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Zaid Ali Alsagoffzaid_a@unitar.edu.my

Module 4:Fallacies

mailto:zaid_a@unitar.edu.mymailto:zaid_a@unitar.edu.my

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Man or Woman?

Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htm

http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/manwoman.htm

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How many legs does this elephant have?

Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htm

http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/elephantlegs.htm

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Which officer is the tallest?

Source: http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/optical_illusions_images_2/giant_man.htm

http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/optical_illusions_images_2/giant_man.htmhttp://www.coolopticalillusions.com/optical_illusions_images_2/giant_man.htm

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Is this wave moving?

Source: http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/

http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/http://www.grand-illusions.com/opticalillusions/oblong_wave/

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AirAsia +Girls = Fun

Analyze+

Evaluate

=Your Opinion?

Target Audience?

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Module 4: Fallacies

1. Fallaciesof Relevance

2. Fallacies ofInsufficientEvidence

Whatmistake!!!

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4.0 What is a Fallacy?

A (logical) fallacy is an argument that contains amistake in reasoning.

Fallacies can be divided into two general types:

Fallacies of RelevanceArguments in which the premises are logicallyirrelevant to the conclusion.

Fallacies of Insufficient EvidenceArguments in which the premises, thoughlogically relevant to the conclusion, fail to providesufficient evidence for the conclusion.

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There is nothing so stupid as an educated man,if you get him off the thing he was educated in

- Will Rogers

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4.1 Fallacies of Relevance

A statement is RELEVANTto another statement if itprovides at least some reason for thinking that the secondstatement is true or false.

There are three ways in which a statement can be relevantor irrelevant to another:

A statement is positively relevantto another statement if it providesat least some reason for thinking that the second statement is true.

A statement is negatively relevantto another statement if itprovides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement

is false.

A statement is logically irrelevantto another statement if it providesno reason for thinking that the second statement is either true or

false.

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4.1 Fallacies of Relevance Example;

Personal AttackWhen an arguer rejects a persons argument or claim

by attacking the persons character rather than

examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.

Example:

Professor Doogie has argued for more emphasis on music in

our F2F classes to facilitate creativity. But Doogie is a

selfish bigheaded fool. I absolutely refuse to listen to him.

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The foolish and the dead alonenever change their opinion.

- James Russell Lowell

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4.2 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence

Arguments in which thepremises, though logically

relevant to the conclusion, failto provide sufficient evidenceto

support the conclusion.

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4.2.1 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

Example:

My dentist told me that aliens built the lost city of Atlantis. So,its reasonable to believe that aliens did build the lost city of

Atlantis.

Inappropriate Appeal to AuthorityCiting a witness or authority that is untrustworthy.

Authority Assessment1. Is the source an authority on the subject at issue?2. Is the source biased?3. Is the accuracy of the source observations questionable?4. Is the source known to be generally unreliable?5. Has the source been cited correctly?6. Does the sources claim conflict with expert opinion?

7. Can the sources claim be settled by an appeal to expert opinion?8. Is the claim highly improbable on its face?Tips

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4.2.2 Appeal to Ignorance

Example:

Yoda must exist. No one has proved that he

doesnt exist.

Appeal to IgnoranceClaiming that something is true because no one has

proven it false or vice versa.

Not proven, therefore false

If such reasoning were allowed, we could prove almostan conclusion.

Remember

AgreeI do!

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4.2.3 False Alternatives

Example:

The choice in this MPM election is clear: Either we electZubaidah as our next president, or we watch our MPM unity

slide into anarchy and frustration. Clearly, we dont want that

to happen. Therefore, we should elect Zubaidah as our next

president.

False AlternativesPosing a false either/or choice.

Fallacy of false alternativescan involvemore thantwo (2) alternatives. It can also be expressed as aconditional (if-then) statement.Remember

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4.2.4 Loaded Question

Example:Lee: Are you still friends with that loser Richard?

Ali: Yes.

Lee:Well, at least you admit hes a total loser.

Loaded QuestionPosing a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted

presupposition.

To respond to a loaded question effectively, one must

distinguish the different questions being asked and respondto each individuall .

Tip

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4.2.5 Questionable Cause

Example:

Sarah gets a chain letter that threatens her with dire consequences if she

breaks the chain. She laughs at it and throws it in the garbage. On her

way to work she slips and breaks his arm. When she gets back from the

hospital she sends out 200 copies of the chain letter, hoping to avoid

further accidents.

Questionable CauseClaiming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing

Is the cause of something else.

1. A and B are associated on a regular basis.

2. Therefore A is the cause of B.Pattern

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4.2.6 Hasty Generalization

Example:Norwegians are lazy. I have two friends who are from there,

and both of them never prepare for class, or do their

homework.

Hasty GeneralizationDrawing a general conclusion from a sample that

is biased or too small.

1. Abiasedsample is one that is not representative of the target population.2. Thetarget populationis the group of people or things that the

generalization is about.3. Hasty generalizations can often lead to falsestereotypes.

