module 14 thought & language. introduction definitions –cognitive approach method of studying...
TRANSCRIPT
INTRODUCTION
• Definitions– Cognitive approach
• method of studying how we process, store, and use information and how this information, in turn, influences what we notice, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel
– Thinking• sometimes referred to as __________________;
involves mental processes that are used to form concepts, solve problems, and engage in creative activities
INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)
– Language• special form of communication in which we learn
and use complex rules to form and manipulate ___________________________________________ that are used to generate an endless number of meaningful sentences
FORMING CONCEPTS
• Concept– A way to group or classify objects, events, animals, or
people based on some features, traits, or characteristics that they _______________________
• Exemplar model– Form a concept of an object, event, animal, or person
by ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
FORMING CONCEPTS (CONT’D)• Prototype theory
– Form a concept by creating a mental image based on the average characteristics of an object (prototype)
– To identify a new object, match to an already formed prototype of objects, people, or animals
• Functions of concepts– _____________________________________– ________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
– _______________________________________________
SOLVING PROBLEMS• Problem solving
– Involves searching for some rule, plan, or strategy that results in reaching a certain goal that’s ____________________________________________________________________________________
• Different ways of thinking– Algorithms
• ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SOLVING PROBLEMS (CONT’D)
• Different ways of thinking– Heuristics
• rules of thumb, or clever and creative mental shortcuts, that reduce the number of operations to solve problems more easily and quickly
– Availability heuristic• says that we rely on information that’s more
prominent or easily recalled and overlook other information that’s available but less prominent or notable
SOLVING PROBLEMS (CONT’D)
• Different ways of thinking– Artificial intelligence
• means of programming machines (computers, robots) to imitate human thinking and problem-solving abilities
SOLVING PROBLEMS (CONT’D)
• Three strategies for solving problems– Changing one’s mental set
• functional fixedness; ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
– Using analogies• __________________________________________________
– Forming sub-goals• __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
THINKING CREATIVELY
• How is creativity defined?
– Creative thinking• combination of flexibility in thinking and
reorganization of understanding to produce innovative ideas and new or novel solutions
– Creative individual• someone who regularly solves problems, fashions
products, or defines new questions that make an impact on his or her society
THINKING CREATIVELY (CONT’D)• How is creativity defined?
– Psychometric approach• uses objective problem-solving tasks to measure
creativity, focuses on the distinction between two kinds of thinking (convergent and divergent)
– Convergent thinking• ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
– Divergent thinking• ______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
THINKING CREATIVELY (CONT’D)• How is creativity defined?
– Case study approach• analyzes creative people in great depth and thus provides
insight into their development, personality, motivation, and problems
– Cognitive approach• tries to build a bridge between the objective measures of
the psychometric approach and the subjective descriptions provided by case studies
• identifies and measures cognitive mechanisms used during creative thinking
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES• Language
– Special form of communication that involves learning complex rules to make and combine symbols (words/gestures) into meaningful sentences
• Word– ________________________________________________
____________________________________• Grammar
– ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES (CONT’D)• Four rules of language
1.Phonology• ______________________________________________
2.Morphology• system that we use to group ____________ into
meaningful combinations of sound and words– morpheme;
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES (CONT’D)• Four rules of language
3. Syntax, or grammar• set of rules that
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Semantics• ________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES (CONT’D)
• Understanding language
– Noam Chomsky’s theory of language• says that all languages share a common universal
grammar and that children inherit a mental program to learn this universal grammar
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES (CONT’D)
• Understanding language
– Mental grammar• allows us to combine nouns, verbs, and objects in
an endless variety of meaningful sentences• innate brain program• makes learning the general rules of grammar
relatively easy
LANGUAGE: BASIC RULES (CONT’D)• Different structure, same meaning
– Surface structure• refers to the actual wording of a sentence, as it is spoken
– Deep structure• refers to an underlying meaning that isn’t spoken but is
present in the mind of the listener
– Transformational rules• procedures by which we convert our ideas from surface
structures into deep structures and from deep structures back into surface ones
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE
• Language stages
– Refers to all infants going through four different periods or stages: babbling, single words, two-word combinations, and sentences
1.____________________________• begins at about six months; the first stage in
acquiring language
2. ________________________• occurs at about one year of age• parentese (emphasizes tone of voice and words)
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE (CONT’D)
• Language stages
3. ________________________• occurs at about two years of age• strings of two words that express various actions
(“me play”)
4. ________________________________• occurs at about four years of age
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE (CONT.)• Telegraphic speech
– Distinctive pattern of speaking in which the child omits articles (the), prepositions (in, out), and parts of verbs
• Basic rules of grammar– Rules for combining nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
other parts of speech to form meaningful sentences
• Overgeneralization– Applying a grammatical rule to cases where it
shouldn’t be used
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE (CONT’D)
• What are innate factors?– _______________________
• genetically programmed physiological and neurological features that facilitate our making speech sounds and acquiring language skills
– _________________________________• special adapted vocal apparatus (larynx and
pharynx) that let us make sounds and form words– ________________________________
• left hemisphere of the brain is prewired to acquire and use language, whether spoken or signed
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE (CONT’D)
• What are innate factors?– Innate developmental factors
• _____________________________________• time from _________________________ when
language is easiest to learn• _______________________________________
_________________________________________
ACQUIRING LANGUAGE (CONT’D)• What are environmental factors?
– Interactions children have with parents, peers, teachers, and others who provide feedback that rewards and encourages language development, as well as provides opportunities for children to observe, imitate, and practice language skills
• Social cognitive learning– Emphasizes the acquisition of language skills through social
interactions, which give children a chance to observe, imitate, and practice the sounds, words, and sentences they hear from their parents or caregivers
DECISIONS, THOUGHT, & LANGUAGE
• Words and thoughts
– Theory of linguistic relativity• _______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________