack of communication

Previous studies have tended to conduct research at a micro level by investigating asingle determinant of international studentsrsquo communication problems This article

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examines these problems on a macro level by comprehensively reviewing multiplerelevant aspects The following section is devoted to discussions of three possiblefactors that might cause international studentsrsquo lack of communication inintercultural education settings Figure 1 illustrates the three factors (1) a senseof belonging to a minority (2) cultural difference and (3) communicationapprehension

22 A sense of belonging to a minority

According to the lsquolsquospiral of silencersquorsquo theory (Noelle-Neumann 1984) people areconcerned about being isolated from a majority group The fear of isolation leadspeople to monitor their social environments for trends in opinion and to searchfor evidence that their opinion is congruent with that of the majority (LeeDetenber Willnat Aday amp Graf 2004 Noelle-Neumann 1984) Individuals whoare aware that their opinions are unpopular or who fear losing public support aremore likely to stay quiet rather than actively express their opinions (Noelle-Neumann 1974) Garvin-Doxas and Barker (2004) examined the conditions underwhich students no longer feel free to engage in spontaneous and equalcommunication According to the results of their study students do not attemptto ask questions or seek assistance since they do not want to be the only one whohas a problem

The present study however acknowledges that there is a group ofinternational students who are unwilling to speak up in front of their peerstudents regardless of the majorityrsquos opinion Kwok Lee and Turban (2001) statethat an individual is treated as a stranger if he or she comes from another cultureBased on Kwokrsquos logic international students might feel like part of a minorityeven before the initiation of class discussion and are therefore motivated to keepquiet

The lsquolsquospiral of silencersquorsquo theory alone may not be enough to explain whyinternational students are less likely to speak up In fact the spiral of silence theorydoes not fully take into account cultural variables While this theory has been studiedin many countries including Germany (Noelle-Neumann 1984) Japan (Ikeda 1989Tokinoya 1989 1996) Korea (Kim Han Shanahan amp Berdayes 2004) and the US(Scheufle 1999) none of these studies has considered intercultural communicationcircumstances as when for instance international students encounter opportunitiesto interact with American students in the same class In the following section thecultural context and communication in the educational contexts are discussed indetail

Figure 1 A theoretical framework of determinants causing the lack of communication ofinternational students in an intercultural class

Interactive Learning Environments 535

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23 Cultural differences

Hofstede (2003) recognized the opposite communication styles of individualism andcollectivism in relation to different cultures In general the US Australia and UKare classified as individualistic cultures while South Korea Taiwan and Singaporeare considered collectivistic cultures (Hofstede 2003 Scheufle amp Moy 2000)Individuals from collectivist cultures are less likely to speak up compared to thosefrom individualistic cultures Furthermore those from collectivist cultures hesitate toexpress their opinions if a stranger from a different culture is present In contrastthose from individualistic cultures emphasize the value of talk and freely verbalizetheir individual needs and wants (Hofstede 2003 Scheufle amp Moy 2000)Consequently it is necessary to consider culturally heterogeneous communicationstyles as another factor hindering international students from speaking out

Hall (1976) explored the diversity of national culture and communication Inparticular he distinguished cultures based on the degree to which individuals definethe culture and depend on it when they communicate and develop relationships withothers His fundamental concept was to categorize cultures into lsquolsquohigh-contextculturesrsquorsquo and lsquolsquolow-context culturesrsquorsquo Individuals in high-context cultures forinstance tend to rely on non-verbal behavior and pay attention to the externalenvironment or situation As a result individuals from high-context cultures highlyvalue an indirect communication style and they consider uncertainty acceptableAsian cultures are typically placed in the category of high-context cultures (Irwin1996) Those in Asian cultures prefer to be non-judgmental listeners by suspendingtheir judgment about the speaker and topics instead of immediately presenting theirthoughts (Irwin 1996) Therefore it is understandable that Asian students oftenremain silent in class Asian students consider themselves part of a group and intendnot to speak up unless the group allows it or a teacher requests a specific student tospeak

Reluctance to speak out however does not mean that these students never speakin class Most international students probably encounter chances to make acomment in class Simultaneously there is the likelihood that an American studentmakes a follow-up comment to the comment of the international student and theAmerican studentrsquos follow-up comment turns out to be different and opposite to theinternational studentrsquos opinion In this regard what can we expect the internationalstudent to do Will the international student actively argue with the Americanstudent In fact international students tend to avoid the conflict of such a situation(Tjosvod amp Fang 2004)

