more than smiles – employee empowerment facilitating...
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More than smiles i
More than smiles – Employee Empowerment
facilitating the delivery of high quality, consistent services
in tourism and hospitality
byDawn Jocelyn Alexis Gibson
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of ArtsDepartment of Tourism and Hospitality
The University of the South PacificDecember, 2003
����Dawn Jocelyn Alexis Gibson, 2003.
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DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I, Dawn Jocelyn Alexis Gibson declare that this thesis is my own work and
that, to the best of my knowledge, it contains no material previously published, or
substantially overlapping with material submitted for the award of any other degree at
any institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text.
Dawn Gibson
27th January, 2004
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the many people who contributed to the completion of
this thesis.
This study would not have been possible without the supervision of David
Short whose guidance, assistance, advice and support encouraged me to complete this
study, and for this I am very grateful.
To Robert and Linda Miller, David and Jill Gilmour and the employees of the
Wakaya Club Resort, who afforded me the privilege of undertaking my case study
research at the Wakaya Club Resort. I will always be indebted to you for the
moments I was able to share your paradise with you.
I would also like to thank the staff of the Tourism and Hospitality and
Management and Public Administration Departments of the University of the South
Pacific for giving me the knowledge and skills to pursue this study. In this respect I
would like to extend my special thanks to Dr. Ropate Qalo, Dr. Tracy Berno, Carol
Frodey, Nanise Talikai, Dr. Stephen Doorne and Sala Vakalala for their assistance and
advice.
To Robert Patterson, his driver Hussein, my brother Lionel and his wife Fanny
and my house girl Joanna for their support over the years in helping me care for my
son Edward.
I thank you all wholeheartedly and will always remember your help and
kindness.
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DEDICATION
To my son Edward, whose life I thank God for every day, and dedicate this work to. I
know you have had a difficult five years, but I will always remember how well you
handled this challenge with me at this point in your young life.
You have been my inspiration and by showing love, patience and understanding
beyond your years have made this possible.
Finally, to my father, whose dream for me I was not able to achieve in his lifetime.
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ABSTRACT
Tourism and Hospitality service organisations are increasingly searching for
suitable management strategies that enable the delivery of consistent quality services
to guests, resulting in enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty. To this end, an
approach that has gained much support in academic discourse, is employee
empowerment. Empowered frontline employees have the potential to increase service
quality, due to inherent characteristics of services, which require the presence of both
the consumer and frontline employee in the production process. However, more
recently, questions have also been raised as to the applicability of western designed
management concepts to multi-ethnic workforces within less developed countries like
Fiji. More realistic implementation of western management strategies are likely to be
more successful if they have been adapted to consider cross-cultural management and
the different characteristics of national cultures.
Tourism and hospitality related organisations in Fiji are constantly plagued
with problems related to the delivery of high quality consistent services. This thesis
examined the extent to which employee empowerment could provide a potential
solution to this problem. A case study of The Wakaya Club was used as an example
of a local service organisation that practised employee empowerment.
Findings from the case study showed, that employee empowerment evolved at
the resort, as an inherent part of the high quality luxury tourism service that they offer,
and was not specifically implemented. By careful research and planning, together
with a clear customer orientation and understanding of their elite travel target market’s
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needs and expectations, consistent enhanced service quality has been maintained at the
resort. Within their planning and operational procedures and policies, cultural
characteristics of their multi-ethnic employees, who are predominantly indigenous
Fijian, have been taken into consideration.
Employee empowerment, as it exists at Wakaya, is however, largely dependent
on the complexity and type of service being delivered, and the extent to which
employee or guest discretion impacts on guest satisfaction, and ultimate enhanced
service quality. Wakaya is one of the few organisations in Fiji that consistently
manages to deliver a quality world class tourism and hospitality service, and their
practices have the potential to create significant improvements if transferred to other
service organisations in tourism, hospitality and Fiji generally.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY........................................................................II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................III
DEDICATION................................................................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................... VII
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM ................ 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................2
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY...................................................................................6
THE FIJI CONTEXT............................................................................................8
ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY.......................................................................10
Research Problem.....................................................................................10
Objectives .................................................................................................10
Chapter Outlines.......................................................................................11
SUMMARY......................................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW....................................... 15
BACKGROUND ...............................................................................................18
ROOTS OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT ...........................................................19
DIMENSIONS OF EMPOWERMENT....................................................................21
Leadership ................................................................................................21
Individual perspectives on empowerment.................................................22
Teamwork .................................................................................................22
Structural change......................................................................................23
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF SERVICES................................................................24
EMPOWERMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM) .................26
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND EMPOWERMENT.........................................28
STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING EMPOWERMENT .........................................29
EMPOWERMENT IN SERVICE INDUSTRIES........................................................31
EMPOWERMENT IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY.............................................32
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Previous studies of empowerment in tourism and hospitality ..................33
Task dimension.....................................................................................34
Power dimension ..................................................................................34
Commitment dimension........................................................................34
Cultural dimension................................................................................36
Empowering employees to make routine decisions..............................39
Empowering employees to improve the system ...................................40
PROBLEMS, MYTHS & LIMITATIONS..............................................................42
SUMMARY......................................................................................................45
CHAPTER THREE THE INFLUENCE OF NATIONAL CULTURE
ON SERVICES MANAGEMENT – THE FIJI CONTEXT.............. 49
HOFSTEDE’S THEORY ON NATIONAL CULTURES .............................................50
Power Distance.........................................................................................51
Individualism/Collectivism .......................................................................51
Masculinity/Femininity .............................................................................53
Uncertainty Avoidance .............................................................................54
Time ..........................................................................................................54
“Fiji Time”............................................................................................54
THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON MANAGERIAL APPROACHES ........................55
RELEVANCE OF HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS TO FIJI ........................56
CULTURE AND EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT IN FIJI..........................................57
INDIGENOUS FIJIAN CULTURE ........................................................................59
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY – FIJI.................................................................59
CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS OF SERVICES IN FIJI ................................................61
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................62
CHAPTER FOUR MODELS OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT63
RELATIONAL OR MOTIVATIONAL MODELS OF EMPOWERMENT .......................64
Lashley’s Five Dimensional Framework..................................................65
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Nixon and Cook’s Five-point empowerment strategy .............................65
Bowen and Lawler ....................................................................................66
Wilkinson’s Five management motivations for empowerment .................68
Information sharing ..............................................................................68
Upward problem solving ......................................................................69
Task autonomy......................................................................................69
Attitudinal shaping................................................................................69
Self management ..................................................................................69
The Cycle of Capability Model .................................................................70
Customer-employee Satisfaction Mirror ..............................................70
Creating a Cycle of Capability .............................................................71
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................71
CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH METHODS ....................................... 73
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................74
RESEARCH PROBLEM .....................................................................................74
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES..................................................................................75
METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................77
RESEARCH METHODS .....................................................................................77
Case study.................................................................................................78
DATA COLLECTION ........................................................................................80
Historical research ...................................................................................81
Participant observation ............................................................................81
Interviews..................................................................................................82
In-depth interviews ...............................................................................82
Focus interviews ...................................................................................82
Telephone interviews............................................................................83
Questionnaire design and Data Analysis .................................................84
Self-administered questionnaires..........................................................84
Analysis of company documentation ........................................................85
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Location of data........................................................................................86
Population.................................................................................................86
Sample.......................................................................................................87
Problem recognition/Limitations of the study ..........................................87
Benefits .....................................................................................................88
Coding.......................................................................................................89
Statistical Analysis....................................................................................89
Reliability and Validity .............................................................................90
Results/Findings .......................................................................................90
Ethical considerations ..............................................................................91
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................91
CHAPTER SIX CASE STUDY: THE WAKAYA CLUB - FIJI ...... 92
HISTORY ........................................................................................................93
VISION STATEMENT .......................................................................................94
WAKAYA MANAGEMENT RESEARCH FINDINGS.............................................94
