module ar3007 forensic archaeology - le.ac.uk pdfs... · role of the archaeologist in these...

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Forensic Archaeology AR3007 – 2007-8 29 September 2009

School of Archaeology

& Ancient History

Module AR3007 Forensic Archaeology

Academic Year: 2009-2010

Semester: 1

Time and location: Thursdays 14:00-16:00

Weeks 2 – 6, 8 and 11 – Att. SB2.07

Weeks 9 and 10 – Bone and Ceramics Lab

First meeting: 8th October

Module coordinator: Dr. Richard Thomas

e-mail: [email protected]

Room: 124

Office hours: Tuesdays 13:00-15:00

Your individual

appointments (e.g.

tutorials, seminars):

See notice board on door…………………………

…………………………………………………………

mailto:[email protected]

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AR3007 Forensic Archaeology

Weighting: 20 credits

Coordinator: Dr. Richard Thomas and Dr. Mark Gillings

Other tutors: Dr. Stephany Leach and Dr. Andrew Shortland (Cranfield University)

Module outline:

This course offers an introduction to forensic archaeology, the application of archaeological methodology within crime scene investigation. The module will be taught in conjunction with the Centre for Archaeological and Forensic Analysis, Cranfield University and Dr Stephany Leach, a forensic anthropologist who has recent experience excavating victims of the First World War at Fromelles. In this module, the whole range of criminal investigation in murder investigations will be covered, from the location of clandestine burials, through to their recovery, analysis, interpretation of peri-mortem events and trial. The course will include examples of single homicides, multiple murders and mass burials/war graves as well as other types of criminal activity. The role of the archaeologist in these processes is increasingly seen as key and many of the techniques that have been developed to study the past are equally applicable within this contemporary context. In addition to demonstrating the application of a broad range of archaeological techniques beyond the discipline, this course will stress the benefits of a multidisciplinary approach to enquiry.

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Aims:

The course aims to:

1. Provide a broad introduction to the application of archaeological methodology within crime scene investigation;

2. Provide students with opportunities to develop a wide range of subject specific and key transferable skills.

Intended Learning outcomes:

Methods of teaching:

On completion of the module, students will be able to demonstrate:

1. An ability to apply archaeological methodology to the field of criminal investigation, this will include the application of the following skills:

Geophysical techniques and landscape analysis in the search for buried remains; Excavation of buried remains; Analysis of human skeletal remains (applied physical anthropology); Archaeological science (entomology, palynology and materials analysis) for information gathering at the scene of a crime.

2. An awareness of the judicial and police frameworks in the UK and the role of the forensic archaeologist within those systems;

3. An appreciation of the integration of different disciplines – archaeological, medical and biochemical – required in the field of crime scene investigation;

4. An ability to convey scientific and analytical arguments in written form

The course will be largely lecture based; however, there will be a practical physical anthropology session in which the identification of human skeletal remains, ageing, sexing, identification, and determination of the cause of death will be covered.

Methods of assessment:

The assessment consists of:

1. Case investigation (40%);

2. An assessed essay (60%).

All assessed coursework should be submitted in the box in the foyer of the School of Archaeology and Ancient History with a completed cover sheet.

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Teaching schedule

Week 2 08.10.07 Introduction to forensic archaeology (RT)

Week 3 15.10.07 Locating buried remains (MG)

Week 4 22.10.07

Recovering individual buried remains (RT)

The realities of forensic investigation (Video)

Week 5 29.10.07 Mass grave investigations and ethical frameworks (RT)

Week 6 05.11.07 Establishing the time since death (RT)

Week 7 12.11.07 Reading Week

Week 8 19.11.07 Forensic anthropology: lecture (SL)

Week 9 26.11.07 Forensic anthropology: practical I (RT)

Week 10 03.12.07 Forensic anthropology: practical II (RT)

Week 11 10.12.07 The archaeology of violent death (AS)

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Assignments and deadlines

1. Case Investigations. You are the member of a crime scene investigation

team. For this assignment you are asked to take on the role of an „expert‟ in providing advice regarding one of the three cases outlined below. Your brief is to satisfy the outcomes that are outlined below in a 2000-

2500-word report. Your analysis should be properly referenced and employ the use of illustrations/diagrams where appropriate. The deadline for submission is: 5pm on Monday 16th November and this piece of work will constitute 40% of the total final mark for this module.

