Modern European History IIHIS-107

Unit 5 – Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871-1914

Imperialism Definitions

The process of extending one state’s control over another

Formal imperialism Colonialism or direct control Colonizing countries annexed territories outright Established new governments

Informal imperialism Conquering nations reached agreements with

indigenous leaders and governed through them Allowed weaker state to maintain its independence while

reducing its sovereignty Carving out zones of European sovereignty and privilege

Imperialism “Old imperialism”

Maritime and mercantile Mostly done through informal imperialism

“New imperialism” Arose during the 19th century with the Industrial

Revolution Focused more on formal imperialism Demand for raw materials Built up newly acquired territories to make them

more productive Aspired towards political and territorial domination Exerted influence on governments already in place

Imperialism Nineteenth-century imperialism

Appeared against the backdrop of industrialization, liberal revolutions, and the rise of nation-states

The need for raw materials Bringing progress to the world Imperialists sought to distance themselves from

earlier histories of conquest Guided more by “settlement and discipline” than

independent entrepreneurial activity Colonial resistance and rebellion forced Europeans to

develop new strategies of rule British granted self-government to Canada, Australia, and

New Zealand 19th empires established carefully codified racial

hierarchies

Imperialism Why the change over?

After 1875, Europe was dominant both economically and militarily

Non-European states were entering a period of decline Included the Ottomans, Persians, Chinese, and Japanese

No longer had to bow down to the existing governments in non-European states Europeans had military capabilities that the non-

Europeans did not possess Battles were typically one-sided in favor of the Europeans Because of this, non-Europeans were forced to accept

either a new government or a European “advisor”

Incentives and Motives There were many incentives for taking new

colonies Acquisition of raw materials

Europeans were used to a certain quality of life Many goods were only available from tropical regions

Included tea, coffee, coconuts and jute (used in ropes and bags)

Neomercantilism Push for the creation of new markets Wanted to create favorable balance of trade

Raised tariffs to prevent buying of imports Used raw materials from colonies to make domestic goods

Goal: to accumulate as much wealth as possible

Incentives and Motives The profit motive

Investments in non-European countries brought a higher rate of return

Natives provided cheap labor Strategic and nationalist motives

International rivalries fueled the belief that national interests were at stake

The French supported imperialism as a means of restoring national honor

The British worried about German and French industrialization and losing world markets

The link between imperialism and nation-building

Incentives and Motives Socialist critics

J. A. Hobson (1858–1940), Imperialism (1902) Imperialism was driven by a small group of financiers International capitalists Investors sought out secure investment opportunities in

colonies The manufacturing, military, and armaments interest

Lenin (1870–1924) Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917) Imperialism as an essential stage in the development of

capitalism Demand for raw materials made colonization a necessary

investment The internal contradictions of capitalism produced imperialism The overthrow of capitalism would check imperialism

Incentives and Motives Profits were a huge incentive to countries like

Britain and France 1/8 of the Britain’s wealth was invested in

overseas colonies France had 1/10

Most of the wealth was targeted to Egypt, South Africa and Asia

Did invest in eastern Europe as well by supplying Russia with loans

Germany was the only major country not heavily investing in colonies What little was invested went to the Ottoman

Empire, Africa, and China

Incentives and Motives Another motive was national security

This was tied in to the economic well-being of the country Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914) believed that Britain

should be “a great self-sustaining and self-protecting empire” With economic profits, the country could look after its population Wanted to strengthen the empire through economic controls

Did the working class benefit from imperialism? Somewhat Higher wages due to the inflow of low-priced colonial goods Left a higher standard of living Did not produce the angry proletariat class the Marxists

were hoping for

Incentives and Motives Imperialism was also seen as a crusade

A way for the white man to “civilize” the natives Strengthened by the concept of Social Darwinism

That whites were “more fit” than other races Many traveled to the colonies not so much for

profit but to improve the lives of the native populations This included building schools and hospitals

This “humanitarianism” was still tied to European self-interests

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire in the 1850s

Very diverse population Mix of religions

Different forms of Islam including orthodox and Wahhabis Jews and Greek Orthodox Christians who always lived in

this region Ruling class were the Turks and majority were

Muslims Muslims followed their own laws Jews and Christians had their own separate system

of laws and government Disputes between Europeans were held in European courts Disputes between a European and a Muslim were held in a

Muslim court but with a European observer

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire There was no sense of national unity The “sick man of Europe” during the 1850s

