montessori and gardner's theory of multiple...
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Montessori and Gardner's Theoryof Multiple Intelligences
By Patricia A. Vardin
T he revolutionarywork of Howard
T Gardner has beengiven much attention in thepast decade. Opposing thenotion of a unitary IQ andproposing thatintelligencebe thought of as a wide krange of human capabili-ties, Gardner challengedthe status quo in the fieldof psychology. Many yearsbefore his time, however, Maria Montes-sori also challenged the status quo regard-ing human abilities and potential, demon-strating that children who were "slow,"deprived, and poor could thrive and growunder the right set of conditions. Thisarticle attempts to review Gardner's theoryofMultipleIntelligences, show how Mon-tessori and Gardner drew similar conclu-sions regarding human capacity and po-tential, and examine how Gardner's eightintelligences and underlying core opera-tions lie at the heart of the Montessoriexercises and activities.
In Frames of Mind: The Theory of Mul-tipleIntelligenzces, written in 1983, HowardGardner defined intelligence as "the abilityto solve problems or to create products thatare valued within one or more culturalsettings" (1999, p. 33). Revising his defini-tion in 1999, he defined intelligence as "abiophsychological potential to process in-formation that can be activated in a culturalsetting to solve problems or create productsthat are of value in a culture" (p. 34).Gardner sees intelligences as potentials,possibly neural ones, that may or may notbe activated depending upon the values ofa culture, the opportunities available in thatculture, and the personal decisions madebyindividuals and/or their families, teachers,and other members of the society.
Gardner (1999) applied the followingeight criteria derived from disciplinessuch as biology, anthropology, psychol-ogy, and psychometrics to determine if amental faculty could be classified as ahuman intelligence:
*the potential isolationby brain damage;
* an evolutionary his-tory and evolutionaryplausibility;
* an identifiable core, operation or set of
core operations;* susceptibility to en-
coding in a symbolsystem;
* a distinct develop-mental history, alongwith a definable set of
expert "end-state" performances;* the existence of idiot savants, prodigies,
and other exceptional individuals;* support from experimental psycho-
logical tasks;* support from psychometric findings.Gardneridentifiedeighthumanintelligen-
ces (see Table 1), each one having certaincore operations-capacities that seem cen-tral to an intelligence, for example, as pho-nemic discriminations would be to linguis-tic intelligence or mental calculations ofnumbers would be to logical-mathematicalintelligences. He believes these capacitiesare likely to be mediated by specific neuralmechanisms and triggered by relevant in-temal or extemal typesof information.
Gardner originallydescribed sevenintelli-gences and then sev-eral years ago added aneighth. He believes thatall human beings pos-sess the eight differentintelligences, that eachperson has a uniqueblend of intelligences,and that no two peoplehave exactly the sameprofile of strengths andweaknesses with re-spect to intelligences.He also points out thatstrength in one area ofintelligence does notpredict strength or
weakness in other areas. Gardner also be-lieves that any intelligence can be enhancedby concerted effort.
Table 2 presents Gardner's descriptionof the eight intelligences and examples ofend-state performances. Gardner is stillconsidering other possible candidates asintelligences, including existential intel-ligence, observed in individuals con-cemed with questions regarding life'smeaning and issues of human existence.
Shared ConclusionsAlthough working in different cultures
and different times, Montessori and Gard-ner came to many of the same conclusionsregarding human development. First, bothMontessori and Gardner derived their theo-riesbasedupon daily, firsthandobservationand experience working with people, bothnormal and with exceptionalities. Montes-sori worked first with retarded, then urban,deprived children. Gardner focused his at-tention upon adults with various forms ofbrain damage, as well as normal and giftedchildren. These experiences enabled themboth to understand and appreciate the widerange of abilities and capacities found inhuman nature and to challenge rigid andnarrow beliefs about human potential.