You are also required to submit an electronic copy of your case

investigation via the Turnitin facility of the AR3007 Blackboard site –

please make sure that you have read the Turnitin – Personal Data and

Intellectual Property section of your Undergraduate Handbook.

The electronic copy is to be submitted by the same deadline as the paper

copy (5pm on Monday 16th November). Please note that this electronic

submission is COMPULSORY. Late submission of either copy will result

in the appropriate lateness penalties being applied to the final mark.

Students failing to submit both paper and electronic copies by the

designated deadline will be deemed to have FAILED the assessment (i.e.

a mark of zero will be recorded).

CASE A A person went missing six weeks ago in Leicestershire. Witness statements reveal that the individual was last seen in the area detailed by the OS map and aerial photograph below (Figures 1 and 2). Police have reason to believe that the individual was murdered and buried within this area. As an „expert‟ archaeologist, you have been commissioned to write a detailed report prioritising the most likely areas that the victim may have been interred. You have been asked to outline the most effective search techniques in each area and provide details of the logistical requirements needed to conduct the search. Figure 1

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Figure 2

CASE B An entomologist has provided you with a list of species (Figure 3) from a cadaver buried in a forest on the edge of a large urban centre in America

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in suspicious circumstances. The body was buried at a minimum depth of 30cm. As an „expert‟ forensic entomologist you have been commissioned to write a report interpreting these findings. In particular, you have been asked to estimate the Post Mortem interval and provide information concerning the location of the murder site, and any subsequent movement of the body. You have been asked to provide an indicator of the reliability and significance of your interpretations - remember that this report may be later used as evidence in court. Figure 3

Species State Location Abundance Calliphora vicinia eggs nose and mouth Few Calliphora vomitaria eggs nose and mouth Few Calliphora vomitaria larvae internal cavities Many Sarcophaga bullata larvae internal cavities Many Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis

larvae internal cavities Many

Conicera sp. larvae external surface of body

Few

Metopina sp. larvae external surface of body

Few

The entomologist felt it was important to note that no Muscidae or Piophilidae were recovered with the body. CASE C Aerial photographs have revealed evidence of a large triangular area of disturbed ground, with a temporary track leading up to it, (Figure 4) in a temperate country that has recently been wracked by civil war. Witness testimony indicates that a large numbers of local men had been rounded up in this area by the ruling military junta and have since „disappeared‟. The United Nations has commissioned you – an expert „forensic anthropologist‟ - to write a plan of how you will recover any bodies, and associated evidence, at this site. You have been asked to focus your discussion on the logistical, ethical and psychological problems your team is likely to face. Figure 4

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2. Assessed essay: The deadline for this essay (2500-3000 word) is 5pm on

Monday 11th January 2010 and it will constitute 60% of the final mark for

this module. A selection of essay titles is provided below, however, if

you have a particular topic that you would like to pursue then please

come and discuss this with me in advance. Remember; you cannot

choose the same topic that you undertook for the first assessment.

Each essay should be supported by a number of, critically examined,

case studies that support the evidence you are presenting – it should not

be purely descriptive!

You are also required to submit an electronic copy of your essay via the

Turnitin facility of the AR3007 Blackboard site – please make sure that

you have read the Turnitin – Personal Data and Intellectual Property

section of your Undergraduate Handbook.

The electronic copy is to be submitted by the same deadline as the paper

copy (5pm on Monday 11th January). Please note that this electronic

submission is COMPULSORY. Late submission of either copy will

result in the appropriate lateness penalties being applied to the final

mark. Students failing to submit both paper and electronic copies by the

designated deadline will be deemed to have FAILED the assessment (i.e.

a mark of zero will be recorded).

1. Discuss the role of forensic archaeologists, as expert witnesses, within

the UK criminal justice system.

2. In recent years Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) has become an

increasingly favoured technique in searches of clandestine graves.

Outline the merits and disadvantages of this technique in light of other

non-invasive search techniques.