Russia took the Caucasus and Crimea France occupied Algeria Both Serbia and Greece received some form of

independence Wahhabis were gaining control over most of Arabia

The effects of the Crimean War (1854-1856) Nationalism that bolstered Europe was going to

start affecting the Ottomans Even though they were on the winning side, the

war exposed its political and military weaknesses

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Hatt-I Humayun (1856)

Ottoman’s attempt at major reform throughout the empire Created national citizenship for all persons inside the

empire Abolished the civil authority of religious hierarchies Guaranteed equality before the law Opened up government and army positions to non-

Muslims Led to a period of Ottoman revival

For 20 years, the reform movement grew There was some resistance but was not effective

The new sultan Abdülhamid II even proclaimed a new constitution in 1876

Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Repression after 1876

While he initially supported the reform measures, Abdülhamid II became an autocratic ruler

Became increasingly paranoid of westerners and reformers

Instituted a period of repression lasting his entire regime Many were forced to leave the empire

Young Turks fled to Europe in hopes of again returning to Europe to dethrone Abdul the Damned

Others put up some form of resistance Included Armenians, Bulgars, Macedonians, and Cretans April Uprising (1876) led to the massacre of thousands of

Bulgarians Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896) led to the death of at least

80,000 Armenians

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Europeans were shocked at what was taking

place in the Empire At the same time, the thought of a reformed,

newly invigorated Empire was not what the Europeans had wanted

Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) Fought mainly in the Caucuses and the Balkans Russia hoped to regain its territories lost in the

Crimean War Also played on the growing pan-Slavism of the

time and the April Uprisings in Bulgaria Russia easily defeated the Turks

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Treaty of San Stefano (1878)

Ottomans recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro

Also recognized the autonomy of Bulgaria The Great Powers were not enthralled with

this arrangement Threw off the balance of power in eastern Europe

in favor of the Russians Britain was especially fearful of Russian influence

over the Middle East now that it was a major stockholder in the Suez Canal

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Congress of Berlin (1878)

Organized by the Great Powers to reorganize the Balkans

Designed to prevent an Anglo-Russian War Illustrated the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire Conditions included those set down in the Treaty of San

Stefano but: A much smaller Bulgaria Territory going to Austria-Hungary and Russia Macedonia was returned to the Turks who promised reform

Not everyone was satisfied with the outcome Russia was annoyed at Europe for taking away key

territories it had gained, including influence over Bulgaria

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Egypt was technically autonomous in the Empire During the 1850s and 60s, Egypt worked on

economic development and reform Modernized its infrastructure and legal system Allowed the French to build the Suez Canal Borrowed most of the money for these reforms from

Britain and France By 1879, Egypt was in economic distress due to

its debts Paid off some by selling shares of the Suez Canal to

Britain The current khedive, Ismail Pasha, was forced to

abdicate under pressure from Britain and France

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Nationalism sparked during this period

Mainly in resentment to the growing influence of foreigners

Led by Colonel Arabi, riots broke out in Alexandria Britain responded by sending troops into Egypt

and defeating Arabi Included a naval bombardment of Alexandria in

1882 Troops were to remain only temporarily but stayed

until 1956 Britain supported a puppet government led by

Tewfik Pasha Egypt became a British protectorate

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire France was upset about the presence of the British

in Egypt Concentrated its efforts on Algeria setting up a colony

there It also set up protectorates in Tunisia and in Morocco

End of Abdülhamid’s Reign (1909) A Young Turk revolution broke out in the summer of

1908 Called for an end to repression and a promise for liberal

reforms Abdülhamid agreed to implement the 1876 constitution In April 1909, he led a counter-revolution against the

Young Turks The government finally deposed of him on April 27, 1909

Africa in 1870

Scramble for Africa Prior to 1870, Africa was a mysterious continent

that had yet to reveal its secrets to the Europeans During this period, Scot David Livingstone and

journalist H.M. Stanley explored the innermost regions of the continent Travelled along the Zambezi River and “discovered” Victoria

Falls Stanley realized the economic opportunities of Africa

and went back to Europe looking for financial backers Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909)

Believed that overseas colonies would make Belgium a great state

Worked with Stanley to gain colonies for Belgium

Scramble for Africa International Congo Association (1878)

Set up by Leopold II, Stanley, and a few financiers Private enterprise Stanley traveled to western Africa

Signed treaties with local elites Opened the Congo to commercial exploitation (palm oil,

rubber, diamonds)

