here is an ironic prejudiceabout education found in al-most every country: the older

the students are that one teaches, thehigher the pay and respect for theteacher. We take it for granted that aprofessor in a graduate school is amore prestigious position than that ofa high school teacher, which is, in turn,considered a more sophisticated posi-tion than teaching elementary and, ofcourse, both are far more respectablethan that of a nursery-school teacher.And no one in his or her right mindwould want to teach infants and tod-dlers, right? Yet research clearly showsthat the most important period in ahuman being’s educational and emo-tional development are not the yearsof high school and college but ratherthe first six years of life.

Human beings are a magical combi-nation of at least three factors: ourgenetic inheritance, our biologicaldevelopment, and our experiences.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

175

Montessori Infant-Toddler

Programs:

The Best Beginning

TT

Authors’ Note: We wish to thank SusanTracy, M.Ed., Director of the LearningTogether Parent Education Center inPalatine, Illinois, for her invaluable assistance in co-authoring and preparingthis chapter. We also thank the manyschools that welcomed us into their infant-toddler classrooms. In the case of K.T.Korngold of The Montessori Children’sCenter at Burke (White Plains, NY), we wishto extend a special thanks for allowing us toenter “Sarah’s world,” a beautiful at-homeMontessori infant environment that is pic-tured throughout this and the following“Montessori in the Home” section.

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

176

Genetics play an enormous role. Inaddition to the more obvious issuessuch as our sex, eventual height, andthe color of our eyes, genetics deter-mine our special gifts and handicaps,predispositions, and many aspects ofour interests, talents, and personalitiesthat scientists are only now beginningto understand.

However, whatever potential or pre-dispositions we inherit from our par-ents, they will only be developed if ourbodies are allowed to develop normal-ly. A child who is malnourished in thecritical first six years of life, or who suf-fers a devastating disease or physicalinjury, will normally develop much lessof his or her potential as a humanbeing than one who enjoys goodhealth.

Equally important, and most rele-vant to this book, is the question of the

child’s early education. Of course thebrain is not a muscle, but like a muscle,the brain only develops through activeuse. This is especially true in the yearsof infancy and early childhood.

In the past, many people pictured achild’s mind as a blank slate on whichadults, through instruction, could“write down” the content of a goodeducation. Likewise, another commonmetaphor was that of an empty bowl,waiting to be filled with the contents ofthe school’s curricula. Montessoridemonstrated that both concepts areinaccurate.

The young child’s mind is more likethat of an acute observer or scientist,eager to learn, explore, try new things,and master new skills. But most impor-tantly, she recognized that with stimu-lation, the child’s ability to concen-trate, absorb, and master new ideas

and skills increases, and that the earli-er we begin a program of intellectual,physical, sensory, and artistic educa-tion, the more dramatic the result.

This is a time of great sensitivity tolanguage, spatial relationships, music,art, social graces, and so much more.If, during this period, the mind is stim-ulated by the child’s exposure to a richenvironment, the brain will literallydevelop a much stronger and lastingability to learn and accomplish. Inshort, while our culture may believethat preschool teachers are the leastsignificant educators our children willencounter, in reality the contributionthat they offer is of incredible impor-tance in a child’s education.

This is especially true of those whoteach infants and toddlers. So pleaseforgive us when we cannot hide ourfrustration when parents say things

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

177

like, “Oh, for goodness sake, mychild is just in preschool! Educationduring these years is not all thatimportant! All she needs are teach-ers who are warm and kind.”

The Terrible Terrific Twos:Montessori for the Infant andToddler Years

The concept of a specific program for these very young children wasdeveloped by Adele Costa Gnocchiand Dr. Silvana Quattrocchi Montan-aro at the Centro Educazione Mon-tessori in Rome. This world-famousteacher education program awardsthe Association Montessori Inter-nationale’s Assistants to InfancyCertification, preparing Montessorieducators to work with childrenfrom birth through age three. Overthe last twenty years, other Montes-sori programs have developedinfant-toddler teacher educationprograms of their own.

Infant-toddler Montessori educa-tors are passionate about theirwork. Inspiring teacher educatorsCelma and Desmond Perry, VirginiaVarga, and Carole Korngold havetirelessly advocated the importanceof these programs and are slowlybeginning to convince Montessorischools around the world to devel-op them.