3. The recovery of buried remains at a crime scene requires the wholesale

transference of the methods and techniques employed in the recovery of

buried remains on archaeological sites. Discuss.

4. How does the nature of the burial environment affect the preservation

of the human body and associated materials? What are the implications

for crime scene investigation?

5. Analysing the stages of insect development is the most effective way

of establishing time since death. Discuss.

6. What can the analysis of soil samples from beneath buried bodies

reveal about peri-mortem events? What techniques should forensic

archaeologists employ to collect such samples?

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7. What ethical implications do forensic anthropologists face? Compare

and contrast this to the issues faced by physical anthropologists studying

archaeological (i.e. non forensic) human remains?

8. Outline the potential and pitfalls of using Computerised Tomography

(CT) scanning as a non-invasive technique in the analysis of skeletons of

murder victims.

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Reading list: AR3007 N.B. Please note that many of the publications that you will be expected to read are located in the Medical School library. Inability to use this facility will not be a sufficient excuse for limited bibliographies! If you have trouble accessing any of the references then please let me know. Many of the pre-1992 articles from the Journal of Forensic Sciences etc. are now also available in the short loan section of the Main Library. Other online journals can be accessed through Google Scholar.

Detailed supplementary information can also be found on Blackboard.

Core reading

Boddington, A., Garland, A. N. and Janaway, E. C. (ed.) 1987. Death, Decay and Reconstruction: Approaches to Archaeology and Forensic Science. Manchester, Manchester University Press. Blau, S. and Ubelaker, D. 2008. Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology. Walnut Creek, Ca., Left Coast Press. Byers. 2002. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology: a Textbook. London, Allyn and Bacon. Connor, M. 2007. Forensic Methods: Excavation for the Archaeologist and Investigator. Altamira Press. Cox, M., Flavel, A., Hanson, I., Laver, J and Wessling, R. 2008. The Scientific Investigation of Mass Graves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dupras, T. L., Schultz, J . J., Wheeler, S. M. and Williams, L. J. (eds.) 2005. Forensic Recovery of Human Remains: Archaeological Approaches. Boca Raton, CRC Press.

Ferllini, R. 2007. Forensic Archaeology and Human Rights Violations. Boca Raton, CRC Press. Haguland, W. D. and Sorg, M. H. 1996. Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. CRC Press. Haguland, W. D. and Sorg, M. H. 2001. Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory and Archaeological Perspective. Boca Raton, CRC Press.

Hunter, J. R. and Cox, M. 2005. Forensic Archaeology. Routledge. [ESSENTIAL]

Hunter, J. R., Martin, A. and Roberts, C. A. (eds.) 1996. Studies in Crime: an

Introduction to Forensic Archaeology. London, Batsford. [ESSENTIAL]

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Klepinger, L. L. 2007. Fundamentals of Forensic Anthropology. Wiley Morse, D., Duncan, J. and Stoutamire, J. (eds.) 1984. Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology. Tallahassee, Rose Printing. Oxenham, M (ed.) 2008. Forensic Approaches to Death, Disaster and Abuse. Australian Academic Press.

General forensic archaeology/anthropology/pathology

Archer, M. S., Bassed, R. B., Briggs, C. A. and Lynch, M. J. 2005. Social isolation and delayed discovery of bodies in houses: The value of forensic pathology, anthropology, odontology and entomology in the medico-legal investigation. Forensic Science International 151: 259-265. (Available online) Bass, W. M. 1987. Forensic anthropology: the American experience, in Boddington, Garland and Janaway 1987: 224-238. Birdsell, J. B. 1987. Some Reflections on Fifty Years in Biological Anthropology. Annual review of Anthropology 16: 1-12. (Available online) Crist, T. A. 2001. Bad to the Bone? Historical Archaeologists in the Practice of Forensic Science. Historical Archaeology: Journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology 35 (1): 39 Davis, J. 1992. Forensic Archaeology. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 11

