Moral Reasoning and Moral Reasoning and Moral DevelopmentMoral Development

Research on the Woman’s Research on the Woman’s PerspectivePerspective

J.M. Beller, Ph.D.J.M. Beller, Ph.D.

Center for ETHICS*Center for ETHICS*

Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan

““In a Different Voice”In a Different Voice”

1977, 19811977, 1981

Moral reasoning is Moral reasoning is delimited by “...two moral delimited by “...two moral perspectives that organize perspectives that organize

thinking in different thinking in different ways.”ways.”

Men: define morality in terms of Men: define morality in terms of justice.justice.

Women: less in terms of rights and Women: less in terms of rights and more in terms of standards of more in terms of standards of responsibility and care.responsibility and care.

Gilligan’s Perspective:Gilligan’s Perspective:

Males = typically a justice/rights Males = typically a justice/rights orientationorientation

Females = care response orientationFemales = care response orientation Orientations arise form rational Orientations arise form rational

experiences of inequality and experiences of inequality and attachmentattachment– Girls attached to and identify with mothersGirls attached to and identify with mothers– Boys attached to mothers and identify with Boys attached to mothers and identify with

fathersfathers

Believes that:Believes that:

That response orientation is of a higher That response orientation is of a higher order than justice rights orientationorder than justice rights orientation

Because Kohlberg’s theory is Because Kohlberg’s theory is hierarchical with justice/rights the hierarchical with justice/rights the basis--women would necessarily show a basis--women would necessarily show a less reasoned perspective on his scales. less reasoned perspective on his scales.

First studies of Kohlberg only conducted First studies of Kohlberg only conducted with menwith men

The two perspectives are The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a not opposite ends of a

continuum, “...with justice continuum, “...with justice uncaring and caring uncaring and caring

unjust...”, but rather, “...a unjust...”, but rather, “...a different method of different method of organizing the basic organizing the basic elements of moral elements of moral

judgment: self, others, and judgment: self, others, and the relationship between the relationship between

them.”them.”(Gilligan(Gilligan, 1987, p.22), 1987, p.22)

““One moral perspective One moral perspective dominates psychological dominates psychological

thinking and is embedded thinking and is embedded in the most widely used in the most widely used measures for measuring measures for measuring

maturity of moral maturity of moral reasoning.”reasoning.”

C. Gilligan, 1987, p.22C. Gilligan, 1987, p.22

Gilligan’s TheoryGilligan’s Theory

Based on two observational studies.

Study One: 25 college students

Study Two: 29 women considering abortion

Gilligan’s Research:Gilligan’s Research:

“shift[s] the focus of attention from ways people reason about hypothetical dilemmas to ways people construct moral conflicts and choice in their lives...and [makes] it possible to see what experiences people define in moral terms, and to explore the relationship between the understanding of moral problems and the reasoning strategies used and the actions taken in attempting to solve them.” Gilligan, 1987, p.21

Alternative Stage Alternative Stage Sequence:Sequence:

Three levels with transitional phases between each:

Level One:Level One: Complete concern for self.

Transitional Phase: From self to care and concern for others.

Level TwoLevel Two

Level Two: Primary interest in the care of others (to gain their acceptance).

Transitional Phase: awareness of self relative to developing relationships with others: responsibility toward their care and needs.

Level ThreeLevel Three

Level Three: Nonviolence and universal caring

“articulates an ethic of responsibility that focuses on the actual consequences of choice,,,the criterion of adequacy or moral principles changes from objective truth to ‘best fit’, and can only be established within the context of the dilemma itself.”

Murphy and Gilligan, 1980, p.83

Good Points:Good Points:

Concept of care giving and nurturingConcept of care giving and nurturing Relationship of self to others, Relationship of self to others,

responsibilityresponsibility EmpathyEmpathy Effect on environmentEffect on environment

Problems: Walker’s Problems: Walker’s Response Response (1984, p.679)(1984, p.679)

““Unfortunately, the only data that Unfortunately, the only data that have been presented as yet to have been presented as yet to support this proposed stage support this proposed stage

sequence have been sequence have been anecdotal...None of the usual types anecdotal...None of the usual types

of evidence for a stage sequence of evidence for a stage sequence (i.e. longitudinal, cross-sectional, (i.e. longitudinal, cross-sectional,

or experimental) has been or experimental) has been reported...Nor has she provided an reported...Nor has she provided an explanation as to why makes and explanation as to why makes and

females may develop different females may develop different orientations to moral judgment.”orientations to moral judgment.”

Flanagan’s Response Flanagan’s Response 1982, p.511:1982, p.511:

““One has to wonder why in two One has to wonder why in two decades of research by decades of research by

hundreds of Kohlbergians this hundreds of Kohlbergians this new stage was not noticed new stage was not noticed before...One has to fear the before...One has to fear the existence of the Rosenthal existence of the Rosenthal

effect--fear, that is, that the effect--fear, that is, that the experimenter’s preferences may experimenter’s preferences may

have carried the data rather have carried the data rather than the other way around.”than the other way around.”

Research Problems:Research Problems:

Non-random sample selectionNon-random sample selection Rosenthal Effect, Hawthorne EffectRosenthal Effect, Hawthorne Effect Determination of stage theory Determination of stage theory

through subjective interviewing through subjective interviewing techniques.techniques.