Employee selection ...................................................................................95
Employee training.....................................................................................96
Employee recognition and rewards ..........................................................97
Monetary rewards .................................................................................97
Non-monetary rewards .........................................................................98
Internal employee promotion..............................................................100
Guest feedback....................................................................................100
EMPLOYEE LATITUDE IN DECISION-MAKING ................................................101
COMMUNICATIONS ......................................................................................103
Vertical/ Two way communication .........................................................103
Downward communication.................................................................104
Upward communication......................................................................104
Horizontal communication .....................................................................107
RATIONALISED PROCESS ..............................................................................108
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EXPECTATION MANAGEMENT – EMPLOYEES...............................................109
The service delivery process...................................................................111
Line of Interaction ..............................................................................111
Line of Visibility.................................................................................113
Line of Internal Interaction - Systems ...............................................114
STANDARDISATION OF SERVICE BEHAVIOUR AND ACTIONS..........................116
Formal service standards and goals.......................................................117
Customer defined standards ...................................................................118
Hard customer defined standards........................................................118
Soft customer defined standards.........................................................120
One -time fixes ...................................................................................121
FACILITATING TANGIBLES (INTERNAL CUSTOMER)......................................122
AUGMENTED PRODUCT OR SERVICE.............................................................123
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS ....................................................................................125
PRICE...........................................................................................................126
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF OVERALL QUALITY ................................................127
Servicescape ...........................................................................................128
Facility exterior...................................................................................128
Facility interior ...................................................................................129
Other tangibles....................................................................................130
BRAND IMAGE..............................................................................................133
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND PROMOTING SERVICES......................134
Publicity & Advertising ..........................................................................135
Personal selling ......................................................................................136
Word of mouth ........................................................................................137
Past experience.......................................................................................137
PRIVACY ......................................................................................................138
EXPECTATION MANAGEMENT – GUESTS .....................................................139
Beyond expectations and managed service encounters..........................139
UNOBTRUSIVE MANAGEMENT STYLE ...........................................................141
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AMBIENCE ...................................................................................................141
SERVICE ENCOUNTERS.................................................................................142
Anticipating critical incidents.................................................................143
LOYALTY.....................................................................................................146
HUMAN RESOURCE CONSULTANT INTERVIEW ..............................................147
WAKAYA EMPLOYEE RESEARCH FINDINGS ...................................................149
Respondent demographics ......................................................................149
Training ..................................................................................................154
Teamwork ...............................................................................................155
Supportive work environment .................................................................157
Customer satisfaction & Latitude to meet customer needs ....................159
Clear limits on and expectations of employees.......................................160
Rewards and recognition........................................................................160
Employee satisfaction .............................................................................161
EMPLOYEE INTERVIEWS & OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS ................161
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................161
CHAPTER SEVEN DATA INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION
................................................................................................................ 163
EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT..........................................................................164
Leaders role in creating a supportive environment................................165
The individual perspective......................................................................166
Teamwork ...............................................................................................166
Changes to process or systems ...............................................................167
Multidimensional perspectives ...............................................................167
LEADERSHIP ................................................................................................168
VISION & MISSION STATEMENTS ..................................................................173
COMMUNICATION.........................................................................................174
Organisational values.............................................................................179
TRAINING AND SKILLS PROVISION ................................................................180
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Interpersonal skills .................................................................................181
CLEAR ORGANISATIONAL LIMITS & BOUNDARIES ........................................182
CLEAR GOALS AND EXPECTATIONS OF EMPLOYEES ......................................185
TEAMWORK..................................................................................................185
SUPPORTIVE WORK ENVIRONMENT...............................................................186
INCREASED AUTONOMY/LATITUDE...............................................................187
RECOGNITION AND REWARDS.......................................................................188
EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION ............................................................................189
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE...........................................................................190
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................191
CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
................................................................................................................ 192
CONCLUSIONS ..............................................................................................193
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY.....................................................202
REFERENCE LIST..........................................................................................207
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Graphical analysis and discussion of Employee Questionnaire .........218
Appendix 2: Wakaya Guest Comments. February – August, 2003.........................315
Appendix 3. The Wakaya Club Employee Questionnaire........................................324
Appendix 4. The Wakaya Club in-depth management interview outline questions.327
Appendix 5. Outline questions for in-depth frontline employee interviews. ...........329
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Questions associated with the Cycle of Capability ...................................330
Figure 2: The Satisfaction Mirror ..............................................................................331
Figure 3: Factors affecting relationships with the Service Triangle.........................332
Figure 4: The empowerment process - Sarah Cook....................................................333
Figure 5. The Three Dimensional Model for Enhanced Customer Service
(3DMECS)..................................................................................................................334
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Cultural Distances according to power distance ...........................................52
Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews.............................................335
Table 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires......................................336
Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation ..........................................337
Table 5. Research on creating an empowerment culture & management strategy....338
Table 6. Empowerment in training and development and employee participation ...339
Table 7. Empowerment implementation techniques and empowering teams ...........340
Table 8. Managerial meanings of empowerment ......................................................341
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
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INTRODUCTION
Many contemporary service organisations are facing the challenges created by
competitive global markets, advances in technology and the need to provide quality
products for consumers, with continuously changing needs and expectations.
Attracting and retaining these customers, has become increasingly difficult as
companies compete to meet or exceed customer expectations (Blum, 1996). These
organisations now recognise the vital role service delivery plays in differentiating their
products from their competition. Expert opinion and research contend that the
delivery of quality service products can result in a ‘delighted’ more loyal customer and
increased competitive advantage (Lashley, 1995a; Lashley, 1999; Augustyn, 1998;
Hales & Klidas, 1998). For these reasons, a great deal of industry and academic
attention has focused on finding strategic tools related to improving the service
encounter.
The tourism industry is characterised by employees with limited education and
skill levels, and low pay, who work long hours within a system that operates “24 hours
per day, 365 days per year” (International Labour Organisation [ILO], 2000). In the
past, tourism organisations had many hierarchies, consisting of “command and control
systems and top-down vertical communications, … often with little horizontal
communication” (ILO, 2000). In many of these companies, the general order of the
day was that “managers do the thinking, supervisors do the talking, and employees do
what they are told” (Potter, 1994, p.6). Traditional methods for motivating employees
and increasing job performance and satisfaction have included the use of strategies
like: “pep talks, quality circles, more pay, job enrichment, … suggestion schemes,
[and] more communication from senior management” (Potter, p.6). However, in
reality, improvements emanating from these strategies have been short-lived.
Effective motivation is intrinsic and improved employee performance and job
satisfaction is dependent on employees working within a supportive organisational
culture where they feel their individual contribution is valued (Potter, 1994).
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Many service organisations are ‘delayering’ by reducing their hierarchies, and
through innovative leadership are providing supportive environments for their
employees (Lashley, 1995b; Erstad, 1997; Sykes, Simpson & Shipley, 1997;
Wilkinson, 1998; Lashley, 1999). By using effective human resource management
strategies like employee empowerment, these organisations are responding well to
increasingly diverse workforces, changing customer needs, increased competition and
globalisation (Blum, 1996, p.20).
Opinions on the benefits accrued to employee empowerment are diverse.
Critics view it as a new management strategy to engage increased organisational
control and commitment from employees (Klidas, 2002). Advocates see it as a ‘soft’
form of human resource management, that can provide significant benefits to
organisations, by contributing to improved service quality, customer satisfaction, and
the maintenance of competitive advantage (Lashley & McGoldrick, 1994).
Furthermore, Lashley (1995a) claimed that empowerment has many significant
benefits to offer tourism and hospitality related businesses as empowered employees
are more responsive to customer needs during frontline service encounters. They are
able to respond more effectively to customer complaints, resulting in successful
service recovery and in some cases substantive loyalty (Cook & Macaulay, 1997;
Rafiq & Ahmed, 1998a; Boshoff & Allen, 2000). During this process, employees
“develop a sense of ownership taking personal pride in ensuring that service
encounters are a success” (Lashley, 1996, p.333).
However, a more objective perspective suggests that claims for employee
empowerment need to consider the diverse meanings and forms of empowerment,
managerial intentions for empowerment, and the organisational contexts within which
employees are empowered (Lashley, 1999; Klidas 2002). Different contexts and
managerial intentions represent different outcomes and benefits for managers and
employees. Furthermore, management intentions for empowerment are significantly
influenced by the feelings and behaviour of their employees (Lashley, 1996; Lashley
2001).