This led a flurry of other explorers and financiers to lay claims to the lands in inland Africa Germans began claiming east Africa French began traveling down the Congo River as well There was a mindset of get it before someone else

claimed it

Scramble for Africa Berlin Conference of 1885

Called for by Bismarck Goals:

Set up the territories of the Congo Association as an international state

Draft a code governing the way Europeans were to acquire territory in Africa

The Congo would be open to free trade and commerce Terms for claiming territory:

Those with coastal claims also had claims to inland territories

Must have boundaries on paper and troops or administrators in place

Formal notice must be given to the other European powers over what territories were being claimed

Scramble for Africa The Congo Free State

Actually run by Leopold’s private company Slave trade was to be suppressed in favor of free

labor Leopold cared more about profits than the

people Focused on rubber, which was in huge demand in

Europe and the U.S. Created inhuman working conditions by using forced

labor and pushing for high quotas on materials Led to the deaths of 2-15 million natives Rubber supply was eventually wiped out

Scramble for Africa In 1908, the Belgian government took control

of the Congo Done mainly in response to the atrocities

committed Made the Congo a Belgian colony

Between 1885 and 1900 most of Africa was claimed by a European nation Germany focused on central Africa

Took Cameroon and Tanzania Britain took positions in the north and south and

then moved inland France moved from west Africa towards the east

Africa in 1914

Scramble for Africa The scramble for territory was going to lead to

conflicts with the natives First Italo-Ethopian War (1895-1896)

Only time a native population was able to defeat European colonizing forces

Battle of Adowa (March 1, 1896) 80,000 Ethiopians defeated the 20,000 Italian forces

that were attempting to move inland Ethiopians were being assisted by Russia

Kept European powers from trying to establish colonies there for over 40 years

Scramble for Africa Britain

In Egypt, Britain attempted to conquer the Upper Nile Also attempted to conquer southern and eastern Africa Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902)

Made a fortune from South African diamond mines (DeBeers) Prime minister of Cape Colony (1890) Personal goal was to build an African empire founded on

diamonds Carved out territories in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and

Botswana The “Cape-to-Cairo” railway

Designed to transect Africa Purpose of colonization was to make Britain self-

sufficient

Scramble for Africa The French in Algeria

Algeria as a settler state Utopian socialist communities Exiled revolutionaries of 1848 Winegrowers Not all settlers were French

Under the Third Republic (1870), Algeria was made a department of France Gave French settlers full rights of republican citizenship Consolidated privileges Disenfranchised indigenous populations Differentiated “good” Berbers and “bad” Arabs

Scramble for Africa After 1870: the “civilizing mission”

Reinforcing the purpose of the French republic and French prestige

Jules Ferry (1832–1893), argued for expansion into Indochina

French acquired Tunisia in 1881 Federation of French West Africa (1893)

Rationalizing the economic exploitation of the area “Enhancing the value” of the region Public programs served French interests only

Scramble for Africa Germany

Bismarck was a reluctant colonizer Did not enter the “race” until the 1880s Established colonies in German East Africa, the

Cameroons, and Togo With the scramble, it was clear that the

European powers were going to come into conflict with one another French and Germans had colonies along an east-

west route Britain focused on a north-south route

Scramble for Africa Fashoda Crisis (1898)

Britain and France faced one another for dominance of Africa

General Kitchner was conquering the Nile for Britain Came upon French troops under Captain J.B. Marchand at

Fashoda France eventually backed down for fear of Germany’s

growing power both in Europe and in Africa Afrikaners (Boers)

Dutch and Swiss settlers who had arrived in the early nineteenth century

Troubled relationship with the British in South Africa Set up two free states: Transvaal and the Orange Free

State

Scramble for Africa When diamonds were discovered in Transvaal,

the government refused to pass legislation allowing mining companies into the republic

Jameson Raid (1895) Rhodes sent in Dr. Leeander Jameson with a party

of armed irregulars into Transvaal to spark a British uprising

It failed German Kaiser William II sent the infamous

“Kruger telegram” to Transvaal president Paul Kruger Congratulated him on driving off the British without the

use of German aid

Scramble for Africa Second Boer War (1899-1902)

British army was completely unprepared for war British government refused to compromise The British eventually seized Pretoria A guerilla war dragged on for three years British used concentration camps where Afrikaner

citizens were rounded up 120,000 women and children were sent to the camps Around 20,000 died

In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created British and Boers shared power

Boers in a British concentration camp

European Colonies (c. 1900)