Table 1. Intelligence and Core Operations
Type of Intelligence Examples of Core Operations
Linguistic Syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics
Logical-mathematical Patterns, calculations, number, relations
Musical Pitch, rhythm, timbre
Bodily-kinesthetic Control of bodily motions, skillful objecthandling
Spatial Mental visualization, mental manipulationand transformation of images
Interpersonal Awareness of the feelings, moods,motivations, and desires of others
Intrapersonal Awareness of one's own feelings, desires,capacities
Naturalist Recognition, classification of objects in theenvironments
40 Montessori LIFE * Winter 2003
q
Second, as a result of their shared under-standing and appreciation of human nature,both Montessori and Gardner noted theuniqueness of each individual. They ob-servedthatindividual differences begin toberevealed in the earliest years of life, and thatindividual strengths in one area of ability donot necessarily ensure or predict strengths inother areas. Montessori writes, "little chil-dren soon reveal profound individual differ-ences which call for very different kinds ofhelpfromtheteacher" (1964,p.231).Gardner(1997, 1 999) states that.in the area of intelli-gence, no two people have exactly the sameintelligences, nor in the same combination,and that understanding and valuing theseuniquenesses and differences and utilizingthem for the benefit of society is of utmostimportance. He states, in fact, that takinghuman differences seriously lies at the heartof Multiple Intelligence Theory.
Third, forboth Montessori and Gardner,the interaction of nature and nurture playsa significant role in the development ofhuman capabilities. With respect to ge-netic heritability, Montessori observes thatthe origins of development lie within theindividual and that children seem to pos-sess what she calls natural tendencies.
Intelligence and Description
1. Linguistic: sensitivity to spoken and writtenlanguage; the ability to learn language; the capacity touse language to accomplish goals
2. Logical-mathematical: capacity to analyzeproblems logically, carry out mathemafbcal operationsand investigate issues scientifically
3. Musical: entails skill in performances, composition,and appreciation of musical patterns
4. Bodily-kinesethetic: entails the potential of usingone's whole body or parts of the body (like the hand ormouth) to solve problems or fashion products
5. Spatial: involves the potential to recognize andmanipulate the patterns of wide spaces and confinedspaces
6i Interpersonal: denotes a person's capacity tounderstand the intentions, motivations, and desires ofother people
7. Intrapersonal: involves the capacity to understandoneself, to have an effective working model of oneself,including one's own desires, fears, and capacities, and touse such information effectively in regulating one's own life
8. Naturalist: demonstrates expertise in therecognition and classification of the numerousspecies-the flora and fauna-as well as artificialobjects in the environment
Both Montessori andGardner see humandevelopment as the
result of an ongoing anddynamic interactionbetween genetic and t k
environmentalfactors. -
u_z0L
In a similar vein, Gardner posits thhuman abilities, like human differencehave a genetic base. Both Montessori aiGardner, however, see human develoment as the result of an ongoing and dnamic interaction between genetic and evironmental factors. Montessori (199.strongly believed that the child's mind asorbs the environment, leaving lasting irpressions upon it, forning it, and providihnourishment for it. She warned that tlquality of the environment can greatly ehance a child's life or seriously diminishGardner, too, emphasizes the importani
Examples: End-state Performances
Lawyers, speakers, writers, teachers
Mathematicians, logicians, scientists
Instrumentalists, composers,conductors
Dancers, actors, athletes, surgeons,mechanics, artisans
Navigators, pilots, sculptors, chessplayers, graphic artists, architects
Salespeople, teachers, clinicians,politicians, actors, religious leaders
Farmers, botanists, geologists,archeologists
iat of the environment on the development ofes, human capabilities. Gardner believes thatid the "smarter" the environment and thep- more powerful the interventions and re-y- sources, the more competent individualsn- will become and the less important will be5) their particular genetic inheritance. He as-b- serts that even individuals who seem giftedn- in a specific intelligence will accomplishig little if they are not exposed to resourceshe and materials that support that intelligence.n- Differences In Focusit.ce Despite similarities in their viewpoints,
Montessori and Gardner differ to some---- degree in the focus of their work.
First, from the beginning of her career,Montessori was concerned with the educa-tion and welfare of children, especially poorchildren. Her concern and passion for theneeds of children translated directly into theestablishment of a school, the development
i of ateaching method, a curriculum, didacticmaterials, parent education, teachertraining,and social action in the community. Montes-sori based her philosophy and methodologyon her work with children and teachers and,
I intum,herdevelopingphilosophyandmeth-odology influenced her practice.