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Whilst service industries like tourism are primarily dependent on the effective
performance of their employees for success, employees today are also being required
to show initiative, creativity and "accept responsibility for their actions" (Quinn &
Spreitzer, 1997, p.37). Past interest in employee empowerment has mainly focused
on manufacturing sectors, with relatively little attention given to its use and
application within service industries until fairly recently (Rafiq et al., 1998a).
Employee empowerment is an initiative, associated with management concerns with
improving service quality and gaining competitive advantage in global markets
(Lashley et, 1994). Service organisations today, are facing increased pressure to
implement empowerment, thus attaining competitive advantage through improved
service quality and customer responsiveness (Clutterbuck & Kernaghan, 1994).
The concept of employee empowerment is difficult to define and exists in
many forms with varying degrees of involvement (Bowen and Lawler, 1992; Lashley,
1999; Honold, 1999), dependent on the “different managerial intentions” (Lashley,
2001) found within individual organisations. Furthermore, the levels of
standardisation or customisation during the service delivery process are additional
factors that influence the form of empowerment. Organisations can create an
environment, within which employees are encouraged to take ownership, and be
empowered to fulfil different customer needs (Cook et al., 1996; Rafiq et al., 1998a;
Lashley, 1999). Management and employee strategies that encourage empowerment
are influential in shaping organisational procedures and policies on: recruitment and
selection; induction; training; rewards; and employee appraisals (Lashley, 1999).
Research has shown that empowerment can refer to a variety of dimensions
which include: “control of one’s own work, autonomy on the job, variations of
teamwork, and pay systems that link pay with performance” (Honold, 1997, p.202).
These dimensions are dependent on individual employee’s abilities and desire for
empowerment. Other dimensions consist of management techniques which facilitate
empowerment, but where individual employees are able to choose to be empowered or
not. Honold (1997, p.202) claimed that “leaders create an environment where
individuals are able to make that choice. [In order that empowerment is implemented
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successfully] each organisation must create and define it for itself”, addressing their
own cultures and unique requirements. Consequently, it is argued that empowerment
is a concept, which, even when accepted by management, needs to be adopted
voluntarily (Hand, 1995), with employees having “some intrinsic motivation to make
a contribution” (Colemen 1996, p.35).
Along with their western counterparts, organisations in less developed
countries (LDCs), like Fiji, also experience problems delivering consistent, quality
services (Rust & Oliver, 1994). Although the issue of quality service delivery may be
universal, the reasons why these problems persist in Fiji, may be due to a variety of
additional unique factors. This research thesis has investigated this problem in the
context of the tourism hotel and resort accommodation sector in Fiji.
Unsatisfactory service experiences are frequently the subject of conversation in
Fiji, and the tourism and hospitality sectors are no exception. Why is this? Is it a
reflection of local management styles? Is it the lack of understanding of international
consumer expectations and needs? Is it the lack of rudimentary human resource
management practices like: training and selection, motivation, incentive and reward
schemes, employee empowerment etc.? Is it the influence of traditional cultural
factors? Are management practices inappropriate having been designed to work
within predominantly Western Anglo-Saxon cultures (Klidas, 2002). Alternatively, is
it a combination of all these factors?
Many of these challenges are universal and global tourism and hospitality
service organisations like Ritz-Carlton, and Marriott, have successfully reorganised
their work environment to provide more responsive quality services and increased
customer satisfaction (Brookshaw, 1993). These companies have redesigned their
organisational structures by reducing internal hierarchies. By using human resource
management initiatives, like employee empowerment they have created flatter, more
dynamic organisations, with the flexibility to deal with the changing needs of their
customers (Lashley, 1999). How and to what extent can a management initiative like
employee empowerment be used in Fiji?
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In order to understand this, we have to examine the organisational structures,
and unique cultural factors that influence the motivation and behaviour of managers
and employees in Fiji. Only then can we hope to achieve some understanding of why
consistent service delivery is difficult for many service organisations to attain in Fiji.
A further factor to consider in Fiji, is that either foreign multi-national corporations, or
private individuals, whose top-level management, is predominantly expatriate, own
many of the hotels and resorts. Are their management styles effective when
attempting to motivate a predominantly indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian workforce?
Can empowerment provide local employees with the tools to deliver more responsive
quality service to international tourists? These questions will be considered when
carrying out this study.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study examined the problem of maintaining competitive advantage
through the delivery of consistent quality services in tourism and hospitality. It
specifically focused on hotels and resorts in Fiji, and explored the extent to which a
western management technique like employee empowerment can provide a solution.
Research findings were interpreted and discussed, using Hofstede’s theory of national
cultures as a framework for any cultural interpretation, and the findings from the
review of related literature in Chapters 2, 3 and 4.
In Chapter 2, 3 and 4 secondary data were evaluated through a review of
literature related to the research problem. This included literature on service quality,
competitive advantage, employee empowerment, cross-cultural management, national
cultures and a brief background on Fiji. It included definitions, employee
empowerment models, support and criticisms of the concept, and previous research
on the use of empowerment in tourism and hospitality services. The literature review
has provided the secondary data within which to ground this research into employee
empowerment. Subsequent findings from the case study of the Wakaya Club resort
were interpreted using this secondary data as a source of academic theory, discourse
and results from previous research in this field.
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The purpose of this thesis was to gain an understanding of employee
empowerment in tourism and hospitality services. It has explored different
perspectives on how the implementation of empowerment could lead to superior
service quality and consistency, enabling organisations to gain competitive advantage
within a global marketplace. Previous research has found that organisations could
gain substantial benefits by encouraging employee empowerment (Lashley, 1995a).
From the organisation’s viewpoint benefits related mainly to improved
responsiveness to customers, consistent quality service delivery, employee
commitment, delighted customers and financial success. For the employee,
empowerment allowed them increased power and control of decision-making and
service delivery, and thus increased employee satisfaction and self-efficacy (Lashley,
1995b; Lashley, 1999).
Management approaches in Fiji are predominantly ‘top-down’, and senior
management make decisions, with little or no consultation with employees
(Nabalarua, 1999: Reddy, 2001), thus limiting opportunities for empowerment.
Tourism and hospitality service organisations in Fiji face many problems with
delivering consistent high quality services. To this end, case study research at the
Wakaya Club resort was undertaken, to explore the concept of employee
empowerment as a potential solution to these problems.
For organisations in less developed countries (LDCs), problems with service
quality and customer satisfaction are likely to be even more complex than their
western counterparts, given their need to motivate a multi-ethnic workforce, whose
behaviour is influenced by cultural traditions and expectations (Saffu, 2003). In
international tourism, the influence of national cultures on employee behaviour and
motivation is an important consideration, especially in LDCs, given the dominance of
expatriate ownership of tourism plant (Page, Brunt, Busby & Connell, 2001), and the
existence of mainly expatriate management who may lack the skills to manage cultural
differences (Bjerke, 1999; Banutu-Gomez, 2002).
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Despite the influence of globalisation on businesses, “the vast majority of
published literature on empowerment maintains an Anglo-Saxon cultural perspective”
(Klidas, 2002, p.2) with limited literature or research on the implications for applying
empowerment within a cross-cultural or international context. Consequently,
Western management criteria for success may be “inappropriate in an international
setting and may indeed be determinants of failure rather than the key to success”
(Harris & Kumra, 2000, p.602).
However, employee empowerment may not be a suitable management
technique to use on a predominantly traditional Fijian or Indo-Fijian workforce,
especially since research has found that successful empowerment requires the full
support of employees (Hand, 1995). Thus, the successful implementation of this
concept may require that empowerment strategies be redesigned with an
understanding of traditional indigenous and Indo-Fijian cultures, and how best to use
this management technique to motivate a local Fiji workforce. Results from the case
study provided the empirical data from which to explore the research problem within
the context of Fiji.
THE FIJI CONTEXT
The top-down management style of most organisations within Fiji, (Nabalarua,
1999; Reddy, 2001) also reflects the hierarchical traditional chiefly system, within
which most indigenous Fijians live, and influences employee behaviour and
willingness to accept responsibility and western concepts like empowerment.