Montessori programs for childrenunder age three are not quite as rare as hen’s teeth; however, they areanything but common. Toddlerclasses are still fairly few and farbetween, and infant programs arestill so uncommon that parentswould be fortunate to find one intheir community. Where infant andtoddler programs do exist, theytend to be extraordinarily popular,and it may be quite difficult to findan opening unless parents begintheir search a year or more inadvance.

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

178

Why don’t more schools offerinfant-toddler programs? Basicallythere are four major reasons.

The first is that there are very fewcertified Infant-Toddler Montessoriteachers.

Secondly, because only a handful of children are supporting thetrained teaching staff and classroom,these programs are more expensiveto run than the classes for three tosix-year-olds, and few schools feelthat they can ask parents to pay thetrue cost of operation. As a result,many schools lose money on thistype of program. The compensationis that the children who comethrough these programs will be

(Above) Young children enjoy constructing new shapes with a wide variety of blocks and connect-ing materials.

among their very best students in theyears to come because of their earlystart. In some cases, state regulationsmay prohibit schools from acceptingchildren under age three. Similarly, insome states, operating a program atthis age level may cause the school tobe classified as a child-care center,rather than as an educational institu-tion.

And finally, many Montessori admin-istrators wrestle with the concern thatif they accept children under agethree, prospective parents will viewthe school as a day-care center, ratherthan as a school, which some adminis-trators fear might cause their entireprogram to lose credibility.

The Four Common Types ofInfant-Toddler Programs

Parent-Infant Programs

These are primarily programs designedto educate the parent of very youngchildren in child development and the Montessori strategies for helpingparents to respond to the needs theyobserve in their infants. These pro-grams give parents an opportunity toobserve their children and, through dis-cussion, learn how they can bestrespond to their babies’ needs. Normal-ly, parent-infant programs will acceptchildren under eighteen months of age.Parents come with their children to ashort class normally lasting about nine-ty minutes, held once a week. Often,there will be a parent-teacher discus-sion held at another time during theweek. Topics always include parentquestions and concerns and a weeklytopic, such as: sleep, nutrition, homeenvironment, and infant and toddlerdevelopment. The staffing is commonlyone certified Montessori Infant-Toddlerteacher with the parents working in the

A Note on Staffing: A key issue with infantprograms is the adult-to-child ratio. Stateregulations vary, and the required ratios andmaximum group sizes will vary from onestate to another. The standard that we rec-ommend for this age is lower than moststates require – striving for a one-to-threeadult-to-infant ratio, or a small group ofnormally nine infants to one teacher andtwo adult assistants. This tends to makesuch programs more expensive, but due tothe low adult-to-infant ratio and the specialtraining needed, the quality is well worththe cost. It is especially important that staffturnover in these programs be very low, aseven the youngest infant tends to bonddeeply with the adult caregivers. Their con-sistency over time is very important to theprogram’s success.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

179

(Below) Even toddlers can help care for theirenvironment. This young boy is shown washingwindows.

room. In this model, parents learnhow to observe their child and learna great deal about child develop-ment to be used at home.

Montessori Infant-Care Programs

For those who need all-day care,there are a handful of MontessoriInfant-Care programs, which nor-mally accept infants aged six weeksto fifteen months of age. These pro-grams are still very rare, but they areslowly beginning to spread. It isespecially important in these pro-grams that the lead teacher workingwith each group of nine infants becertified in Montessori Infant-Tod-dler education to ensure the qualityof the program.

With infants, the schedule of theday is dependent on their needs.Each baby has a different schedulefor feeding and sleeping. Thereshould be a routine of stability andconsistency; babies look for pre-dictability.

Toddler Half-Day Programs

These programs will normally run for two or three hours a day. Somewill accept toddlers from fifteenmonths and older, although thislower age range may vary due tolocal regulations and the school’sdecision about how it wishes toorganize the program.

Generally, the low end of fifteenmonths is followed because by thatage, most children are fairly mobileand have become very independent.Most toddler programs will beginwith a somewhat older child of eighteen months, or even as old astwenty-four months. These groupswill commonly include children up to thirty to thirty-six months of age, at which time the child is normallyready to move into a Montessorithree-to-six class.