Pattern

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4.2.7 Slippery Slope

Examples:

The Malaysian militarily shouldn't get involved in other countries. Oncethe government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands todie."

Slippery SlopeClaiming, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly

Harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous

outcome.

1. The arguer claims that if a certain seemingly harmless action, A,is permitted, A will lead to B, B will lead to C, and so on to D.

2. The arguer holds that D is a terrible thing and therefore shouldnot be permitted.

3. In fact, there is no good reason to believe that A will actuallylead to D.Pattern

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4.2.8 Weak Analogy

Example:Nobody would buy a car without first taking it for a test drive.

Why then shouldnt two mature UNITAR students live

together before they decide whether to get married?

Weak Analogy

Comparing things that arent really comparable.

1. List allimportant similaritiesbetween the two cases.2. List allimportant dissimilaritiesbetween the two cases.

3. Decidewhether the similarities or dissimilarities aremore im ortant.Tip

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4.2.9 Inconsistency

Example:

Note found in a Forest Service Suggestion box: Park visitorsneed to know how important it is to keep this wilderness

area completely pristine and undisturbed. So why not put up

a few signs to remind people of this fact?

InconsistencyAsserting inconsistent or contradictory claims.

It is also a mistake to cling stubbornly to an old idea when newinformation suggests that the idea is false.

Open-minded to new ideas = LearningRemember

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What's to say against [cigars]? They killed GeorgeBurns at 100. If he hadn't smoked them, he'd havedied at 75. (Bert Sugar, quoted in New York Times,

September 20, 2002)

Which fallacy?

A) Questionable CauseB) Hasty GeneralizationC) Slippery SlopeD) Weak Analogy

4.2 Mini Quiz Question 1

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According to North Korea's official state-run news agency, "awar between North Korea and the United States will end withthe delightful victory of North Korea, a newly emerging militarypower, in 100 hours. . . . The U. S. [will] be enveloped in flames.. . and the arrogant empire of the devil will breathe its last".Given that this prediction comes from the official North Koreannews agency, it is probably true.

(Passage quoted in Nicholas D. Kristof, "Empire of the Devil," NewYork Times, April 4, 2003)

Which fallacy?

A) Inappropriate Appeal to AuthorityB) Appeal to IgnoranceC) False Alternatives

D) Loaded Question

4.2 Mini Quiz Question 2

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Jurors in tobacco lawsuits should award judgments so largethat they put tobacco companies out of business. Respectingthe right of tobacco companies to stay in business is akin tosaying there are "two sides" to slavery...

(Anti-tobacco lawyer, quoted in George F. Will, "Court Ruling

Expresses Anti-Smoking Hypocrisy," Wilkes-Barre TimesLeader, May 25, 2003)

Which fallacy?

A) Loaded QuestionB) Hasty GeneralizationC) Slippery Slope

D) Weak Analogy

4.2 Mini Quiz Question 3

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Group Activity

Break into groups of 4 - 6, and construct five (5) fallaciousarguments.

Each group can choose any of the 20 fallacies discussed, butmust construct at least two fallacious arguments of eachcategory: Fallacies of Relevance& Fallacies of Insufficient

Evidence).The constructed fallacious arguments must discuss thetopics specified in the template provided (Business,Education, Information Technology, Environment, andTourism).

20 min Construct 5 fallacious arguments.

5 min Document constructed arguments into the template provided.

15 min Group presentation & discussion.

The Group leader must submit their findings in hard-copy or soft-copy format to the

lecturer before or during the next class.

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Summary 20 Common FallaciesFallacy

An argument that contains a mistake in reasoning.Fallacies of Relevance

Arguments in which the premises are

logically irrelevant to the conclusion.

Fallacies of Insufficient EvidenceArguments in which the premises, though

logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to

provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

Personal Attack

Attacking the Motive

Look Whos Talking

Two Wrongs Make a Right

Scare Tactics

Appeal to Pity Bandwagon Argument

Straw Man

Red Herring

Equivocation

Begging the Question

Inappropriate Appeal to Authority Appeal to Ignorance

False Alternatives

Loaded Question

Questionable Cause Hasty Generalization

Slippery Slope

Weak Analogy

Inconsistency

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Any Questions?

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The End

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References

Book

Chapter 5 (Logical Fallacies -1) & 6 (Logical Fallacies -2):G Bassham, W Irwin, H Nardone, J M Wallace, CriticalThinking: A Student's Introduction, McGraw-Hill International

Edition, 2007

Online Resources

Fallacies (The Nizkor Project):http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

Cool Optical Illusions:http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/

http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/

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Contact Details

Zaid Ali Alsagoff

UNIVERSITI TUN ABDUL RAZAK

16-5, Jalan SS 6/12

47301 Kelana Jaya

Selangor Darul Ehsan

Malaysia

E-mail:zaid_a@unitar.edu.my

Tel: 603-7627 7238Fax: 603-7627 7246