(1): 151-156. DeHaan, J. D. 2004. Review of: alchemy of bones: Chicago's Luetgert murder case of 1897. Journal of Forensic Sciences 49 (4): 1-2. (Available online) Ferllini, R. 2008. Forensic Archaeology and Human Rights Violations. Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas. Gould, R. 2007. Disaster Archaeology. Utah: University of Utah Press. Haguland, W. D. 2001. Archaeology and Forensic Death Investigations. Historical archaeology: journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology 35 (1): 26-34 Hunter, J. R., Heron, C., Janaway, R.C., Martin, A.L., Pollard, A.M. and Roberts, C.A. 1994. Forensic archaeology in Britain. Antiquity 68: 758-770. Hunter, J. R. 2002. Foreward from archaeology: a pilgrim in forensic archaeology – a personal view, in Haguland and Sorg 2002: xxv-xxxii.

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Iscan, M. 1988. Rise of forensic anthropology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 31: 203-230. Iscan, M. 2001. Global forensic anthropology in the 21st century. Forensic Science International 117 (1): 1-6. (available online) Knight, B. 2004. Forensic pathology. London, Edward Arnold. Krogman, W. M. 1962. The human skeleton in forensic medicine. Springfield, Ill.: C.C. Thomas. Krogman, W. M. 1976. Fifty Years of Physical Anthropology: The Men, The Material, The Concepts, The Methods. Annual review of Anthropology 5: 1-14 (available online) Menez, L. L. 2005. The place of a forensic archaeologist at a crime scene involving a buried body. Forensic Science International 152: 311-315. (Available online) Morse, D., Crusoe, D. and Smith, H. G. 1976. Forensic Archaeology. Journal of Forensic Sciences 21 (2): 323-330. Morse, D., Dailey, R. C., Stoutamire, J. and Duncan, J. 1984. Forensic Archaeology, in Rathbun and Buikstra 1984: 53-62. Oakley, K. 2005. Forensic archaeology and anthropology: an Australian perspective. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology 169 (4): Reichs, K. J. 1992. Forensic anthropology in the 1990‟s. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 13 (2): 146-153 Sauer, N. J. and Simson, L. R. 1984. Clarifying the role of forensic anthropologists in death investigations. Journal of Forensic Sciences 29 (4): 1081-1086. Scott, D. D. and Connor, M. 1997. Context delicti: archaeological context in forensic work, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 27-38 Schultz, J. J. and Dupras, T. L. 2008. The contribution of forensic archaeology to homicide investigations. Homicide Studies 12 (4): 399-413. (Available online). Sigler-Eisenberg, B. B. 1985. Forensic research: expanding the concept of applied archaeology. American Antiquity 50 (3): 650-655. Snow, C. C. 1982. Forensic anthropology. Annual review of Anthropology 11: 97-131 (available online)

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Sorg, M. H. 1996. Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. CRC Press. Steele, C. 2008. Archaeology and the forensic investigation of recent mass graves: ethical issues for a new practice of archaeology. Archaeologies 4 (3): 414-428. (short loan). Stewart, T. D. 1978. George A. Dorsey‟s Role in the Luetgert Case: A significant episode in the history of forensic anthropology. Journal of Forensic Science 23 (4):

786-791. Stewart, T. D. 1979. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, Ill.: C.C. Thomas. Buikstra, J. E. and Ubelaker, D. H., 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series No. 44.

Locating buried remains

Bellerby, T. J., Noel, M. and Branigan, K. 1990. A thermal method for archaeological prospection: preliminary investigations. Archaeometry 32 (2): 191-203 Buck, S. 2003. Searching for graves using geophysical technology: field tests with ground penetrating radar, magnetometry, and electrical resistivity. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48 (1): 5-11. (Available online) Carter, D. O. and Tibbett, M. 2003. Taphonomic mycota: fungi with forensic potential. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48 (1): 168-171. (Available online) Clark, A. 1990. Seeing Beneath the Soil: Prospecting Methods in Archaeology. London, Batsford. Davis, J. L., Heginbottom, J. A., Annan, A. P., Daniels, R. S., Berdal, B. P., Bergan, T., Duncan, K. E., Lewin, P. K., Oxdord, J. S., Roberts, N., Skehel, J. J. and Smith, C. R. 2000. Ground penetrating radar surveys to locate 1918 Spanish flu victims in permafrost. Journal of Forensic Sciences 45 (1): 68-75. (Available online) France, D. L., Griffin, T. J., Swanburg, J. G., Lindermann, J.W., Davenport, G. C., Trammell, V., Armbrust, C. T., Kondratieff, B., Nelson, A., Castellano, K. and Hopkins, D. 1992. A multi-discplinary approach to the detection of clandestine graves. Journal of Forensic Sciences 37(6): 1445-1448. France, D. L., Griffin, T. J., Swanburg, J. G., Lindermann, J.W., Davenport, G. C., Trammell, V., Armbrust, C. T., Kondratieff, B., Nelson, A., Castellano, K., Hopkins, D. and Adair, T. 1997. Necrosearch revisited: further multidisciplinary approaches to the detection of clandestine graves, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 497-510.