The typical schedule in a half-day tod-dler class might look something likethis:

1. Arrival, greeting, storing coat andbag, changing shoes, choosingwork.

2. A work period of 11/2 to 2 hours.

3. Preparation and serving of a snack.

4. Group singing, finger plays, andmovement to music: this is an activ-ity in which toddlers may or may notchoose to participate.

5. Outdoor time: running, climbing,swinging, exploring nature, sandand water.

6. Dismissal.

It is important that children move outof the toddler program to the next levelnot according to a simple age criteria

but when they are developmentallyready (when they are no longer chal-lenged in the toddler program and areshowing signs of being bored). Thisnormally occurs at about two yearseight months of age. We strongly rec-ommend four- or five-day programsrather than offering two- or three-dayoptions. Why? Because children, ingeneral, and toddlers, in particular,need consistency and routine.

Staff Ratio: In a group of ten to twelvetoddlers, you would normally have acertified Montessori Infant-Toddlerteacher and an assistant. Some statesallow a higher adult-to-child ratio. Thissmall class size and low adult-to-child ratio tends to make toddler programs more expensive, but, onceagain, the quality is well worth thehigher cost.

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

180

(Above) This young student is getting one of her first art lessons in using the brush and paint.

All-Day Toddler Programs

These programs are quite similar tothe half-day toddler class, except thatchildren may remain all day for nine orten hours. Obviously, in these pro-grams, accommodation must be madefor napping, meals, outdoor time andplay, art, food preparation, and otheractivities. Because of the luxury of theextended hours, these programs cando much more with the children.Normally there will be some overlap instaffing, as some staff members arriveearly in morning and leave in the earlyafternoon, while others arrive later and stay until the last child is pickedup. Whoever remains until day’s endshould be prepared to communicatewith the parents about how the dayhas gone.

The schedule for a full-day toddlerclass can be more relaxed — there isthe luxury of more time for work, out-door exploration, food preparation, artactivities, and an early afternoon nap.Arrival and pick-up routines should bewell planned to ease the transition fortoddlers and parents.

What makes Montessori at the infant-toddlerlevel different from child care?

Let’s begin by considering the needs ofthe very young child.

Ideally, many of us would love to stayhome and care for our newborns, but this is not always possible. Whenboth parents have to leave the hometo earn a living, Montessori infant-care programs offer a wonderful alter-native.

Infant-toddler education begins during pregnancy. It is an importanttime of growth and formation. Wewant a mother to be healthy andpeaceful and to feel supported. This isthe time for the expectant mother togive her baby the best nutrition, avoidstress and toxins, and prepare herself

A Note about the Role of the Adults in the Toddler Class: With the lowadult-to-child ratios and the tender age of the children, many parents wouldexpect to see the teacher and assistant interacting constantly with the children,as one might find in a more traditional child-care program. Montessori, however, encourages the development of each child’s independence. In a toddler class, you will notice that the adults will not rush in continually to enter-tain or control the children; instead, they will quietly give lessons, redirect a childwho is having difficulty, interact with the children verbally to help with their language development, and observe and take note of the children’s activities.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

181

to be a mother. The father should pre-pare for the birth as well. Together par-ents should prepare their home for thebaby and prepare themselves for apeaceful birth. We want every child tofeel welcome and wanted and to havea peaceful beginning.

The First Three Months

The newborn period is sometimescalled the “symbiotic” period becausethere are things that both the baby andmother receive from one another.Both benefit. The baby needs physicalcloseness, skin-to-skin contact, and tobe held and surrounded. The warmsurrounding feeling reminds them ofwhen they were still in the uterus.

The best environment for a new-born baby is in her mother’s arms.There she gets the warmth and feelingof being held. She can nurse or be heldclose while being bottle fed and stillhear her mother’s heart, breath, andvoice.

The mother still needs to feel con-nected to this baby that was so recent-ly inside her. Nursing helps the moth-er’s body return to normal and helpsher uterus shrink back to size. Theuterus contracts in response to nurs-ing, which helps control bleeding. Aclose relationship with the baby makesit less likely that a mother will havepost-partum depression. Finally, nurs-ing burns approximately 1,000 caloriesa day, which helps her to lose theweight gained during pregnancy.