Imperialism in Asia Both British India and the Dutch East India

colonies were profitable They continuously exported more goods than they

imported Developed high level bureaucracies

These were good for providing government jobs to the middle- and upper-classes

The ideal form of colony for the Europeans

Dutch East Indies By 1815, the Dutch only controlled Java

However, incursions by the other European countries into the region forced the Dutch to seek greater claims in the East Indies

They laid claim to the entire archipelago “Culture System” (aka Cultivation System)

20% of village land was dedicated to crops to be exported

Form of taxation system Led to a 14% increase in exports Helped to bring the Netherlands out of the brink of

bankruptcy

India and the British Empire The “Jewel of the British Crown” The British East India Company

Had its own military divided into European and Indian divisions

Held the right to collect taxes on land from Indian peasants

Held legal monopolies over trade in all goods (the most lucrative was opium)

Constituted a military and repressive government Offered economic privileges to those who allied

themselves with the British against others

India and the British Empire British policy divided

One group wanted to westernize India Another thought it safer and more practical to

defer to local culture There were many social, economic, and

political grievances Did not like the repressive British policies Resented that those who were pro-British received

the better benefits British were against many of the Indian traditions

Included an end to widow burning and suppression of the Thuggee cult (criminal assassin “caste”)

India and the British Empire The Sepoy Rebellion (1857–1858)

Sepoys were the native Indian troops that made up around 5/6th of the British Indian army

Already unhappy with terms of their service being changed Company had terminated their pensions and forced them to

serve in unfamiliar regions Rumors spread that the British were greasing gun

cartridges with pig and cow fat The new cartridges needed to be bitten open Agitated the Muslim and Hindu soldiers

Uprising began near Delhi Indian peasants attacked law courts and burned tax

rolls Hindu and Muslim leaders denounced Christian

missionaries

India and the British Empire The British response

Systematic campaign of repression Rebel-supported towns and villages were

destroyed Reorganizing the Indian empire

New strategies of British rule East India Company was abolished British raj governed directly Military reorganization Queen Victoria as empress of India Reform of the civil service Missionary activity subdued

India and the British Empire India and Britain

India as Britain’s largest export market India provided Britain with highly trained

engineers and bureaucrats 1.2 million Indian troops fought with the British in

World War I British indirect rule sought to create an Indian elite

to serve British interests Large social group of British-educated Indian civil

servants and businessmen Provided the leadership for an Indian nationalist

movement

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi One of the key

leaders of the Sepoy rebellion

The “Great Game” Russian colonization was through a policy of

annexation Southern colonization

Georgia (1801) Bessarabia, Turkestan, and Armenia Brought Russia and Britain close to war, especially

over Afghanistan The “Great Game”

Represented the jockeying taking place between Britain and Russia over the central Asia

The “Game” was played out dramatically in Persia

The “Great Game” Control over Persia

Both Russia and Britain sought to control the region This was especially the case after 1900 when oil was

discovered there They each provided the Persian government with

loans that were to be paid back through collection of tariffs at Persian ports

Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1906) Started as a nationalistic movement against the

influence of both the British and the Russians over the shah

Ended with the creation of a new Persian constitution with a monarchy limited by a parliament

Britain and Russia were forced to accept the “spheres of influence” for each other

Tabriz Revolutionaries

Europe and China Europe and China

Forcing trade agreements Set up treaty ports Established outposts of missionary activity British aimed to improving terms of the China

trade Canton System

Limited the ports to which Europeans could do business from

Forbade trading between European merchants and Chinese civilians

Europe and China The opium trade

A direct link between Britain, British India, and China Opium one of the few products Europeans could sell in

China Northeast India as richest opium-growing area A “narco-military empire” Opium production was labor-intensive

A triangular trade East India Company sold opium to British, Dutch, and

Chinese shippers Opium sent to southeast Asia and China Silver paid for opium was used to buy Chinese goods

for the European market

Europe and China China banned opium imports in the 1830s

Will lead to a collision course with British opium traders

First Opium War (1839-1842) Fought between the British and the Qing Dynasty Drugs not the main focus The issue was sovereignty and economic status European rights to trade

Treaty of Nanking (1842) Ended the Canton System Gave British extensive trading privileges Control of Hong Kong was given to the British China was forced to pay $21 million in reparations

Europe and China Second Opium War (1856-1860)

Fought between Britain, France, and the Qing Dynasty

British demanded more trading rights and permission for a British ambassador to China