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Gaffney, C. and Gater, J. 1993. Practice and method in the application of geophysical teachniques in archaeology. In Hunter, J. R. and Ralston, I. B. M. Archaeological resource management in the UK: an introduction. Stroud, Alan Sutton. Gaffney, C. and Gater, J. 2003. Revealing the Buried Past: Geophysics for Archaeologists. Stroud, Tempus Killam, E. 2004. The Detection of Human Remains. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas. Imai, T., Sakayama, T. and Kanemori, T. 1987. Use of ground-probing radar and resistivity surveys for archaeological investigations. Geophysics 52 (2): 137-150. Miller, P. S. 1996. Disturbances in the Soil: Finding Buried Bodies and Other Evidence Using Ground Penetrating Radar. Journal of Forensic Sciences 41 (4): 648-652 Owsley, D. W. 1995. Techniques for Locating Burials, with Emphasis on the Probe. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40 (5): 735-740 Rodriguez, W. C. and Bass, W. Decomposition of bodies and methods that may aid in their location. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30(3): 836-852. Schultz, J.J. 2007. Using Ground-Penetrating Radar to Locate Clandestine Graves of Homicide Victims: Forming Forensic Archaeology Partnerships with Law enforcement. Homicide Studies 11 (1): 15-29 (Available online) Schultz, J. J., Collins, M. E. and Falsetti, A. B. 2006. Sequential Monitoring of Burials Containing Large Pig Cadavers Using Ground-Penetrating Radar. Journal of Forensic Sciences 51 (3): 607-616. (Available online) Scollar, I.., Tabbagh, A., Hesse, A. and Herzog, I. 1990. Archaeological Geophysics and Remote Sensing. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Spoerry, P. (ed.) 1992. Geoprospection and the Archaeological Landscape. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Vaughan, C. J. 1986. Ground-penetrating radar surveys used in archaeological investigations. Geophysics 51(3): 595-604. Forensic taphonomy and decay processes

Clark, M. A., Worrell, M. B., and Pless, J. E. 1997. Postmortem changes in soft tissues, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 151-164. Haguland, W. D., Reay, D. T. and Swindler, D. R. 1989. Canid scavenging/disarticulation sequence of human remains in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Forensic Sciences 34 (3): 587-606.

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Henderson, J. 1987. Factors determining the state of preservation of human remains, in Boddington, Garland and Janaway 1987: 43-54. Janaway, R. C. 1987. The preservation of organic remains in association with metal artefacts deposited in inhumation graves, in Boddington, Garland and Janaway 1987: 127-148. Janaway, R. C. The decay of human remains and their associated materials, in Hunter et al. 1995, chapter 4. Lyman R.L. 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Manheim, M. H. 1997. Decomposition rates of deliberate burials: a case study of preservation, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 469-478. Mant, A. K. 1987. Knowledge acquired from post-War exhumations, in Boddington, Garland and Janaway 1987: 43-54. Rodriguez, W. C. and Bass, W. M. 1983. Insect activity and its relationship to decay rates of human cadavers. Journal of Forensic Science 28 (2): 423-432 Rodriguez, W. C. and Bass, W. M. 1985. Decomposition of buried bodies and methods that may aid in their location. Journal of Forensic Science 30 (3): 836-852 Rodriguez, W. C. 1997. Decomposition of buried and submerged bodies, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 459-468. Tibbett, M. and Carter, D. O. 2008. Soil Analysis on Forensic Taphonomy. Boca Raton, CRC Press. Wilson, A., Janaway, R., Holland, A., Dodson, H., Baran, E., Pollard, A. and Tobin, D. 2007. Modelling the buried human body environment in upland climes using three contrasting field sites. Forensic Science International 169 (1): 6-18.