Nabalarua (1999, p.10) stated that traditional and modern value systems coexist and
that “the cutting edge of work motivation lies in an ability to replicate old ideas and
practices in a form that accounts for particular local needs and circumstances”.
In Fiji, the two main ethnic cultures, in the main, reflect a large power
distance, which is characterised by the recognition and acceptance of different levels
of power in society. These levels of power between the powerful and powerless are
noticeable when addressing factors like social class, education and occupation
(Hofstede, 1984). Furthermore, the existence of “unequal distribution of power
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within institutions and society is generally accepted” (Saffu, 2003, p.64). Human
relationships that involve trust, commitment, and teamwork, are complex, and for
Pacific Islanders further compounded by cultural backgrounds, and traditional
communal obligations, thus requiring assumptions of differing motivational factors
(Qalo, 1997; Reddy, 2001). These cultural factors must be considered if Western
management techniques, like employee empowerment are to be accepted and
successfully implemented within organisations, as a solution to the problem of
consistent quality service delivery.
The implementation of management concepts like empowerment, require a
shift in leadership style and in particular the elimination of traditional autocratic and
directive leadership in favour of democratic and participative leadership (Lashley,
1997). This is particularly relevant within a multi-cultural context. Strategies for the
implementation of empowerment must be carefully developed, in order that employees
fully understand the concept and the level of support that they will receive from
management (Lashley, 1996). Employees need to be trained, coached and given the
tools to allow them to accept the concept and take responsibility for the role they play
within the service encounter and the delivery of a quality service (Tschohl, 1998;
Appelbaum, Hebert & Leroux, 1999).
Lack of understanding of empowerment, given the ethnicity of Fiji employees
may lead to a reluctance to accept the concept of empowerment, thus posing further
challenges to maintaining competitive advantage through high quality, consistent
service.
In the case of Fiji, additional factors that could potentially affect the delivery
of consistent high quality services include:
� Organisational management and human resource management approaches
� Lack of understanding of customer needs and expectations (in this case the
international tourist)
� National cultural factors like power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism/ collectivism, masculinity/femininity and time (Hofstede, 1984).
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� Lack of training in providing the necessary skill base for delivering quality service
This thesis will address these factors as sub-problems within the main research
problem of consistent quality service delivery in the hotel and resort accommodation
sectors of tourism in Fiji. These factors were considered when interpreting the results
of the primary and secondary data collection in Chapters 6 and 7.
ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
The broad objectives for this study are detailed below, together with a brief
outline of each of the eight chapters of this thesis. The chapters are described under
each objective, as each chapter represents a broad objective. Specific objectives
related to the case study are discussed in Chapter 5 - Research Methods.
Research Problem
Tourism and hospitality related organisations in Fiji have difficulty
maintaining consistent high quality services. Why is this? How can this be
improved? Previous research (Lashley, 1995a, 1996, 1999, 2001; Honold, 1997;
Cacioppe, 1998; Wilkinson, 1998) claimed services could greatly benefit from
empowering frontline employees. This study endeavours to understand the concept
of employee empowerment and its relationship to maintaining consistent quality
services and how the findings could be translated to tourism and hospitality services in
Fiji.
The broad objectives for this research study are outlined below. Each
objective broadly corresponds to a specific chapter in this thesis. Following the broad
objectives is a brief outline of each Chapter.
Objectives
1. Introduce the research problem, the local context and an overview of the study
(Chapter 1).
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2. Conduct an in-depth literature review on employee empowerment, that
establishes the relationship between empowerment, service quality and
customer satisfaction in tourism and hospitality (Chapter 2). The review will
also establish the progress of current research in this field.
3. Review literature on cross cultural management, and human resource
management in Fiji, to gain an understanding of the local context (Chapter 3).
4. Explore the different Models of Employee Empowerment that have been used
in past research (Chapter 4). These will provide the basis for the various
dimensions of empowerment, that can be used to discuss the findings from the
case study of Wakaya (See Chapter 7).
5. Design the Methodology for collecting both secondary and primary data for
this study (Chapter 5).
6. Conduct a case study of The Wakaya Club (TWC) resort, to provide the
empirical data on which to explore the concept in the context of Fiji (Chapter
6).
7. Critically analyse the findings from the case study of TWC, using the results
from the literature reviews on employee empowerment, cross cultural
management, and the dimensions from different empowerment models
(Chapter 7).
8. Draw conclusions and make recommendations for future research based on the
findings of both secondary and primary data collection, as to the suitability of
employee empowerment as a potential solution to the problem in Fiji (Chapter
8).
Chapter Outlines
� Chapter 1 introduces the research problem and provides a brief overview of the
study, and the key issues to consider when gaining a better understanding of the
Fiji work environment and local cultures.
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� Chapter 2 is an extensive literature review of employee empowerment, providing
an analysis of its potential as a management technique for improving service
quality within tourism and hospitality. Summaries in the form of tables from
research by Erstad in 1997, are provided as appendices, which outline previous
research on: Creating an empowerment culture & management strategy (Table 5);
Empowerment in training and development and employee participation (Table 6);
and Empowerment implementation techniques and empowering teams (Table 7).
Table 8 provides a summary of Managerial meanings of empowerment by
Lashley (1997).
� Chapter 3 is a literature review of cross-cultural management, with a background
on management in local Fiji organisations. There is a brief comment on the
importance of tourism in Fiji, in order to provide the industry context for this study
and justify its importance. Literature on the influence of national cultures on
employee behaviour, and definitions of Hofstede’s theory of national cultures is
reviewed. Hofstede’s theory will be used in Chapters 7 and 8, as a framework
from which to discuss any cultural elements of the research findings.
� Chapter 4 reviews some models of empowerment that have been used in previous
research. The key dimensions of these models and results of the literature review
will provide the framework for analysis for employee empowerment. This is
analysed in Chapters 7 and 8 using the findings from the case study of TWC.
� Chapter 5 – Research Methods, outlines the data collection process for both
secondary and primary data and provides justification for these research methods.
It also provides a brief outline of the research question, problems and sub-
problems and the relationship between the research questions and the problems
and sub-problems (Poynter, 1993). Tables 2-4 are provided as appendices to
describe the advantages and disadvantages of each research method used.
� Chapter 6 comprises the findings from the case study of The Wakaya Club. The
findings of management interviews are detailed followed by the results of the
employee survey questionnaire, and HRM consultant interview. The results of
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the employee questionnaire are described using pie graphs and short descriptions
of the results for the Importance and Agreement ratings of the questionnaire
statements, and have been placed in Appendix 1. As explained in Chapter 6, due
to limits placed on the length of this thesis, and to reduce repetition, data collected
from participant observation, employee in-depth interviews and open-ended survey
questions, were included as part of Chapter 7, as examples within the discussion
and interpretation. SPSS was used purely to provide descriptive statistics on
demographics for the case study, as well as confirm significant correlations
between different employee questionnaire statements and data collected from the
survey questionnaire.
� The findings of Chapter 6 form the basis for Chapter 7 – Data Interpretation and
Discussion. These findings were analysed in this chapter using relevant
academic theories and findings, which were the outcome of the literature reviews
in Chapters 2, 3 and Models of Empowerment described in Chapter 4. These
outcomes formed the basis for the interpretation and discussion of the implications
of these results.
� Chapter 8 comprises the conclusions and recommendations for future research
based on the findings of this study.
SUMMARY
In summary, this thesis focused on the problem of consistent service quality
and delivery as it exists within the hotel and resort accommodation sector in Fiji. It
endeavoured to investigate why these problems exist. Are the roots of these problems
similar to western service organisations, or are there factors within managing a
predominantly indigenous local workforce that require different strategies to motivate
employees to perform successful service encounters? Employee empowerment is
widely advocated as a solution for gaining “competitive advantage through improved
service quality” (Lashley, 1999, p.171) in international service organisations. Given
the success of empowerment in many western service organisations (Lashley, 1999),
would this technique have the same potential outcomes if implemented in service
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organisations in Fiji? To what extent is it possible to use Anglo-Saxon human
resource management techniques, like empowerment to motivate local employees, to
deliver quality consistent hospitality services?