During the first three months, thebaby needs to bond closely to some-one. Normally, this will be with themother, the first and most importantrelationship in our lives. Without thisattachment, the child will later havedifficulty developing normal lovingrelationships with other people. Theneglected child tends to have a hardtime caring about other people andfeeling compassion, and there seemsto be some evidence that many crimi-

nals and people displaying aggressive behavior began this pattern duringinfancy.

The Development of the Very Young Child

The primary environment for the newborn is in the mother’s arms.There is very little that new parentsneed to buy for their newborn baby. Of course the baby needs diapers (we recommend cloth diapers, ratherthan disposable). For the child’s sleep-ing environment, the newborn mightlike the closeness of sleeping with hisor her parents. Some newborns likethe feeling of being in a basket orbassinet (many newborns still like thefeeling of being surrounded).

As children reach four to six months,their bodies are beginning to change.The underlying cause is Myelinization:the process by which a newborn’sbrain and nerve cells gain a fatty coat-ing (Myelin) that serves as insulationand keeps the electrical impulsestransmitted by the brain moving in thecorrect pathway along the nervous sys-tem. This is crucial to the child’s devel-opment of the ability to coordinatemovement.

Movement develops from the headdown as the process of Myelinizationproceeds. During the first few months,young children refine their ability tomove the head and control eye move-ments. They can see further and focuson moving objects. They spend a lot oftime observing what is happening

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

182

around them. Because they are not yetmobile, they become people watchers.

During this period, they learn howto roll over and creep, and sit (normal-ly by six months). Crawling follows atabout eight months, and most childrenwill begin to “toddle” at about twelvemonths. Thus, during the child’s firstyear, it is critical that we provide anenvironment for movement. We avoidcontaining children in playpens, cribs,walkers, jumpers, and child carriersexcept when necessary for travel or forshort periods. Instead, we would pro-vide time for the young child to be ona quilt on the floor, which wouldenable the child to move about freely.

We recommend that parents andinfant programs provide beds that arelow to the floor so that children canindependently get in and out on theirown. They quickly learn how to stay inthe bed, and most will not roll out. For

the child who rolls, put a softrug by the bed — just incase.

We recommend a tinytable and a chair with arms,instead of a high chair, as thechild begins to eat solidfoods at five or six months ofage. For diaper changing, werecommend a pad on thefloor in the bathroom in-stead of a changing table,since it is so easy for childrento fall from changing tables.(See the following section onMontessori in the Home formore parenting tips.)

Toilet Training: In the “head-down” development of theyoung child’s muscle con-trol, about halfway throughthe process comes the devel-opment of sphincter control

of the bladder and bowels.This process usually begins byten to twelve months, and a

child can be out of diapers by eight-een months on the average and cer-tainly by twenty-four months. Chang-ing diapers in the bathroom allowsparents to be able to work with thechild on using the potty chair or toilet.

Arm and Hand Control: In addition tothe “head-down” development ofmovement, there is development fromthe center out, referring to the armsand the hands. During the first fewmonths, babies move and swing theirarms with little control. Gradually atfour to six months they begin to gaincontrol of arm movement. Also at thisage they have the ability to graspobjects with their whole hand. Be-tween six and ten months theybecome able to use fewer and fewerfingers, until they begin to use a pincergrasp using the index finger and thethumb.

The Infant Classroom Environment:A Montessori infant classroom has anarea for the youngest babies, withquilts on the floor, mirrors at floorlevel, mobiles to observe, bat andgrasp; balls and rolling toys to “chase”by creeping; and rattles and objects tohold, shake, bang, and mouth.

In an all-day infant or toddler pro-gram, there are low beds available fornaps. A half-day program may just have

(Above) During the child’s first year, provide an environment that encourages movement without usingcontainment devices such as playpens or “walkers.”

(Below) Montessori Infant-Toddler classrooms provide low beds or mats so that the children can get in and out of bed independently when they are tired.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

183

one low bed in case someone getssleepy.