Ting-Toomey (1999) introduced a face-negotiation theory to explain differenttypes of conflict management during intercultural communication The conflict istypically induced by language barriers nonverbal encodingdecoding differences orvalue divergences (Ting-Toomey 1985) According to the face-negotiation theorythe face is referred to as lsquolsquowhat one thinks of oneselfrsquorsquo (ie self-face) or as lsquolsquowhatothers think of onersquos worthrsquorsquo (ie other-face) Mutual-face is a concern for bothParticularly individuals from collectivistic high-context cultures (eg KoreaChina or Japan) have concerns for the mutual face They manage conflict bylsquolsquoavoidingrsquorsquo lsquolsquoobligingrsquorsquo or lsquolsquocompromisingrsquorsquo for themselves and everyone else(Ting-Toomey 1999) Given the understanding of the collectivistic high-contextculturesrsquo conflict management strategy it becomes more understandable why Asianstudents tend to resist arguing with their peer students they prefer to manage any

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conflict by compromising their own opinions for everyone else in class and keepingsilent

24 Communication apprehension

In addition to cultural differences and a sense of belonging toa minoritylanguage proficiency is very likely to be one of the factors keeping internationalstudents from speaking up Zhou Knoke and Sakamoto (2005) pointed out thatstudentsrsquo cultural differences and communication competence are two primarybarriers to participation In particular low proficiency in spoken English of EastAsian students hinders their academic listening and oral presentation perfor-mances a problem that is often cited as lsquolsquoforeign language classroom anxietyrsquorsquo orlsquolsquosecond language anxietyrsquorsquo (Zhou et al 2005) The level of fear or anxietyassociated with either real or anticipated communication is defined as commu-nication apprehension (Crandall amp Ayres 2002) MacIntyre and Gardner (1989)claimed that speaking is the most anxiety-provoking activity associated withsecond language activities For instance it was observed that Chinese students inundergraduate classes were concerned about their ability to express their thoughtsin English which caused studentsrsquo reluctance to participate in discussions (Liu ampLittlewood 1997) It is anticipated that international students suffer fromembarrassment after they use broken English stutter or expose their strongaccents in front of their peer students Fear of embarrassment results in keepinginternational students from voluntarily asking questions or participating indiscussions (Lee 1997)

3 Studentsrsquo collaboration and knowledge sharing via learning management systems

Communication is a crucial skill for students not only in a traditional classroom butalso in a computer-generated space As technology advances todayrsquos studentsbecome more closely tied to the use of e-tools to collaborate with others Almost allhigher education institutions use a wide range of CMC technologies to facilitatestudentsrsquo collaboration and knowledge sharing (Barnes 2003 Park Lee amp Cheong2008) For example a learning management system or virtual learning environment(ie a Web-based server software platform) is often used to support coursemanagement Especially in distance learning contexts instructors attempt tointegrate computer-mediated communication technologies to help students incommunicating and collaborating with their peers (Amponsah 2003 Paulus2007) Todayrsquos students become able to communicate discuss problems or exchangeideas with their peers in more effective ways through distance education systems(Ocker amp Yaverbaum 2001 Poon 2003) Additionally numerous studies highlightthe advantages of computer-mediated communication supporting systems thatparticularly enable to connect people at different times (Kim 2008)

It was however found that the degree to which students use a LearningManagement System or Virtual Learning Environment to communicate with theirpeer students is low (Johnson 2007) Certain students are even unsure that a learningmanagement system or virtual learning environment is helpful to enhance theiracademic performance (Upton 2005) Upton (2005) also reported that althoughcurrent technologies contribute to improved web-based learning settings studentsare unlikely to be voluntarily engaged in the e-learning environment


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4 Enhancement of motivation by blogs

Todayrsquos students become easily dissatisfied with a system requiring too many steps toobtain online information (Maag 2006) When students for example initiatediscussions using one very popular learning management system they need to gothrough several steps such as registration login location of a desired e-classroomand search for proper features to initiate discussion The multiple tasks are morelikely to result in decreased participation Sometimes a bulletin board system can bebuilt (or opened) only by an instructor a limited authority is assigned to a student AWeblog (or lsquolsquoblogrsquorsquo) might be helpful in this circumstance that is the blog isintended to allow users to begin communication by publishing entriescommentswith fewer steps as compared to most discussion board tools Blogs are Web pages inwhich several dated entries are listed in reverse chronological order (HerringScheidt Wright amp Bonus 2005 Kenix 2009) Blogs contain various tools thatenable even non-technical users to effectively and easily use blogs in communicatingonline Blogs are typically designed for individual use and can link to other blogswhich is to stimulate knowledge generation and sharing between blog users (Du ampWagner 2006) A password is required to set up a blog however a blog will notnecessarily enforce any kind of password policy (Edelson 2005) A blog system canenable a user to delegate privileges so heshe can share authority in blogmanagement For instance anonymous internet users can be allowed to writecomments to blog posts A blog is often designed to be an open system