The Fiji government has chosen international tourism as an alternative
development tool, and is actively promoting tourism growth through supportive
government policies and incentives. Thus, understanding the delivery of high quality
consistent services to global consumers within a competitive global marketplace is
imperative for the long-term sustainability of the tourism industry in Fiji, and
employee empowerment may be a way of ensuring this is achieved.
This research study is, in my opinion, important as limited previous research
exists on problems related to delivering consistent quality services within tourism in
Fiji. Furthermore, research into the use of employee empowerment from a cross-
cultural or international perspective is also sparse (Klidas, 2002). This study is also
necessary to gain a better understanding of the contribution western management
techniques, like empowerment, can make to the service quality problem as it exists
within the tourism accommodation sector in Fiji.
Chapter 2, which follows, consists of a review of relevant literature, and this
provides the theoretical background on employee empowerment and the potential
benefits it holds for maintaining consistent service quality.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
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In this section, related literature has been reviewed to establish the progress of
current research on the concept of employee empowerment, together with its
relationship to service quality and customer satisfaction, especially within tourism and
hospitality. This review includes a compilation of previous research, and a critical
analysis through: the summary, classification, comparison and evaluation of previous
literature (Education Development Unit, 2003).
Organisations today are experiencing difficulties developing and operating in
turbulent, uncertain, and more competitive global markets (Wyer & Mason, 1999).
Both practitioners and academics alike propose that organisations can only sustain
successful competitive advantage through the effective use of its human resources
(Wyer et al., 1999; Siegall & Gardner, 2000). This growth and competitiveness in
global business markets has led to increased interest in the importance of quality, and
consistent service delivery in achieving competitive advantage. Survival in
contemporary international business markets is dependent on organisations and
leaders developing visions and strategies that have their beginnings in “a commitment
to quality” (Scarnati & Scarnati, 2002, p.110).
Today, both manufacturing and service organisations demand more of their
employees. Apart from increased competition, this is also due to the influence of
more experienced consumers with higher customer expectations. Successful
organisations have recognised that “pleasing the customer is not a static process” and
continuous improvement is necessary to keep up with customers’ ever changing needs
(Scarnati et al., 2002, p.111). The onus now is on exceeding customer expectations
and ‘delighting’ customers through the provision of quality products and services
(Zeithaml & Bitner, 2000).
The role of today’s effective manager has changed, and now encompasses
those of an enabler and facilitator. Increased competition and “new opportunities,
both very much driven by globalisation and advanced technology, make full utilisation
of human resources necessary" (Coleman, 1996, p.29). Managers are involved in
developing their employees through their encouragement and support. Organisations
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now face many challenges due to the existence of problems relating to predictability
and consistency of service quality. Academic literature has acknowledged the crucial
role played by front line employees, in delivering consistent service quality (Horovirz
& Cudenne-Poon, 1990). One of the main reasons for this is that individual customers
define successful service encounters differently (Lashley, 1995a) and frontline
employees must have the latitude to make on-the-spot decisions that enable the
successful delivery of their service offering.
The more traditional, hierarchical management style of organising, planning
and controlling is insufficient for creating and maintaining a competitive edge.
Traditional management has relinquished some of its supervisory control in order that
employees can be more flexible and responsive to market or consumer demands.
Service providers now require employees to not only show initiative and creativity but
also "accept responsibility for their actions" (Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997, p.37).
Organisations are searching for strategies to develop the previously untapped potential
of their people (Potter, 1994; Wilkinson, 1998) and the intended outcome is increased
employee satisfaction and loyalty, resulting in improved service delivery and customer
satisfaction.
More and more those who advocate a commitment to service quality
improvement maintain that this involves the development of “service-driven” or “total
quality” organisational cultures. This can be achieved by the use of human resource
management approaches “which ensure greater employee involvement and
empowerment” (Lashley, 1995a, p.27) and competitive advantage (Lashley et al.,
1994; Jarrar & Zairi, 2002). Practitioners and academics have also proposed
employee empowerment as a solution for effective management of both individuals
and teams within organisations (Conger & Kanungo, 1998). Jarrar et al. (2002,
p.266), suggested that “the only source of competitive advantage is the organisation’s
people (committed, educated and flexible)”.
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This thesis has explored the extent to which employee empowerment can be
used as a management strategy for delivering consistent predictable quality services
within tourism and hospitality in Fiji.
BACKGROUND
Past research on employee empowerment has focused on manufacturing
industries with limited research within service industries (Wilkinson, 1998; Honold,
1999). However, advocates of empowerment, claim that given the interactive nature
of service encounters, it has the potential to provide notable benefits for tourism and
hospitality (Cacioppe, 1998; Erstad, 2001; Lashley, 2001) . From the organisation’s
viewpoint benefits, relate to improved customer responsiveness. For the employee,
empowerment allows them increased power and control of decision-making during
service delivery, and potentially increased employee satisfaction (Lashley, 1995a).
Both critics and advocates of empowerment agree that the concept is complex
and exists in many forms. However, whatever the form, critics of the literature show
that successful implementation requires a holistic approach with the support of both
management and employees (Sternberg, 1992; Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997; Siegall et al.,
2000). Management support is necessary in the form of training, education and
technical support, together with the existence of employees who fully understand their
roles, and are willing to adopt the concept and take responsibility for the part they play
in service encounters. Successful implementation, therefore, requires significant
elements of knowledge and trust on the part of management and employees
(Wilkinson, 1998). Lack of commitment to and ownership of these changes by
management and employees alike, invariably results in empowerment failing to
deliver its intended benefits (Wilkinson 1998; Honold, 1999).
Whilst the value of empowerment may be recognised, it is not an easy option.
Empowerment must be aligned to organisational values, and this requires a long-term
commitment on the part of the organisation and employees. For most organisations,
this requires changes in internal culture and these are only effective when the people
concerned “feel a large measure of ownership” (Smith, 1997, p.122). Organisations
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implementing empowerment successfully, must consider these factors, then adapt and
define the concept for themselves (Honold, 1999). This is even more significant in
Fiji where the successful implementation of management strategies is likely to be
influenced by cultural diversity.
ROOTS OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT
Since the 1990s, employee empowerment is a strategy, which is frequently
mentioned throughout management literature (Honold, 1997), advocating that
empowered employees are necessary for achieving competitive advantage (Conger et
al., 1988; Lashley, 1999). Before this, the concept was discussed in relation to terms
like: “participative management, total quality control, individual development, quality
circles and strategic planning” (Honold, 1999, p.19).
Despite this increased interest, there is little agreement on a specific definition
for empowerment. In many instances the words, “employee empowerment” are used
interchangeably with similar terms like: job enrichment, employee participation,
employee commitment, job satisfaction, stock ownership etc. However, these terms
reflected not only the individual aspect, but also how organisations provided an
environment that facilitated employees who chose to be empowered (Honold, 1997;
Duvall, 1999). Organisations exhibiting a ‘people’ approach to success can elect to
“foster interactions among individuals that are directed at intentionally creating
successful outcomes” (Duvall, 1999, p.206). Throughout these encounters,
employees are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions.
For example, intrinsic motivation can be viewed as a significant characteristic
of job satisfaction; whereas, initiatives like job enrichment encourage the
improvement of employee satisfaction through more meaningful work, limited control
in decision-making and feedback on work performance. In the 1980s management
initiatives like quality circles, profit sharing, and team briefings, that promoted
employee involvement or employee participation, were widespread. These initiatives
“focused on task-based involvement and attitudinal change” (Wilkinson, 1998, p.40).
However, while they may have empowered employees to some extent, empowerment,
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as it exists today, is a concept which needs to be analysed within specific
organisational and political contexts in order to understand the different levels of
control, commitment and participation that exist (Lashley, 1996; Wilkinson, 1998).
Empowerment has generally been associated with management programmes
like Human Resource Management (HRM) and Total Quality Management (TQM).
It is seen by advocates as a solution to worker dissatisfaction with traditional
bureaucratic workplaces, where creativity and initiative are discouraged (Wilkinson,
1998). However, in this context, management decides the level of empowerment
assigned to employees (Wilkinson, 1998; Lashley, 2001). Therefore, the level of
power associated with empowerment programmes and initiatives vary, with many
designed to secure employee commitment to organisations rather than give them
increased participation in decision-making. This definition of empowerment is
generally limited to individuals and small groups, working within a “strict
management agenda” (Wilkinson, 1998, p.40), in contrast to the more representative
and collectivist nature of participative industrial schemes like consultative committees.