British and French troops burned down the Summer Palace in Beijing

Treaty of Tientsin (1860) Britain granted further trading rights 11 more ports were open to trade Established freedom of religion in China Legalized the opium trade China was forced to pay an indemnity of 20 million

taels to Britain and France (~$743 million in 2011)

Europe and China Other countries demand similar rights and

economic opportunities French, German, and Russian demanded mining

rights All begin manufacturing with Chinese labor The United States and the “open door” policy

Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) Radical Christian rebels in southern China

challenged the authority of the Qing Dynasty First instance of “total war” in China

Every able-bodied man was conscripted in some way China’s agricultural heartland was devastated by

this civil war

Europe and China Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

Fought between Qing Dynasty and Meiji Japan Mainly over control of Korea Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)

Forced China to concede trading privileges to Japan China recognized the independence of Korea China was forced to pay 200 million taels to Japan

War showed the continued weakness of the Chinese government

Triple Intervention Russia, Germany, and France negotiated with

Japan to not take the Liaondong Peninsula Area was later occupied by Russia

Europe and China The Order of Literary Patriotic Harmonious Fists

AKA the Boxers Secret society of men trained in martial arts Anti-foreign and anti-missionary Upset with the “Unequal Treaties” with the west

Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901) The Boxers attacked foreign engineers and

destroyed railway lines In June 1900, they marched on Beijing Defeated by the Eight Nation Alliance

Included Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Britain, and the U.S.

Europe and China Boxer Protocol (1901)

War reparations of 450 million taels over 39 years $335 million in 1901 $6.7 billion in 2011

Qing Dynasty had to allow foreign troops in Beijing Permanent ban on memberships to anti-foreign

societies Europeans were granted rights to occupy 12 cities

Boxer rebel (1900)

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) There were increasing tensions between Russia

and Japan over the control of Manchuria and Korea Japan wanted the region for its raw materials and

markets Russia wanted to strengthen its position in eastern

Asia and protect the city of Vladivostok Russia was building a railroad to Vladivostok

through Manchuria Vladivostok was not a warm water port

Russia turned its attention to Port Arthur on the Liaodong Peninsula

Occupied the Peninsula after the Boxer Rebellion

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan began negotiating with Russia in 1901

Hope to give Manchuria to Russia and Japan would keep Korea

Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) Designed to check Russian expansion in eastern

Asia Ended Britain’s period of “splendid isolation” Recognized the independence of China and Korea Each side would remain neutral if either one

became involved in a war over China or Korea with only one enemy

If either side was fighting two or more enemies then the other would come to its aid

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Franco-Russian Alliance (1902)

France would technically come to the aid of Russia if attacked

However, if Russia went to war with Japan, France could not do so This would cause Britain to join the war France was not willing to take that risk

Negotiations continued through 1904 However, terms could not be agreed upon Russia refused to give up Port Arthur Diplomatic relations were severed in February

1904

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Nicolas II was interested in going to war against Japan

He believed it would spark Russian patriotism However, his advisors believed that there would be

strategic issues in such a war This included the transportation of soldiers to the east

War began when the Japanese navy attacked Port Arthur An official declaration of war was received three hours later Russia declared war eight days later

While Britain did not join the war, it did provide Japan with intelligence against the Russians Japan returned the favor Discovered that Germany was supporting the Russians

Helped Britain decide that Germany was an international threat

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Battle of Mukden (February 20 – March 10,

1905) Largest number of participants in one battle up to

that date 276,000 Russian forces versus 270,000 Japanese

Russians lost the city 90,000 casualties Also lost most of their combat supplies and artillery

Battle of Tsushima Straits (May 27-8, 1905) Russian fleet traveled 18,000 nautical miles First naval battle using wireless telegraphy Japanese navy destroyed 2/3 of the Russian fleet This defeat brought an end to the war

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

Negotiated by Theodore Roosevelt Manchuria was to be returned to China Japan received a lease to the Liaodong Peninsula and

the Russian railway through Manchuria Japan received a protectorate over Korea Japan also received the southern half of the Island of

Sakhalin Importance of the war

First war between the Great Powers since 1870 First time non-whites defeated a white power in

modern era Japanese showed that they were a major world power

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Effects of the war

Russia shifted its attention back to Europe Specifically turned to the Balkans and pan-Slavism

Tsar’s power was considerably weakened He became the laughingstock of Russia due to his

incompetence over the war Helped to contribute to the Revolution of 1905

Became a motivating factor for those fighting against the European powers Japan proved that they could be defeated

Japan emerged as a world power