Most existing CMC tools are unable to satisfy the various communication stylesof users Kaye (2007) compared e-tools in terms of a one-way or two-way source ofinformation Most websites are referred to as one-way sources of information inwhich new information is posted but Internet users are not expected to providefeedback or interaction In contrast two-way sources (eg e-mail discussion forumsites and instant messages) allow users to participate and interact with others Of thetwo-way sources discussion forum sites and email both support asynchronouscommunication where users are able to access and reply to messages at theirconvenience Kaye (2007) compared these tools mentioned earlier with blogs Blogssupport a variety of functions that are observed in websites (one-way) discussionforum sites (two-way) and emails (two-way) Blogs are able to serve as both one-wayand two-way methods of communication Accordingly blog users are allowed tochoose their level of participation which will satisfy the needs of different bloggersA blog might provide more flexible educational settings in comparison with othertools (eg website discussion forum site instant message and email) in terms ofcommunication

Todayrsquos e-education system fails to accomplish user-centered system designsCurrent e-education tools are often built in a centralized environment (Dalsgaard2006 Rick amp Lamberty 2005 Weingardt 2004) In other words dispersed Internetusers (ie students) must visit a major hub site (eg a learning management system)to participate in communication In addition students do not even know whetherdiscussion is happening on a learning management system unless they receive anotice from an instructor or regularly visit the site A blog in contrast is designed tobe a decentralized system since bloggers do not need to regularly visit any other blogto check for updates (Montanez 2006) Really simple syndication (RSS) technologyautomatically enables the delivery of updated information to other bloggers who aresubscribed Subscribers receive lists of updates (called RSS feeds) through an RSS

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feed reader A notification appears on a userrsquos computer desktop or on a userrsquos Webbrowser when new content is updated The blogrsquos RSS system might contribute todecentralized settings of todayrsquos e-educational communication tools

5 International studentsrsquo benefits from blogs

As discussed previously international studentsrsquo communication problems are mostlikely to be induced by multiple factors including a sense of belonging to a minoritycultural difference and communication apprehension Blogs would be able tocontribute to the enhancement of international studentsrsquo communication


A blog is a flexible system that supports various types of culture-basedcommunication activities For instance blogs can be both individualistic andcollaborative (Huffaker 2005) Blogs enable users to express highly personalizedcontent In addition blog users are able to transfer their personal messages to otherbloggers through connected online communities Huffaker (2005) pointed out that ablog enables students to own a personal space to represent their own thoughts andread other studentsrsquo entries in a communal blog in which social cohesion isdeveloped by sharing ideas asking questions and answering questions Asianstudents might be more likely to fulfill their discussion participation requirementsthrough an asynchronous communication tool Individuals from a high-contextculture (eg Asian students) prefer to consider their thoughts for some time beforeresponding to others (Irwin 1996) An asynchronous communication format mightbe suitable for them Blogs support asynchronous communication (StroslashmsoslashGroslashttum amp Lycke 2007) Therefore Asian students would have more culturallyappropriate opportunities to express thoughts in blog-based communication settingswhich will help to foster collaboration with their American classmates (Stroslashmsoslashet al 2007)

52 A sense of minority

A blog allows users to communicate with each other without negative social cues(eg identity frowning faces) Students can thus concentrate on a message ratherthan an individual because a blogrsquos asynchronous text-based platform serves as anequalizer of persons (Ocker amp Yaverbaum 2001) Collaboration through computer-mediated environments contributes to extending concepts beyond the offlineclassroom and provides chances for students to feel a sense of belonging to acommunity (Ocker amp Yaverbaum 2001) The sense of belonging helps students tointeract comfortably with peer students and instructors (Beldarrain 2006)


A blogrsquos asynchronous text-based communication allows international students toexpress their thoughts in text By using blogs they will no longer be seriouslyconcerned about being humiliated due to their low spoken English proficiency Thelevel of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication willbe reduced which would result in encouraging international students to voluntarily


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ask questions or participate in e-discussion (Lee 1997) According to Brooks andAdams (2002) a web-based discussion tool (especially a text-based system) is helpfulfor international students communicating in English In fact English education inAsia is primarily focused on written English rather than spoken English (Irwin1996) Blogs provide users with a means to communicate in text Asian students willbe more likely to feel comfortable interacting with American students through theasynchronous text-based e-communication environment of blogs