In contrast, Gardner's work frorii itsinception was theoretical, based uponobservation and research, not practice.1His work led him to the redefining ofhuman intelligence and the constructionof a new theory of human intelligence.Gardner did not develop a specific educa-tional approach or specific application ofmultiple intelligence theory to practice,nor view his theory as an educationalprescriptive. He believes that educatorsshould determine how multiple intelli-gence theory should guide their practiceandwams against superficial or self-serv-ing applications of the theory in educa-tional settings.
Second,Montessori'sphilosophy, theory,and method encompass all aspects of hu-man potential, including character, moral
Montessori LIFE * Winter 2003 41
Table 2. Gardner's Description of Intelligences
I
kAv�0C.9
..... ... ..
,,- -. . . , ... 1,_ .. .ITable 3. Relation of Montessori Curriculum to Gardner's Intelligences
Area/Exercise
Practical LifePouringButtoningSweeping
SensorialTouch: Geo. Solids
Visual. Solid insetsCylinder boxes(2-3 children)
Auditory.Set of Bells
(2-3 children)
Smell:Smelling Boxes
Intelligences
Bodily-kinestheticSpatial
Bodily-kinestheticSpatialLogical-mathematical
Bodily-kinestheticSpatialLogical-mathematicalLinguisticInterpersonal
MusicalInterpersonal
Naturalist
ArealExercise
Object handlingMental visualization
Object handlingMental visualizationRelationsClassificationSemantics
Object handlingMental visualizationRelationsSemanticsAwareness ofintentions of others
PitchAwareness of feelingsof others
RecognitionClassification
LanguageSandpaper Letters Bodily-kinesthetic Object handlingMovable Alphabet Spatial Mental visualization
Linguistic Phonology
Objects with words Bodily-kinesthetic Object handlingon cards Linguistic Mental visualization(2-3 children) Phonology
SemanticsInterpersonal Awareness of desires
& intentions of others
MathematicsSandpaper Nurnerals
Number Rods
Golden beads
Bodily-kinestheticSpatialNaturalist
Bodily-kinestheticSpatialLogical-mathematical
Bodily-kinestheticSpatialLogical-mathematical
Object handlingMental visualizationRecognition
Object handlingMental visualizationRelations
Object handlingMental visualizationNumber relationsCalculationsClassification
Core Operations
NaturePlanting a garden
Caring for animalsin the classroom
Intelligences
Bodily-kinesthetic
SpatialLogical-mathematicalNaturalist
Interpersonal
NaturalistBodily-kinestheticLinguisticSpatialNaturalist
Core Operations
Bodily motionsObject handlingMental visualizationsPatternsRecognitionClassificationAwareness of desires
of others
ClassificationObject handlingSemantics
Social StudiesLand & water forms Bodily-kinesthetic Mental visualization
Linguistic RecognitionClassification
Spatial Object handlingSemantics
Puzzle maps Bodily-kinesthetic Mental visualizationNaturalist Mental manipulationLinguistic Object handling
ClassificationSemantics
GymnasticsMarching Bodily-kinesthetic Control of movement
Musical Rhythm
Broad Jump Bodily-kinesthetic Control of motionsLogical-mathematical NumberSpatial Mental visualization
ArtClay Construction Bodily-kinesthetic Object handlingFree Drawing Spatial Mental visualization
Mental transformation
MusicSet of Bells
Singing
MusicalBodily-kinesthetic
Musical
PitchObject handling
PitchRhythm
development, and spiritual growth. Shewrites, "Our educational aim with veryyoung children must be to aid the spontane-ous development of the mental, spiritualand physical personality" (1964. p. 230).
Gardner's focus, however, remains spe-cifically on those areas of human poten-tial he has defined as intelligences, intheir various forms and combinations.Although he has considered character,
moral, and spiritual issues in his work,they are not considered a part of MultipleIntelligence theory because they do notmeet his criterion for an intelligence.
Long before the introduction of Piaget'scognitive-developmental theory of children'sintelligence, Kohlberg's theory of moraldevelopment, and Gardner's theory of mul-tipleintelligences, MariaMontessori (1912)wrote about amethod and curriculumforthe
teaching and development of young chil-dren. In the description of her method andtechniques, she reveals her deep regard forall aspects of the child's development andprofound respect for the innate, unique po-tential she sees within each individual child,needing only the right environment to en-courage what is within to evolve.