The emergence of competitive global markets in the late 1980s has led to the
need for flexible, responsive and innovative alternatives to economies of scale in order
to improve production and performance. A movement towards flatter, more
knowledge based learning organisations, with increased use of teams has evolved.
Management approaches have moved away from hierarchical authoritative structures
that allowed little employee discretion. Approaches that are more recent have
encouraged the development of high levels of trust, teamwork, and empowerment in
the hope of increasing employee commitment, satisfaction and competitiveness
(Wilkinson, 1998).
Furthermore, the growth of empowerment has also been driven by powerful
negative forces, that developed in response to the rationalisation and downsizing,
which occurred in many organisations in the 1980s and 1990s (Wilkinson, 1998). In
this context, empowerment was a necessity, as delayering within organisations led to
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smaller workforces, with managerial tasks allocated to supervisors in order for
organisations to function successfully.
DIMENSIONS OF EMPOWERMENT
Increased interest in empowerment, has also developed with approaches that
relate to learning and knowledge organisations (Wilkinson, 1998). However, having
outlined the roots of empowerment, it is necessary to gain an understanding of the
different definitions and meanings assigned by different people. Honold (1999, p.24)
divided the literature on employee empowerment into five groups: Leadership, Self-
empowerment, Team work, Structural change and a Multi-dimensional Perspective
that included some aspects of the previous four groups.
Leadership
Leadership approaches that empower employees, as a means of achieving
competitive advantage, are essential dimensions of empowerment, where management
delegates power to employees and provides an environment that is conducive and
facilitates empowerment. This exists where organisations have fewer hierarchies and
managers play the roles of coaches (Honold, 1999). Management supervise and
empower their employees, who in turn respond by increased performance and
satisfaction (Keller & Dansereau, 1995, cited in Honold, 1997; Lashley, 2001).
How delegation is defined is important and managerial intentions for
empowerment can be represented by the choice of language and words used to refer to
employees. For example: words like ‘subordinate’ and ‘superior’ tend to reflect
intentions that are concerned with increasing tasks and responsibility, with little
commitment to empowerment by employees (Honold, 1999). In contrast, leadership
that promotes employee empowerment through self-efficacy, increased latitude and
participation in decision-making, is more likely to be supported by employees.
Leaders can provide supportive environments through the development of
boundaries and procedures that outline both managerial and employee responsibilities.
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These can include: “designing and communicating a shared vision; managerial
support; teamwork; continuous environmental scanning; job redesign and
enrichment; role modelling; coaching and mentoring, reward schemes, and the
recognition and communication of common goals” (Honold, 1999, pp. 26-27).
However, providing a supportive environment within which employees can be
empowered is insufficient on its own. Successful implementation requires that
employees must choose to be empowered, as it is the people within organisations who
are empowered, not the actual organisations per se (Lashley, 2001).
Individual perspectives on empowerment
At an individual level, empowerment does not exist unless the ‘empowered’
assume responsibility for their actions. Interactive empowerment involves working
with people, whereas self-empowerment refers to an individual’s capacity to control
and influence his/her own behaviour (Vogt & Murrell, 1990, cited in Honold, 1999).
Another individual aspect of empowerment involves task level empowerment
where employees have the latitude to make decisions that relate to their own work.
At this level, individuals are able to make on-the-spot decisions in frontline service
encounters. This discretion leads to increased customer satisfaction, especially in
service encounters that produce unexpected outcomes, and where anticipation and
standardisation is difficult (Rafiq & Ahmed, 1998b). However, with this decision-
making authority also comes accountability and responsibility (Lashley, 2001).
Teamwork
Similarly, in the case of teams, groups of employees are given increased
latitude and discretion in decision-making, with accountability being held collectively
by the group. These empowered groups are given a variety of labels like:
autonomous work groups, self-directed teams, and semi-autonomous teams (Lashley,
2001). These ‘soft’ forms of HRM strategies, have been influenced by the success of
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Japanese management techniques and the competitive advantage to be gained from
increased production and quality (Lashley, 2001).
Structural change
Where changes in processes and systems are seen as necessary for successful
empowerment, this is often related to the implementation of Total Quality
Management (TQM) strategies. These changes are thought necessary in order that
organisational goals are achieved through effective systems and understanding of their
delivery by both management and employees (Honold, 1999).
The total quality movement, based on principles developed by Japanese
companies in the 1950s and 1960s was also influential in changing management
practices. TQM was based on the introduction of continuous improvement through
bottom-up participation in problem identification and problem solving (Wilkinson,
1998). This allowed line workers to identify problems and design improvements to
their own jobs. Therefore, the authority to make changes, only existed where
organisations encouraged self-autonomy, and employees were held responsible for
their actions.
In these organisations, middle management became facilitators “encouraging
participation, teamwork and the delegation of responsibility and accountability…[in
order to] foster pride, job satisfaction, and better work” (Wilkinson, 1998, p.43).
However, Wilkinson (1998), maintained that in practice TQM could be ambiguous, as
although organisations promote increased employee commitment and empowerment, a
primary feature of TQM is increased control of work processes to achieve substantial
increases in quality. Therefore, the extent to which this involves low task-based
decisions, or more significant forms of decision-making, and participation is
debatable.
Empowerment has been introduced into organisations in a variety of forms
dependent on different business problems, and perceptions of the benefits that may
arise from its implementation (Lashley, 1999). “Quality circles, autonomous work
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groups, suggestion schemes, and whatever-it-takes training” represent different types
of empowerment, and have different benefits for empowered individuals (Lashley,
1995, p.30). Whatever the form, research on empowerment needs to examine the
limits placed by organisations, and the individual context of each organisation, in
order to establish the actual changes accorded empowered employees. “Without this
self-reference, employee empowerment invariably fails because the commitment, or
the sense of ownership of the concept, is not created’ (Honold, 1997, p.202).
In Chapter 4, some of the different frameworks and models that have been
used to evaluate employee empowerment have been discussed. Since this study is
specifically related to tourism and hospitality, which are services, a short section on
the special characteristics of services follows.
THE SPECIAL NATURE OF SERVICES
Services are characterised by a number of features that make them distinctive
from manufacturing industries. A primary feature of services is simultaneous
production and consumption, requiring the presence of both the customer and service
provider in order for the service delivery to take place (McColl, Callaghan & Palmer,
1998). This entails a high level of contact between frontline employees and
customers, and consequently service marketers maintain that “contact employees
should be allowed a degree of discretion when dealing with customers” (Rafiq et al.,
1998a, p.379). This latitude presented empowered employees with the opportunity to
be more responsive when implementing service recovery, and provided possibilities
for increased sales (Gronroos, 1990).
However, it is also contended that service employee discretion can be
minimised, by using planned scripts, which decreased production variability, and
allowed for the management and control of customer and employee behaviour.
Furthermore, the degree of control exercised on frontline employees should be
dependent on the intended service offering (Lashley, 1998). For example, low
contact services can control behaviour by using measures like rules and regulations,
whilst high contact services, which entail high levels of customisation, should be
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controlled by self-regulation, peer reference and employee empowerment. The
degree of employee participation is therefore, contingent on the nature and type of
service. Furthermore, decision-making should be exercised in compliance with
organisational cultures, mission and service concepts (Gronoos, 1990). The limits of
employee latitude and discretion required by any particular service, and the design of
suitable HRM approaches, require a comprehensive understanding of the service offer
at hand, in order that service delivery matches both operational requirements and
customer expectations (Lashley, 1998).
Literature discussing the differences between services and manufacturing
emphasises four main features of services, namely: intangibility, heterogeneity,
perishability, and inseparability. Services are delivered through a combination of
tangible factors, e.g. furnishings, uniforms, meals, drinks etc., together with
intangibles e.g. the service ‘experience’ or treatment a customer receives during the
service encounter or ‘moment of truth’ (Lashley, 1998; McColl et al., 1998).