6 Blog implementations

In a study of Elola and Oskoz (2010) blogs were indeed used as a tool for students inSpain and the United States to develop intercultural communicative competenceTheir study found that blog interactions had a positive effect on the development ofstudentsrsquo intercultural competence Blogs served as an effective means to encouragestudents to closely explore cultural differences and absorb new cultural practices Inaddition 6 months study of disaster reduction and the participation in theinternational conference lsquolsquoNatural Disaster Youth Summitrsquorsquo was conducted with thesupport of the international education and resource network (iEARN) (Naya 2007)Twenty-three schools from Japan and 28 schools from 15 other countriesparticipated in the study The students actively published their blogs to share theirexperiences of an earthquake and to educate those without such an experience andhelp them to be better prepared The online intercultural project positively influencedstudentsrsquo learning practice and attitude It was also observed that some studentsbecame more interested in studying and spent time researching on earthquake evenduring their spare time after school hours Lin et al (2006) incorporated blogs in aninternational distance course between Japan and Taiwan The course was conductedbetween two universities in Japan and Taiwan in which each group of students tookthe course via videoconference systems synchronously A total of 31 students wereenrolled in the course It was revealed that students created over 700 entries by theend of the course Of the 700 entries 535 (76) were directly related to assignmentslecture notes and reflections The blog system successfully supported students incommunicating and collaborating with peers specifically the blog system leveragedstudentsrsquo continuous blogging participation The educational contexts of remoteclassrooms and distance interactions with peers might require a greater need forblogging activity and thus motivate students to use blogs

There might also be other factors that would be successful in promotinginteractivity among students in blog-based educational environments The followingsections are devoted to discussion of these additional factors ownership incentiveand instructorrsquos engagement

61 Ownership

A sense of ownership of a task is more likely to foster voluntary participation inonline discussion (Tolmie amp Boyle 2000) In other words students become activeparticipants in online discussions after they are assigned to serve as a moderator(Murphy 2001 Pena-Shaff Altman amp Stephenson 2005) As a moderator astudent posts organizes and analyzes incoming comments on a bulletin boardwhich can lead to increases in the studentrsquos sense of ownership and help to overcomeany anxiety surrounding participation in online communication (Pena-Shaff et al

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2005) Therefore it is recommended that students should take turns serving asmoderator of a communal blog in addition to their personal blogs With thecondition of increased participation through ownership both international andAmerican students can obtain more opportunities for online communication andcollaboration by contributing to an inclusive learning environment

62 Incentive

An incentive (eg extra credit) might motivate students to participate in onlinediscussions Pena-Shaff et al (2005) claimed that students tended to be motivated toengage in online discussions when credits are assigned to students for participating inonline discussions The incentive system has the potential to increase the likelihoodof ongoing participation among students

63 Instructorrsquos engagement

The instructorrsquos engagement in online discussions might also positively influencestudentsrsquo online participation Moore (1989) claimed that engagement betweenlearners and instructors via communication supporting tools is critical instimulating encouraging and motivating the learnersrsquo responses Instructorsrsquoengagement (eg moderation encouragement and leadership) must be regarded asan important factor to achieve successful online collaboration (Anderson RourkeGarrison amp Archer 2001 Feenberg 1989 Nalley 1995) Particularly a recent study(Churchill 2009) investigated the use of blogs for a class of college students for onesemester Particularly blogging activities of students and teachers were investigatedthrough observations interviews and questionnaires Most students (92) agreedthat the instructorrsquos blogging activity served as a motivating factor for them to getinvolved in blogging None of students disagreed to the following item lsquolsquoI wasblogging because the facilitator was blogging as wellrsquorsquo Students responded that theywould not continue blogging in the future on their own unless a facilitator(instructor) requests to do so Leslie and Murphy (2008) studied the blogginginteractions between teachers and students from a womenrsquos college in the UnitedArab Emirates and claimed that limited teaching presence accounts for studentsrsquolack of engagement especially in knowledge construction The primary aim of usingblogs in educational contexts is to facilitate studentsrsquo knowledge acquisitions in thisregard the instructorrsquos engagement is necessary

7 Blogging models

In general many educators create their own blogs and instructstudents to visit theeducatorrsquos blog which is a centralizededucational environment (Fisher 2010Kuropatwa 2010) (see Figure 2) Each student also has his or her own blog Almosteverything is performed under the supervision of a single instructor Such a networkstructure is not entirely different from todayrsquos physical educational settings and it isdifficult to deliver benefits to international students Certain instructors do not evenprovide blogs to students (Chrissy 2010 Gonzalez 2010 Langhorst 2010 Oakes2010 Pseudonym 2010b)

Another blogging structure used by many educators is that an instructorfacilitates blogging activities but does not push students to make comments on the


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instructorrsquos blog (see Figure 3) Instructors participate in blogging as a participantwith equal power to the students There is no hub site where everyone shares ideas(Delwiche 2010 Mejias 2010 Mide 2010 Pseudonym 2010a San Diego StateUniversity 2010) therefore all bloggers need to travel to each site to perform certainblogging activities such as posting a comment