Recovering buried remains (practice and ethics)

Adams, B. J. and Byrd, J. E. 2006. Resolution of small-scale commingling: a case report from the Vietnam War. Forensic Science International 156: 63-69. (Available online) Brooks, S. T. and Brooks, R. H. 1984. Problems of burial exhumation, historical and forensic aspects, in Rathbun and Buikstra 1984: 64-86. Chamberlain, A. C. and Parker-Pearson, M. 2001. Earthly Remains: the History and Science of Preserved Human Bodies. London, British Museum

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Correia, P. M. and Beattie, O. 2002. A critical look at methods for recovering, evaluating, and interpreting cremated human remains, in Haguland and Sorg 2002: 435-450. Crossland, Z. 2002. Violent spaces: Conflict over the reappearance of Argentina‟s disappeared, in Beck, C., Johnson, W.G. and Schofield, J. (eds.), Materiel culture: The Archaeology of 20th Century Conflict. London, Routledge. Dirkmaat, D. C. and Adovasio, J. M. 1997. The role of archaeology in the recovery and interpretation of human remains from an outdoor forensic setting, in Haguland and Sorg 1997: 39-64. Garrat-Frost, S. 1992. The Law and Burial Archaeology. Birmingham, Institute of Field Archaeologists, Technical Paper 11. Haguland, W. D., Reichert, D. G. and Reay, D. T. 1990. Recovery of decomposed and skeletal human remains in the “Green River Murder” investigation. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 11(1): 35-43

Hunter, W. 1990. Digging for victory. Police review 23: 2306-2307

Komar, D. 2008. Patterns of mortuary practice associated with genocide.

Current Anthropology 49 (1): 123-133. Legengre, J-P. 2001. Archaeology of World War 2: The Lancaster bomber of Fléville (Meuthe-et-Moselle, France), pp. 138-144, in Buchli, V. and Lucas, G. (eds.), Archaeologies of the Contemporary Past. London: Routledge. Rebmann, A. J., David, E., Sorg, M. H. and Koenig, M. 2000. Cadaver Dog Handbook : Forensic Training and Tactics for the Recovery of Human Remains. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press Saunders, N. J. 2002. Excavating memories: archaeology and the Great War, 1914-2001. Antiquity 76: 101-108. Skinner, M. 1987. Planning the archaeological recovery of evidence from recent mass graves. Forensic Science International 34: 267-287 Skinner, M., Alempijevic, D. and Djuric-Srejic, M. 2003. Guidelines for International Forensic Bio-archaeology Monitors of Mass Grave Exhumations. Forensic Science International 134 (2-3): 81-92 (available online) Stoutamire, J. 1983. Excavation and recovery, in Morse, Duncan, Stoutamire 1983: 20-47 Tarlow, S. 1997. An archaeology of remembering: death, bereavement and the First World War. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 7(1): 105-121.

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Tuller, H. and Duric, M. 2006. Keeping the pieces together: comparison of mass grave excavation methodology. Forensic Science International 156: 192-200. (Available online) Ubelaker, D. H. 2002. Approaches to the study of commingling in human skeletal biology, in Haguland and Sorg 2002: 331-354. Vanezis, P., Sims, B. G. and Grant, J. H. 1978. Medical investigations of an exhumation in unhallowed ground. Medical Science Law. 18 (3): 209-221

Physical anthropology

American Journal of Physical Anthropology (Available, and searchable, online) International Journal of Osteoarchaeology (Available, and searchable, online) Adams, B. J. and Konigsberg, L. W. 2004. Estimation of the most likely number of individuals from commingled human skeletal remains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Published Online: 12 Jan 2004

Bass, W. M. 1995. Human Osteology: a Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human Skeleton 4th edition. Columbia, Mo.: Missouri Archaeological Society Brickley, M. and Ferllini, R. 2008. Forensic Anthropology: Case Studies from Europe.