Movement is critical to brain devel-opment — it is as necessary as nutri-tion! Most classes for children underage eighteen months will include astair with low steps and a railing for useby children who are beginning to crawland walk. The class will have bars andfurniture placed around the room onwhich young children can pull them-selves up. There will normally be walk-

ing wagons, which littleones can push before theycan take steps on theirown. As they begin to walk,there are push and pulltoys to take along.

As a general rule, inorder to encourage move-ment among childrenunder eighteen months,the less restrictive theclothing, the better. Roomsare kept quite warm andcozy, allowing infants andvery young children tospend time in comfortableclothing that does notinhibit their freedom ofmovement.

The infant classroomtypically contains one or two lowshelves with fine-motor activities suchas puzzles, bead-stringing, rings onposts, a pegboard with large pegs, andvarious containers to open and close,fill and empty.

Our recommendations are general-ly the same for home and school set-tings for children under twenty-fourmonths. At age two, we suggest somedifferences in how the home andschool environment are organized.

(Left) A mirror is a wonderful addition to anyinfant’s environment at home or at school.

The Infant Program

Practical Life for Infants

Practical Life is a major element inMontessori education for all age levels.For infants, Practical Life at this levelbasically allows their participation incaring for themselves and eating inde-pendently. As they reach fifteenmonths, toddlers love to spend timewith their hands in water.

Fine-Motor Control

To assist young children in gainingcontrol of their arms and hands, weprovide mobiles, rattles, and objects tograsp and move. Infants like to experi-ment and discover cause and effect,such as shaking a rattle or bangingthings around to make a noise.

As the pincer grasp develops (agenine to twelve months), we feed thechildren very small bits of food such asCheerios™ or grains of rice, which theycan pick up and bring to their mouths.As the child is gradually weaned frombreast or bottle to cups, we give thema small cup without a lid, about thesize of a shot glass, instead of a non-spillable toddler cup. We also providethem with a tiny pitcher and theybegin to pour their own drinks. Whenspoon feeding a child of five to ninemonths of age, allow the child to holdone spoon and the adult another, sothat they can make beginning attemptsto feed themselves.

Sensorial Development

All of an infant’s senses are functioningat birth. They grow more acute overthe years from birth to three.

Infants and toddlers are very inter-ested in sensorial experiences. For

(Above)During the first few months, young children refine their abilityto move their heads and control their eye movements.

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

184

infants, we provide rattles, bells, musicand the human voice for listening;mobiles and mirrors for visual stimula-tion, and varied textures for touching.Toddlers are learning to discriminatesounds, colors, and textures. Theyespecially enjoy the sensorial experi-ences of the outdoors: sand, water,dirt, leaves, sounds of birds, wind,raindrops, and the feeling of the sun or wind on their skin.

Language Development

Receptive Language

An infant hears its mother’s voicebefore birth and is intently listeningand watching mouth movements fromthe time of birth. Infants gain under-

(Above) The sandbox is a wonderful extensionof Practical Life for young students: pouring,scooping, using funnels, and cleaning the sandoff their shoes.

(Right) Using a child-sized mop in the toddler class is a much loved activity.

standing long before they can speak.They need to be exposed to languagewith the adults around them talking tothem and explaining what is happen-ing. We should tell the baby what weare going to do before we do it. Forexample, we might say, “I’m going tochange your diaper,” or “Let’s go getinto the car.” They begin to under-stand what we are telling them. Adultsshould just assume the baby under-stands them.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

185

By twelve months ofage, children are experi-menting with their voices,imitating sounds, andgenerally saying a fewwords. It is most impor-tant that adults talk andlisten to the child. In addi-tion, we must provide lan-guage materials such asbooks, objects, and pic-tures for naming.

The Young Toddler

Between the age of fifteen and eight-een months, toddlers have a newawareness of themselves as separate,unique people. They know it is possi-ble to act and to speak, but oftenthey are not yet able to do what theywould like.

This is often a frustrating time oflife. Aggression, such as pushing,

(Left) Having carefully selected containers ofthe right size with large mouths and lips forpouring, even very young children can developfine eye-hand control.

(Above) Children should feel that they can restwhen they are tired.