Finally this article proposes the model of blogging especially for interculturalcommunication illustrated in Figure 4 A communal blog is set up so that everyonecan post comments on the shared space as well as post on their own personal blogsThe communal blog must be fully accessible to anyone including students andinstructors As a moderator a student posts organizes and analyzes incomingcomments on the communal blog which will lead to increases in the studentrsquos senseof ownership and help to overcome hisher anxiety concerning participation inonline communication In addition an instructorrsquos engagement must be ensured toencourage studentsrsquo online participation A certain type of incentive such as extracredit should be incorporated to motivate ongoing participation among students

Figure 2 Centralized structure of blogs

Figure 3 Blogging structure without a communal blog

Figure 4 A proposed blog model for international students

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American students are also expected to be encouraged to participate in blogging withinternational students

8 Conclusion

Many of todayrsquos educators tend to rely on a centralized educational setting in whicha class is led by a lecturer and students passively follow It is often observed thatinternational students are less likely to participate in class activities successfullySuch a challenging educational environment is even extended to online for examplethere is only one hub blog controlled by a teacher and students have to visit the siteThe primary objective of this study was to seek to develop a model of an inclusivelearning environment In the inclusive learning environment even students fromhigh-context cultures (eg Asia) could successfully communicate and work togetherwith their American peer students

In summary this study has presented an argument to take advantage of the blogas a social network system The blog has the potential to improve internationalstudentsrsquo communication by resolving the issues of cultural differences a sense ofbelonging to a minority and communication apprehension A blogging model wasaccordingly proposed to foster the communication of international students Forinstance a communal blog should be available to allow international students toengage in public interactions with other peer students a personal blog should also beavailable to reduce any anxiety with regard to the interactions with other studentsAdditional factors such as ownership incentive and instructorrsquos engagement wouldalso facilitate the blogging activities of international students

Notes on contributor

Dr Hyung Nam Kim is a Human Factors researcher at Virginia Tech Dr Kimrsquos research isfocused on Human Factors and HumanndashComputer Interaction He received his PhD inindustrial and systems engineering from Virginia Tech in 2010

References

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Anderson T Rourke L Garrison DR amp Archer W (2001) Assessing teaching presencein a computer conferencing context Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 5 1ndash17

Barnes SB (2003) Computer-mediated communication Human-to-human communicationacross the Internet Boston MA Allyn and Bacon

Beldarrain Y (2006) Distance education trends Integrating new technologies to fosterstudent interaction and collaboration Distance Education 27 139ndash153

Boohar RK amp Seiler WJ (1982) Speech communication anxiety An impediment toacademic achievement in the university classroom Journal of Classroom Interaction 1823ndash27

Brooks G amp Adams M (2002) Spoken English proficiency and academic performance Isthere a relationship and if so how do we teach In Celebrating teaching at Macquairie 2002(pp 1ndash6) Sydney Australia CPD amp CFL Macquairie University

Chrissy T (2010) The secret life of bees Retrieved from httpweblogshcrhsk12njusbeesChurchill D (2009) Educational applications of Web 20 Using blogs to support teaching

and learning British Journal of Educational Technology 40 179ndash183Council of Graduate Schools (2006) Diversity up for grad students Retrieved from http

wwwcgsnetorg


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Crandall HM amp Ayres J (2002) Communication apprehension and the spiral of silenceJournal of the Northwest Communication Association 31 27ndash39

Dalsgaard C (2006) Social software E-learning beyond learning management systemsEuropean Journal of Open Distance and E-Learning Retrieved December 8 2010 fromhttpwwweurodlorgmaterialscontrib2006Christian_Dalsgaardhtm

Daly JA (1978) Writing apprehension and writing competency Journal of EducationResearch 72 10ndash14

Davis TM (2000)What about the workers Academic staff opinion about working with non-UKpostgraduate students in higher education New York Institute of International Education

Delwiche A (2010) COMM 3344 Games for the web Interactive multimedia Retrieved fromhttpwwwtrinityeduadelwichmmoindexhtml

Du HS amp Wagner C (2006) Weblog success Exploring the role of technologyInternational Journal of Human-Computer Studies 64 789ndash798

Edelson E (2005) Open-source blogs Computer Fraud amp Security 2005(6) 8ndash10Elola I amp Oskoz A (2010) Blogging Fostering intercultural competence development

in foreign language and study abroad contexts Foreign Language Annals 41 454ndash477Feenberg A (1989) The written world In RMason amp AKaye (Eds) Mindweave