Springfield, Ill., Charles C Thomas Ltd.

Brickley, M. and McKinley, J. 2004. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. Southampton, IFA Paper No.7. (http://www.soton.ac.uk/~babao/HumanremainsFINAL.pdf) Cattaneo, C. 2007. Forensic anthropology: developments of a classical discipline in the new millennium. Forensic Science International 165 (2): 185-193. (Available online). Cox, M. and Mays, S. (eds.) 2003. Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science. London : Greenwich Medical Media Fairgrieve, S. I. 2008. Forensic Cremation: Recovery and Analysis. Boca Raton, CRC Press.

Galloway, A. (ed.). 1999. Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force

Trauma. Springfield Illinois, Charles C Thomas. Iscan, M. Y. 2005. Forensic anthropology of sex and body size. Forensic Science International 147: 107-112. (Available online)

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Komar, D. 2003. Lessons from Srebrenica: the contributions and limitations of physical anthropology in identifying victims of war crimes. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48 (4): 713-716. (Available online) Liversidge, H. M., and Molleson, T. I. 1999. Developing permanent tooth length as an estimate of age. Journal of Forensic Sciences 44 (5): 917-920. (Available online) Mays, S. 1998. The Archaeology of Human Bones. London, Routledge. Moody, G. H. and Busuttil, A. 1994. Identification in the Lockerbie air disaster. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 15 (1): 63-9. Ortner, D. J. and Putschar, W. G. J. 1981. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. London : Smithsonian Institution Press. Rathbun, T. A. and Buikstra, J. E. (ed.) 1984. Human identification: case studies in forensic anthropology. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas. Reichs, K. J. 1998. Forensic osteology: advances in the identification of human remains. 2nd edition. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas. Roberts, C. A. 1995. Forensic anthropology, in Hunter et al. 1995, chapters 6 and 7. Roberts, C. A. and Manchester, K. 1995. The archaeology of disease. Stroud: Sutton. Scheuer, L. and Black, S. 2000. Developmental Juvenile Osteology. San Diego, California: Academic Press. Solla, H. E. 2005. Reconstructing skeletal remains--an international perspective: study and identification of human remains in Uruguay (1950-2001). The Forensic Examiner Warren, H. 1976. Dental identification and forensic odontology. London: Kimpton. Whittaker, D. K., and MacDonald, D. G. 1989. A colour atlas of forensic dentistry. London, Wolfe Medical. Ubelaker, D. and Scamell, H. 1992. Bones: a forensic detectives casebook. New York, M. Evans and Company, Inc.

Dating time of death

Aitken, M. 1990. Science-based dating in archaeology. London, Longmans.

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Bass, W. M. 1984. Time interval since death, in Rathbun and Buikstra 1984: 136-147. Dix, J. and Graham, M. 2000. Time of death, decomposition and identification: an atlas. London, CRC Press. Henssge, C., Krompecher, T., Madea, B., Knight, B. and Nokes, L. (eds.). 2002. The Estimation of the Time Since Death in the Early Post Mortem Period . London: Hodder Arnold. Knight, B. 1968. Estimation of time since death: a survey of practical methods. Journal of the Forensic Science Society 8: 91-96. Knight, B. and Lauder, I. 1969. Methods of dating skeletal remains. Human Biology 41(3): 322-341. Maclaughlin-Black, S., Ruth, S. Herd, J. M., Willson, K., Myers, M. and West, I. 1992. Strontium-90 as an indicator of time since death: A pilot investigation. Forensic Science International 57: 51-56 Mann, R. W., Bass, W. M. and Meadows, L. 1990. Time since death and decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies. Journal of Forensic Sciences 35(1): 103-111. Mant, A. K. 1953. Recent work on post-mortem changes and timing death, in Simpson, K. (ed.) Modern trends in forensic medicine. London, Butterworth: 147-162. Pollard, A. M. P. 1995. Dating the time of death, in Hunter et al. 1995, chapter 8.

Rulshrestha, P. And Chandra, H. 1987. Time since death: an entomological

study on corpses. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 8 (2): 233–

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