The importance of tangible and intangible elements of services in achieving
customer satisfaction is a primary determinant for decision-making within
employment strategies used by an organisation. Where intangibility featured highly
as a measure of customer satisfaction, “the need to gain employee commitment in
‘delighting customers’ increases” and this is commensurate with the increased level of
discretion and latitude allowed employees (Lashley, 1998, p.25). Research has found
this to be the case with tourism and hospitality related services (Lashley, 1998).
The interactive nature of service delivery, influenced by individual
personalities, interpretations, and the expectations of both customers and frontline
employees, can make the standardisation of service delivery difficult, and lead to a
high level of variability within each service encounter. Thus, even with
uncomplicated services, the delivery of a homogenous service is challenging at best.
However, dependent on the type of service offered, degrees of standardisation
are possible within the tangible elements of the service encounter. This can be seen in
many “fast food deliverers, branded restaurants, budget hotels” (Lashley, 1998, p.25)
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that produce standardised products for customers. These companies have also used
strategies like training and scripting, in an attempt to standardise the intangible
features of their service, and thus increase their likelihood of providing a homogenous
service, e.g. McDonald’s Restaurants and Disney World (Lashley, 1998; McColl et
al., 1998).
However, where service organisations provide highly customised, individual
products, successful service delivery is dependent on the contact employee’s ability to
interpret and adapt their service to suit customer requirements. Whilst Lashley,
recognised the importance of inseparability and perishability within services, he
contended that “tangibility/intangibility and customisation/standardisation are the most
influential features in determining HR strategies” (1998, p.25). Furthermore, he
claimed that although a high level of intangibility might exist within a service,
successful delivery was reliant on the skills of frontline employees. However, mass
customised services based on tangible elements required a more limited skill base, as
variations were likely to be more predictable. Thus, the degree of employee
discretion necessary in any service differed dependent on service type.
EMPOWERMENT AND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM)
The more traditional, hierarchical management style of organising, planning
and controlling are today considered insufficient for creating and maintaining an
organisation’s competitive edge in the global market place (Jones, 1996). Traditional
management is relinquishing some of its supervisory control in order that employees
are more flexible and responsive to market or consumer demands. As a result, more
organisations “are considering empowerment as part of their human resource strategy
for competitive advantage" through the delivery of superior service quality (Lashley et
al., 1994, p.15).
Existing literature on HRM has claimed that management strategies were
dependent on “concerns for controlling labour as a resource (hard) and gaining greater
commitment from employees in increasingly competitive situations (soft)” (Lashley,
1998, p.27). Within service organisations, a balance is needed between control and
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commitment, especially where organisations have service quality as a high priority.
However, challenges exist where organisational objectives are contradictory, and
require frontline employees to ‘delight’ customers within a framework of a brand and
stipulated controls. This has placed equal importance on management control and
employee commitment. A variety of control strategies are available to service
providers. These range “along a continuum between exercising external imposed
managerial control over the employee and those which encourage employees to
control their own behaviour by internalising the objectives of the organisation”
(Lashley, 1998, p.27). Furthermore, employee discretion is a vital element of service
delivery especially where it relates to employee understanding and commitment “to
organisational objectives for service quality, fault detection, [and] operational
improvements” (Lashley, 1998, p.27), and the process of decision-making within the
service encounter.
HRM is criticised as nothing more than a revised version of Personnel
Management, the difference being that HRM is specifically linked to organisational
strategies and gaining competitive advantage (Lashley et al., 1994). Similarly,
employee empowerment strategies are thought to be new versions of what has been
previously described in HRM literature as delegation of decision-making, employee
participation, employee involvement, self managed teams, management by objectives
and job enrichment etc. (Lashley et al., 1994; Hales et al., 1998).
However, Lashley et al. (1994) view empowerment as being more than
delegation, and included additional themes like trust and discretion, involvement and
participation. Critics of empowerment, see one of its main limitations as being
difficulties with differentiating empowerment from other HRM concepts for managing
employees, especially the idea of employee involvement. Lashley et al. (1994), saw
employee involvement in the context of empowerment as focusing on definitions of
involvement, which relate to employee emotions and ‘moral’ commitment. They also
claimed that employee participation in decision-making, was dependent on the types
of decisions that were made ‘on the spot’. Whilst the opposite end of the
participation and decision-making spectrum, is related to democratic participation and
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consultation in organisations. Another condition associated with the meaning of
empowerment is its use in combination with management decisions related to flatter,
seamless organisations (Erstad, 1997; Chacko, 1998).
ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND EMPOWERMENT
For many organisations, interest in empowerment has risen from external and
internal challenges faced by organisations, the need for continuous innovation and the
transfer of knowledge and necessary decision-making skills to achieve organisational
success (Duvall, 1999). External challenges were a consequence of “higher levels of
competition, changes in the composition of the workforce, and higher expectations
from customers”. On the other hand, internal challenges were concerned with:
“employee retention, motivation, and development” (Erstad, 1997, p.325).
Although the empowerment and motivation process may seem relatively
simple, many organisations have difficulty implementing them (Potter, 1994). In
many companies, and companies in Fiji are no exception, “managers do the thinking,
supervisors do the talking and employees do what they are told” (Potter 1994, p.6).
An ideal working environment developed when managers play a coaching role and
problems were resolved through participation and employee feedback of individual
work experiences (Honold, 1999). Organisations should encourage initiative and
innovation, in order to increase employee satisfaction. Potter (1994) claimed that
methods to increase commitment and participation, like quality circles, pay incentives,
job enrichment, suggestions schemes, downward communication and flatter
organisations, only provided positive results in the short term. For significant change
to occur, employees need to feel valued, and operate within a supportive
organisational culture.
Beach (1996), adding to Potter’s arguments, claimed that empowerment
strategies must focus on the acceptance of individuals, and cannot be imposed from
above. Organisations wishing to develop environments which are conducive to
empowerment, needed to develop systems and processes that do not limit employees,
but focus on optimising employee potential and strengths (Erstad, 1997).
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Organisational structures must be adapted to develop employee interest in self-
management, learning and growth, leadership at all levels, trust and respect between
management and subordinates, and decision-making that engaged employee
participation (Erstad, 1997). The decision-making process must encompass “a high
level of vertical and horizontal communication; and employees able to deal with
conflict management and resolution effectively and efficiently” (Erstad, 1997, p.325).
Creating organisational cultures that are conducive to empowerment requires a
shift from more traditional top-down management thinking (Sternberg, 1992). Two
vital ingredients for successful introduction of empowerment within organisations are:
education and employee participation in decision-making (Erstad, 1997). Any
organisation wanting to foster a culture of empowerment is dependent on the
contributions of both management and employees for its success. Furthermore, top
management - those responsible for strategy and policy formation within
organisations, must be fully committed to empowerment “for a truly comprehensive
culture of empowerment to exist” (Erstad, 1997, p.326). Employee empowerment
does not necessitate a loss of power for management, but allows time and energy to be
used in a more efficient and productive manner.
Advocates of empowerment have maintained that it is an important
management strategy, which has the capability to guarantee employee performance by
increased self-control (Collins, 1996). “The use of well designed training and
selection processes, that ensured that successful candidates, ‘fit’ and are willing to
actively participate within an empowered culture, can further guarantee employee
performance” (Erstad, 1997, p.326).
STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING EMPOWERMENT
A variety of strategies, can be used by leaders to help implement
empowerment. Some methods which have been used include: self-managed project
or product work groups (Marguilies & Kleiner, 1995); self-diagnostic questionnaires
to determine an organisations commitment to teams (Pence, 1996); Edward Deming’s
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Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle (Cleary, 1995); humour to stimulate creativity and
communication (Miller, 1996); and flexible pay and reward schemes (Born &
Molleman, 1996).
Dickmeyer and Willams (1995) used the term “catalytic empowerment” to
describe techniques which failing companies used to increase profitability.
Introduction of empowerment created a chain reaction in organisations, which
required that employees, suppliers, customers and stakeholders participated in the
change process (Erstad, 1997).