Communication computers and distance education (pp 22ndash39) Oxford Pergamon PressFisher C (2010) Excellence and imagination Retrieved from httpmr-fisheredublogsorgFisher JR Eckstrom D amp Byrraju JS (2008) Communication and connectedness in the

high school classroom In RAOglesby amp MGAdams (Eds) Business research yearbookGlobal business perspectives (pp 595ndash600) Baltimore MD International Academy ofBusiness Disciplines

Fuller RM Vician C amp Brown SA (2006) E-learning and individual characteristics Therole of compute anxiety and communication apprehension The Journal of ComputerInformation Systems 46 103ndash116

Garvin-Doxas K amp Barker LJ (2004) Communication in computer science classroomsUnderstanding defensive climates as a means of creating supportive behaviors Journal ofEducational Resources in Computing 4 1ndash18

Gonzalez A (2010) Mr Gonzalezrsquos science classes Retrieved from httpclassblogmeistercomblogphpblogger_id frac14 4771

Hall ET (1976) Beyond culture Garden City New York Anchor PressHerring SC Scheidt LA Wright E amp Bonus S (2005) Weblogs as a bridging genre

Information Technology amp People 18 142ndash171Hofstede G (2003) Cultures and organizations Intercultural cooperation and its importance

for survival software of mind London Profile BooksHuffaker D (2005) The educated blogger Using weblogs to promote literacy in the

classroom AACE Journal 13 91ndash98Ikeda K (1989) lsquolsquoSpiral of silencersquorsquo hypothesis and voting intention A test in the 1986

Japanese national election KEIO Communication Review 10 51ndash62Irwin H (1996) Communicating with Asia Understanding people and customs St Leonards

NSW Australia Allen amp UnwinJenkins S (2000) Cultural and linguistic miscues A case study of international teaching

assistant and academic faculty miscommunication International Journal of InterculturalRelations 24 477ndash501

Johnson H (2007) Dialogue and the construction of knowledge in E-learning Exploringstudentsrsquo perceptions of their learning while using Blackboardrsquos asynchronous discussionboard European Journal of Open Distance and E-Learning Retrieved December 8 fromhttpwwweurodlorgmaterialscontrib2007Henry_Johnsonhtm

Kaye BK (2007) Blog use motivations An exploratory study In MTremayne (Ed)Blogging citizenship and the future of media (pp 127ndash148) New York Routledge

Kenix LJ (2009) Blogs as alternative Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 14790ndash822

Kim HN (2008) The phenomenon of blogs and theoretical model of blog use in educationalcontexts Computers amp Education 51 1342ndash1352

Kim S-H Han M Shanahan J amp Berdayes V (2004) Talking on lsquoSunshine in NorthKorearsquo A test of the spiral of silence as a theory of powerful mass media InternationalJournal of Public Opinion Research 16 39ndash62

544 HN Kim

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h C

olum

bia]

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ober

201

4

Kuropatwa D (2010) AP calculus AB Retrieved from httpapcalc06blogspotcomKwok R Lee M amp Turban E (2001) On inter-organizational EC collaboration - The

impact of inter-cultural communication apprehension In Proceedings of the 34th AnnualHawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-34) (pp 1011ndash1018) Vol 1Washington DC IEEE Computer Society

Langhorst E (2010) The guerrilla season book blog Retrieved from httpwwwguerrillaseasonblogspotcom

Lee DS (1997) What teachers can do to relieve problems identified by internationalstudents New Directions for Teaching and Learning 70 93

Lee W Detenber BH Willnat L Aday S amp Graf J (2004) A cross-cultural test of thespiral of silence theory in Singapore and the United States Asian Journal ofCommunication 14 205ndash226

Leslie P amp Murphy E (2008) Post-secondary studentsrsquo purposes for blogging InternationalReview of Research in Open and Distance Learning 9 1ndash17

LinW Yueh H Liu Y MurakamiM Kakusho K ampMinoh M (2006) Blog as a tool todevelop e-learning experience in an international distance course In Proceedings of theSixth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT rsquo06)(pp 290ndash292) Washington DC IEEE Computer Society

Liu NF amp Littlewood W (1997) Why do many students appear reluctant to participate inclassroom learning discourse System 25 371ndash384

Maag M (2006) Podcasting and MP3 players Emerging education technologies CINComputers Informatics Nursing 24(1) 9ndash13

MacIntyre PD amp Gardner RC (1989) Investigating language class anxiety using theforced essay technique The Mordern Language Journal 75 296ndash304

Mejias U (2010) Social software affordances Retrieved from httpssa05blogspotcomMide J (2010) Mr Hidersquos class Retrieved from httpmrhide7blogspotcomMisra R amp Castillo LG (2004) Academic stress among college students Comparison of