(Below) A toddler classroom at Montessori inthe Gardens, Dunedin, New Zealand.

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

186

hitting, and biting is fairly com-mon and is normally outgrown as the toddler gains speech and learns other techniques forcoping.

It can help tremendously for theadult to acknowledge rather thanjudge: “I know, you wanted theball and Stephen has it.” “You lookvery angry!” They do not yet havethe self-control to obey consistent-ly, so adults must supervise andoffer constructive activity.

Practical Life for Toddlers

Once the toddler is walking (onaverage at about twelve months),this frees their hands for work.Their new interest is in accom-

(Left and above) Bathroom activities are an important part of Practical Lifefor the infant and toddler. The bathroom is prepared with a mat on thefloor for changing diapers. Once they can stand, the child’s clothes arechanged while the child is standing up. A potty chair and toilet are provid-ed. A child-sized toilet is ideal, but if that is not available, we can put asmaller seat on the toilet and a stool to help them get up on the toilet independently. Unless we have a low sink, there must be a stool highenough for children to wash their own hands.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

187

MONTESSORI PROGRAMS

188

plishing things with their hands. Theywant to imitate what they see adultsdoing, and they want to gain inde-pendence. Adults will observe begin-ning signs that the child is interested indressing and undressing himself. Thechild will also become interested intasks such as brushing their own hairand putting things away around thehouse.

Because the child is just discoveringthat he is a separate person from his parents, he very strongly assertsthis independence. The wise adultallows toddlers to have independenceto explore and to make choices with-in a safe environment. We need to give freedom within the security oflimits and within a loving and trustingrelationship.

The toddler needs more independ-ence at home. Parents need to stepback and allow them to do things forthemselves. Toddlers can also benefitfrom attending a Montessori classwhere they have some independencefrom parents and lots of opportunityfor exploration and learning. Becausethey are gaining coordination of theirhands, toddlers enjoy fine-motor tasks,such as puzzles and stringing beads.They also enjoy the challenge of cook-ing and can help prepare food at homeand at school. Practical Life activitiesfor toddlers are simpler than at thethree-to-six level and follow simplerlines. The young child enjoys activities,such as table washing, hand washing,dish washing, sweeping, and mopping.

Sensory Training

At the toddler level, Montessori pro-grams tend to place far more emphasison Sensorial activities. Generally thesewill be at the lower end of the normalthree-to-six Sensorial activities. As withthe Sensorial activities found at thethree-to-six level, Sensorial activitieschallenge the younger child to matchobjects by size, shape, color, or to

solve simple puzzles. Toddlers enjoysensorial exploration of water, sand,dirt, clay, textured objects, the smell offlowers and food, discriminating size,color, and sound.

Language

Between eighteen months and agetwo, there tends to be an explosioninto spoken language, with young chil-dren learning new words every day.First we hear them speak using mostlynouns: “ball” instead of “please giveme the ball,” or “I threw the ball.Hooray for me!”

As they learn to speak in phrases,toddlers begin to add the other partsof speech. Most of their vocabulary is present by their third year, andresearchers estimate that most chil-dren have learned seventy percent ofthe vocabulary they will use as adultsby age three.

In Montessori Infant-Toddler envi-ronments, we provide language mate-rials such as books, objects and pictures for naming, but most impor-tant is that the adult talk and listen tothe child.

Art

Toddlers enjoy basic creative worksuch as cutting paper, gluing, coloringwith chalk and crayons, painting withwatercolors or at an easel.

Music

We can provide music in several ways. We may sing with a large groupof children, or just one or two. Musicneed not be limited to a certain time ofthe day. Toddlers are learning lan-guage, so they are interested in thewords as well as the melody.

Some can sing along; some still listen. They are learning to controltheir movements, so they enjoy simplefinger plays and movements to music.It is important that we do not expecttoddlers to sit as a group for a longperiod.

For part of the day, we may have var-ied background music playing. Certainsongs could signal transitions in theschedule. Toddlers could also have theopportunity to choose music and lis-ten on head phones. This can be verycalming.

Toddlers learn lessons ingrace andcourtesy byshaking hands withtheir guidesand visitorsto their classroom.

MONTESSORI INFANT-TODDLER PROGRAMS

189