Montessori realized the significance ofeach area of human potential or intelligence
42 Montessori LIFE-- Winter 2003
in the experiences and materials she createdfor the children in her school. She seems tohave created her exercises to touch uponmany of the core operations of the eightintelligences described by Gardner and cre-ated multisensory experiences which acti-vate combinations of intelligences. For ex-ample, aMontessori mathematics lesson onthe geometric solids uses bodily-kinestheticintelligence in feeling the forms, visual/spa-tial in observing and intemalizing images oftheforms,logical-mathematicalintelligencein establishing relations between them,naturalistic intelligence in observing andclassifying them, and linguistic in labelingthem. If the child did this activity with otherchildren, he or she could also exchangeideas about the forms and share them, thusutilizing interpersonal intelligence.
Table 3 is an analysis of Montessori'scurriculum as it relates to Gardner's eightintelligences. A brief overview of the Mon-tessori curriculum areas indicates how eachof the materials encompasses at least oneintelligence and several core operations.For example, the Practical Life area exer-cises combine the use ofBodily-kinestheticand Spatial intelligences. The Sensorialexercises include many ofthe intelligences,such as Bodily-kinesthetic, Spatial, Logi-cal-mathematical, Naturalist, Linguistic,and Interpersonal, if children are workingtogether.LanguaageexercisesutilizeBodily-kinesthetic, Spatial, Linguistic, and Inter-personal intelligences, and mathematics.Nature and Social Studies engage Natural-ist, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathemati-cal, Spatial, Interpersonal, and Linguisticintelligences. Art, Gymnnastics, and Musicinvolve Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-math-ematical, Spatial, andMusical intelligences.
Montessori addressed the personal andsocial life of the child, as well. For example,she wrote extensively about the importanceof self-knowledge and self-regulation,(Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence). Shewrites: 'We call an individual disciplinedwhen he is master of himself and can, there-fore, regulate his own conduct when it shallbe necessary to follow some rule of life....Each one of [the children] perfects himselfthrough his own powers, and goes forwardguided by that inner force which distin-guishes him as an individual" (1964, p. 86).
Many Montessori activities and exer-cises support the development of indepen-dence, decision-making, self-control, mas-tery, and discovery. She also recognizedthat children need to function in a socialworld and in community with others. Bydeveloping self-care skills, self-control,manners, good habits, and polite conversa-tion, Montessori prepared her children to
Montessori seems to have created her exercisesto touch upon niany of tlhe core operations ofthe eight intelligences described by Gardnerand created multisensory experiences vhichactivate combinations of intelligences.
enter into human society. But more impor-tant was that her children leamed to respecteach other, help and teach one another, andshare andenjoy games, activities, andmusic.Thesepractices and activities oftheMontes-sori classroom encompass aspects of whatGardner calls Interpersonal intelligence.
In SummaryThis article has provided an updated
overview of Howard Gardner's Theoryof Multiple Intelligences and pointed outways in which Maria Montessori andHoward Gardner, although differing inthe focus of their work, came to verysimilar conclusions about human abili-ties and potentials. The exercises andactivities in Montessori's curriculum en-gage many of the core operations in theeight intelligences described by Gardner.
Both Maria Montessori and HowardGardner were revolutionary figures intheir fields. By challenging the statusquo, they have brought us to a greater
.1understanding of the potential of humanbeings through their gift of penetratingobservation and analysis of little childrenand adults with exceptionalities.
DR. PATRICIA A. VARDIN, educationalconsultant and parent educator, is asso-ciate professor and chair of the EarlyChildhood Department at Manhattan-ville College, Purchase, NY.
ReferencesGardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of
muiltiple intelligences. New York: Basic.Gardner, H. (1997). Extraordinary minds. New York:
Basic.Gardner. H. (1999). Intelligence refrained: Mlltiple
intelligencesforthe21' centutry. New York: Basic.Montessori, M. (1964). TheMontessori method New
York: Schocken.Montessori, M. (1995). The absorbent mind. New
York: Holt.
Montessori LIFE * Winter 2003 43
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