American and international students International Journal of StressManagement 11 132ndash148Montanez N (2006) Improved annotation of the blogosphere via autotagging and

hierarchical clustering In Proceedings of the 15th international conference on WorldWide Web (pp 625ndash632) New York NY ACM Press

Moore MG (1989) Three types of interaction The American Journal of Distance Education3 1ndash7

Mori S (2000) Addressing the mental health concerns of international students Journal ofCounseling and Development 78 137ndash144

Murphy KL (2001) Buy-in to online courses Reflections from e-learnersrsquo journal papers InWebNet 2001 World Conference on the WWW and Internet Proceedings (pp 1ndash8)Chesapeake VA AACE

Nalley R (1995) Designing computer-mediated conferencing into instruction In ZL Bergeamp MP Collins (Eds) Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom inhigher education (Vol II pp 11ndash23) Cresskill NJ Hampton Press

Naya Y (2007) How intercultural disaster reduction education change students A case studyof an evening course senior high school in Hyogo Japan In Proceedings of the 1stinternational conference on intercultural collaboration (pp 368ndash381) Kyoto JapanSpringer-Verlag

Noelle-Neumann E (1974) The spiral of silence A theory of public opinion Journal ofCommunication 24 43ndash51

Noelle-Neumann E (1984) The spiral of silence Public opinion ndash our social skin ChicagoUniversity of Chicago Press

Oakes C (2010) Room 208 Retrieved from httpbobspranklecomblogOcker RJ amp Yaverbaum GJ (2001) Collaborative learning environments Exploring

student attitudes and satisfaction in face-to-face and asynchronous computer conferencingsettings Journal of Interactive Learning Research 12 427ndash448

Onwuegbuzie A Bailey P amp Daley CE (1999) Factors associated with foreign languageanxiety Applied Psycholinguistics 20 217ndash239

Park N Lee KM amp Cheong PH (2008) University instructorsrsquo acceptance of electroniccourseware An application of the technology acceptance model Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13 163ndash186


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ober

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Paulus T (2007) CMCModes for learning tasks at a distance Journal of Computer-MediatedCommunication 12 1322ndash1345

Pena-Shaff J Altman W amp Stephenson H (2005) Asynchronous online discussions as atool for learning Studentsrsquo attitudes expectations and perceptions Journal of InteractiveLearning Research 16 409

Poon AK (2003) A challenge for the developer Issues of interactivity and linguistic-cognitive appropriateness in English language learning Open Learning 18 135ndash153

Pseudonym (2010a) Blogical minds Retrieved from httpitcblogscommindsPseudonym (2010b) Second opinion Retrieved from httpwwwuniongroveblogspotcomRichmond VP McCroskey JC amp Scottsdale AZ (1992) Communication apprehension

avoidance and effectiveness (5th ed) Upper Saddle River NJ Allyn amp BaconRick J amp Lamberty KK (2005) Medium-based design Extending a medium to create an

exploratory learning environment Interactive Learning Environments 13 179ndash212San Diego State University (2010) EDTEC 296 Spring 2005 Retrieved from http

edwebsdsueducoursesedtec296blogsindexhtmlScheufle DA (1999) Discussion or dispute An exploratory study examining dimensions of

public opinion expression International Journal of Public Opinion Research 11 24ndash58Scheufle DA ampMoy P (2000) Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence A conceptual review

and empirical outlook International Journal of Public Opinion Research 12 (1) 3ndash28Sidelinger RJ amp Booth-Butterfield M (2010) Co-constructing student involvement An

examination of teacher confirmation and student-to-student connectedness in the collegeclassroom Communication Education 59 165ndash184

Stroslashmsoslash HI Groslashttum P amp Lycke KH (2007) Content and processes in problem-basedlearning A comparison of computer-mediated and face-to-face communication Journal ofComputer Assisted Learning 23 271ndash182

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Ting-Toomey S (1999) Communication across cultures New York The Guilford PressTjosvod D amp Fang SS (2004) Cooperative conflict management as a basis for training

students in China Theory Info Practice 43 80ndash86Tokinoya H (1989) Testing the spiral of silence in East Asia KEIO Communication Review

10 35ndash49Tokinoya H (1996) A study on the spiral of silence theory in Japan KEIO Communication

Review 18 33ndash45Tolmie A amp Boyle J (2000) Factors influencing the success of computer mediated

communication (CMC) environments in university teaching A review and case studyComputers amp Education 34 119ndash140

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US Department of Statersquos Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (2006) Open Doors2006 Report on International Educational Exchange Institute of InternationalEducation

Weingardt KR (2004) The role of instructional design and technology in the disseminationof empirically supported manual-based therapies Clinical Psychology Science amp Practice11 313ndash331