Non-replication of findingsNon-replication of findings

Hawthorne Effect:Hawthorne Effect:

Subjects may try harder Subjects may try harder simply because they are simply because they are

in the control group.in the control group.

Rosenthal Effect:Rosenthal Effect:

Researcher’s biases tend Researcher’s biases tend to sway the results to be to sway the results to be

what the researcher what the researcher wants to findwants to find

Research Problems Research Problems continued...continued... Small sample sizesSmall sample sizes Generalizations from Case Generalizations from Case

study, interview approachstudy, interview approach Only evaluated women...Only evaluated women... Her later writings do not Her later writings do not

support earlier work (1987 on).support earlier work (1987 on). Has led to a blind following by Has led to a blind following by

supporters...supporters...

““Rather than arguing over the Rather than arguing over the extent to which sex bias is extent to which sex bias is

inherent in Kohlberg’s theory of inherent in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, it might be moral development, it might be more appropriate to ask why the more appropriate to ask why the

myth that males are more myth that males are more advanced in moral reasoning advanced in moral reasoning

than females persists in light of than females persists in light of such little evidence.” such little evidence.”

Walker, 1984, p.688Walker, 1984, p.688

Gilligan’s response:Gilligan’s response:

Response orientation morally superiorResponse orientation morally superior Two orientations are fundamentally Two orientations are fundamentally

incompatible, but ones that are equally incompatible, but ones that are equally valid and acceptable for the respective valid and acceptable for the respective sexessexes

Complimentary perspectives maintained Complimentary perspectives maintained in some dynamic tensionin some dynamic tension

Each orientation is deficient without the Each orientation is deficient without the otherother

3. No specified mechanism for 3. No specified mechanism for developmentdevelopment

4. Politically dangerous to say that 4. Politically dangerous to say that sexes differ in their basic life sexes differ in their basic life orientationsorientations

5. How does the ethic of care include 5. How does the ethic of care include notions of impartiality and notions of impartiality and generalizability?generalizability?

6. The two orientations are logically 6. The two orientations are logically and psychologically incompatible.and psychologically incompatible.(perhaps alpha bias--tendency to (perhaps alpha bias--tendency to exaggerate differences) exaggerate differences)

7. Gilligan’s definition of Kohlberg’s 7. Gilligan’s definition of Kohlberg’s justice/right’s orientation may be justice/right’s orientation may be inadequate and unrepresentative inadequate and unrepresentative of his theory.of his theory.

Kohlbgerg’s Moral stage Kohlbgerg’s Moral stage theory:theory:

He neither predicts nor requires He neither predicts nor requires sex differences in either sex differences in either developmental pathway or rate of developmental pathway or rate of development.development.

Order through stages = invariant, Order through stages = invariant, hierarchical, universal.hierarchical, universal.

Determinant of RateDeterminant of Rate

Attainment of prerequisite levels of Attainment of prerequisite levels of cognitive and perspective taking cognitive and perspective taking development---moral reasoning has a development---moral reasoning has a basis in cognition.basis in cognition.

Studies indicate the attainment of Studies indicate the attainment of moral stage requires the prior or moral stage requires the prior or concomitant attainment of the parallel concomitant attainment of the parallel cognitive and perspective taking cognitive and perspective taking stage.stage.

Interaction provide the cognitive and Interaction provide the cognitive and social disequilibrium needed to social disequilibrium needed to induce developmentinduce development

Experiences arise through Experiences arise through interpersonal relationships with interpersonal relationships with family, friends, participation in family, friends, participation in economic, political, legal institutions, economic, political, legal institutions, education, occupation, citizenship…..education, occupation, citizenship…..

Sources of sex bias in Sources of sex bias in these two theories:these two theories:

Sex of the theorist (is it possible that a Sex of the theorist (is it possible that a theorist may not fully and adequately theorist may not fully and adequately describe the moral thinking of persons describe the moral thinking of persons of the opposite sex?)of the opposite sex?)

The Ideological basis for the moral The Ideological basis for the moral theory.theory.– Kohlberg--western moral philosophy/liberal Kohlberg--western moral philosophy/liberal

social sciencesocial science– Gilligan -- contemporary feminismGilligan -- contemporary feminism

Measure of moral functioning Measure of moral functioning advocated by the approach:advocated by the approach:– Kohlberg: hypothetical dilemmas, Kohlberg: hypothetical dilemmas,

unfamiliar issues, detached emotional unfamiliar issues, detached emotional involvementinvolvement

– Kohlberg: male protagonistsKohlberg: male protagonists– Gilligan: reliance on participants’ Gilligan: reliance on participants’

recall discussion of actual dilemmas recall discussion of actual dilemmas from their personal experiencefrom their personal experience

– Gilligan’s dilemmas = ideosyncratic-Gilligan’s dilemmas = ideosyncratic-interpretation of individuals; interpretation of individuals; reasoning is fraught with confounds.reasoning is fraught with confounds.

The original sample upon which The original sample upon which the theories’ constructs were the theories’ constructs were derived.derived.– Kohlberg = male samplesKohlberg = male samples– Gilligan = female samplesGilligan = female samples