Xiao L amp Carroll JM (2007) Fostering an informal learning community of computertechnologies at school Behaviour amp Information Technology 26 23ndash36

Zhou YR Knoke D amp Sakamoto I (2005) Rethinking silence in the classroom Chinesestudentsrsquo experiences of sharing indigenous knowledge International Journal of InclusiveEducation 9 287ndash311

546 HN Kim

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ober

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4

Model of blogging structure for intercultural communication

environments in higher education

Hyung Nam Kim

The Grado Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University 250 Durham Hall Blacksburg VA 24061 USA

(Received 28 May 2009 final version received 26 October 2010)

It is often observed that most international students are less likely to expresstheir opinions in class The lack of communicative engagement has negativeimpacts on studentsrsquo academic performance The objective of this article was toexplore a range of possible explanations for international studentsrsquo lack ofengagement in class discussions and to seek a way to model how an e-toolcould be applied to make international students more comfortable commu-nicating The present study viewed that those studentsrsquo communicationproblems are induced by the following multiple factors a sense of belongingto a minority cultural difference and communication apprehension Blogs werethus suggested to enhance those studentsrsquo communication contexts An idealmodel of blogging interactions between students and teachers was theoreticallyproposed

Keywords intercultural education environment communication blog highereducation

1 Introduction

11 Communication

Todayrsquos higher education environment emphasizes interactive communicationeducators attempt to encourage students to work together in teams In theeducational domain communication helps to create lsquolsquoshared meaningrsquorsquo whenstudents transmit information through discussions (Garvin-Doxas amp Barker2004) Xiao and Carroll (2007) observed that students with outstanding performanceoutcomes tended to focus on learning how to solve a problem or resolve an issue byexpressing and negotiating different views with other students It is clear thatinteraction among learners is a key to a successful learning process The nature of thecommunication climate influences learning environments (Fisher Eckstrom ampByrraju 2008) More specifically a learning environment with a supportivecommunication climate enables students to articulate their understanding andactively participate in a class discussion Defensive communication climates inhibitsocial interaction (Garvin-Doxas amp Barker 2004)

Email hykim7vtedu

Interactive Learning Environments

Vol 20 No 6 December 2012 533ndash546

ISSN 1049-4820 printISSN 1744-5191 online

2012 Taylor amp Francis

httpdxdoiorg101080104948202010539897

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

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13 Research problem






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ober

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536 HN Kim

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957

28

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ober

201

4








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ober

201

4





538 HN Kim

Dow

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by [

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ity o

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ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

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ober

201

4











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ober

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4





61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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by [

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at 0

957

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ober

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4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




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ober

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542 HN Kim

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957

28

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ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


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ober

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544 HN Kim

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ober

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4


























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ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

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by [

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ity o

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olum

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at 0

957

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Oct

ober

201

4



13 Research problem






534 HN Kim

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nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

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ober

201

4








Dow

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by [

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ity o

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h C

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957

28

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ober

201

4






536 HN Kim

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nloa

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by [

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ity o

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olum

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28

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ober

201

4








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ober

201

4





538 HN Kim

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28

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ober

201

4











Dow

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ober

201

4





61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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by [

The

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olum

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ober

201

4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

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by [

The

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olum

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ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

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The

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ober

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4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


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544 HN Kim

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ober

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ober

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546 HN Kim

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ober

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ober

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538 HN Kim

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ober

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4











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61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




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ober

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8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


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ober

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ober

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536 HN Kim

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ober

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ober

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4





538 HN Kim

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ober

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4











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ober

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4





61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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nloa

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by [

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ity o

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olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

nloa

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by [

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ity o

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olum

bia]

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957

28

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ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

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by [

The

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ity o

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olum

bia]

at 0

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28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

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ober

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4


























544 HN Kim

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by [

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ober

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4


























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ober

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4























546 HN Kim

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at 0

957

28

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ober

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4








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ober

201

4





538 HN Kim

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by [

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h C

olum

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at 0

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28

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ober

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4











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28

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ober

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61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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nloa

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by [

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ity o

f B

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h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

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4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

nloa

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by [

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28

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ober

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542 HN Kim

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by [

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at 0

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28

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ober

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8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

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544 HN Kim

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4


























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546 HN Kim

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at 0

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28

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ober

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538 HN Kim

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61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

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by [

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ity o

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bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

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4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

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by [

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28

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542 HN Kim

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by [

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at 0

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28

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ober

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8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

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544 HN Kim

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vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4











Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4





61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4





61 Ownership


540 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


62 Incentive




7 Blogging models




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4






542 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


8 Conclusion





References









wwwcgsnetorg


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























544 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4


























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4























546 HN Kim

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f B

ritis

h C

olum

bia]

at 0

957

28

Oct

ober

201

4

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