To improve employee performance, management should play an enabling
rather than controlling role (Jones, Palmer, Whitehead, & Osterweil, 1996). In order
to do this, managers need to learn new skills that focused on “co-ordination,
facilitation, commitment and trust, communication,…and promoting learning and
employee ownership of what they do” (Erstad, 1997, p.327). A primary role of
management is to develop the potential of their people in order to “get the best” out of
them. Potter (1994, p.4), explained the empowerment process as “a deliberate
organisational attempt to tap” into latent employee potential and enable growth and
development of an individual’s performance. Furthermore, managers who inspired
their employees by developing their ‘human resources’ were leaders rather than
superiors.
Potter (1994), proposed that the fundamental steps for empowering employees
include: developing a commitment to organisational values through the
communication of a shared vision; employees understanding of the role they play in
the organisation; skill building; management playing the role of coach to increase
performance; development of self esteem within the organisation; recognition and
validation of employees; and the development of employee participation and problem
solving skills.
Furthermore, empirical studies by Kappelman & Richards (1996), showed that
empowered employees were more motivated and satisfied with training and changes
within the organisation than those who were not involved in the decision-making
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process. However, for successful employee participation in empowerment
programmes, organisations must promote a culture, which encouraged and rewarded
their input. An example of this is British Gas, which implemented empowerment
programmes using seminars and questionnaires in which employees pointed out
problem areas within the organisation (Erstad, 1997).
EMPOWERMENT IN SERVICE INDUSTRIES
As previously discussed, a primary reason for introducing empowerment
within the service sector was to improve service quality and gain competitive
advantage. Interest in empowerment has increased, as many researchers and
organisations view it as a strategic “response to the impact of global competition and
information/technology. [They believe it is] “an effective method for equipping
organisations and employees with skills necessary to meet the challenges of the
future” (Cacioppe, 1998, p.264).
Within service organisations, empowerment has improved service quality and
enabled organisations to be more responsive to their customers. Advocates of
empowerment “claim some impressive benefits to hospitality operators who introduce
empowerment to their organisations” (Lashley, 1995, p.27). Furthermore, the
empowerment process can influence performance by: reduced employee turnover,
increased sales and profit margins, lower costs for both materials and labour, resulting
in a higher net profit (Dickmyer & Williams, 1995).
Critics of the concept have claimed that in reality, “empowerment simply
entails a relaxation of regulatory controls and an increase in employee discretion
which is so circumscribed as seriously to question whether empowered employees
have, in any substantive sense, more power in the workplace than before” (Hales et al.,
1998, p.94).
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EMPOWERMENT IN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY
HRM, Operations Management and business literature has repeatedly
addressed the topic of empowerment, but it is rarely addressed in tourism and
hospitality related literature (Erstad, 1997). The rapid growth of the tourism industry,
has lead to much concern over quality and consistency issues within the wide variety
of products offered worldwide. However, recent initiatives like: legislation, formal
quality certification systems, and benchmarking were seen as inadequate for managing
service quality in tourism and hospitality, given the increasing number of dissatisfied
tourists (Fache, 2000).
This has led to much discussion regarding the problems of maintaining service
quality in tourism, and possible initiatives that could be implemented to enhance
service delivery and increase overall quality (Augustyn, 1998). Another important
development in the tourism sector has been the increased management attention placed
on customers’ perceptions of service quality, due to a better understanding of the
significant role the customer plays within the service encounter (Fache, 2000).
Today’s tourist is a more informed and experienced traveller, who is well aware of
alternative service offerings. This existence of a more knowledgeable and demanding
customer places increased pressure on service providers to differentiate their service
offering through the delivery of high quality services (Fache, 2000). Frontline staff
are now recognised as playing a significant role in delivering successful service
encounters.
Where frontline services are concerned, not only are employees required to
meet or exceed customer expectations, they are also required to do this by being “cost
effective and productive in what they do” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 292) so
maintaining a balance between quality and quantity. The pursuit of simultaneous
goals of customer satisfaction and productivity, are further challenged in situations
where “service employees are required to customise service offerings to meet
customer needs” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 293) as is the case for tourism and
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hospitality. Consequently, advocates of employee empowerment have promoted it as
a potential solution to the service quality problem.
Erstad (1997), suggested that empowerment studies apart from addressing
organisational and employee roles, might need to consider customer attitudes to
empowered employees, and their understanding of the boundaries within which
employees are able to take responsibility and ownership for their decisions. This may
entail educating the customers, for example: through the use of service guarantees,
which clearly set out service standards, and time limits within which problems must be
solved. Such a strategy ensures that both the customer and employee are aware of the
conditions of the service guarantee and can modify their behaviour accordingly.
Previous studies of empowerment in tourism and hospitality
A number of tourism and hospitality related businesses have successfully
implemented their own forms of employee empowerment. These companies include:
McDonalds, Burswood Resort Hotel, TGI Fridays, Harvester Restaurants, Bergstrom
Hotels, Marriott, Ritz-Carlton, The Forte Hotel Group, and The Mandarin Oriental
Hotel Group (Breiter, Tyink & Corey-Tuckwell, 1995; Erstad, 2001; ILO, 2000;
Chacko, 1998; Lashley, 1999).
Research conducted by Lashley et al. (1994), within the hospitality industry,
discovered the existence of a gap between management intentions for empowerment
and employee understanding and experiences. The study recommended that
empowerment should be linked to rewards (monetary or non-monetary), as where
employees perceived empowerment as an increase in workload and responsibility,
with no reward or incentive system to support it, the likelihood of a negative response
increased. For the purpose of this study, Lashley et al. (1994), developed a multi-
dimensional model of empowerment. The main characteristics of this model were:
“the task dimension, the power dimension, the commitment dimension and the cultural
dimension” (1994, p.31).
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Task dimension
This refers to the level of discretion or autonomy that employees are given to
perform their individual jobs or tasks. The two main elements for frontline
employees, in the performance of their tasks, are the tangible and intangible features,
together with the extent to which the service offering is standardised or open to
customisation. Intangible elements of services vary by company, but have become
essential aspects of service delivery, especially where employees have the latitude to
‘delight’ the customer (McColl et al., 1998). The importance of intangibles increases
in luxury services and can be a primary feature of an organisation’s strategy for
competitive advantage (Lashley, 2001).
Power dimension
This relates to “the extent to which organisational power has, or has not, been
redistributed, and the extent to which the empowered feel that power has been
redistributed” (Lashley, 2001, p.160). An important difference between
empowerment and other initiatives like employee involvement or participation, is the
feelings of autonomy, self-control, self-efficacy and power accorded employees. This
redistribution of power within organisations implied that organisations were becoming
‘flatter’ with managers relinquishing some of their control to employees. However,
Lashley (2001), questioned this view, as in many cases employees were empowered
within varying limits and boundaries, with existing power structures remaining
unchanged. Consequently, the extent to which employees were empowered was
“insufficient to generate a real sense of power in the empowered” (Lashley, 2001,
p.162). Different variations of the power dimension, have provided barriers for the
successful implementation of empowerment within organisations.
Commitment dimension
Empowerment is also claimed to provide benefits through greater commitment
to organisational goals, with employees taking increased responsibility for their
actions, and companies making better use of their skills and talents. However, levels
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of commitment vary depending upon the form of empowerment introduced. Lashley
(2001, p.164) contended that:
Empowerment, such as it is, will be associated with accepting the
responsibility for service quality and customer satisfaction and general
identification with the organisation’s goals because the employee’s calculation
of personal self-interest is closely allied to the organisation.
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In reality, employee commitment and employee empowerment should be seen
as symbiotic, where empowered employees are better skilled and confident.
However, the downside for organisations could be that employees also become more
attractive recruits for other companies (Lashley, 2001).
Cultural dimension
An important element for successful empowerment is the internal culture of
organisations. Organisations need to become trust, rather than control, based and
develop strategies that are both people and customer focused. However,
implementing empowerment within organisations, is further hindered by internal
policies, managerial intentions and management resistance to the concept (Lashley,
2001).
The five-dimensional framework, was considered by Lashley et al. (1994), to
be a more objective way of analysing the extent to which initiatives for employee
empowerment actually existed within an organisation. Previous research findings
from different organisations discovered that “where empowerment is restricted beyond
a level acceptable to the empowered, or where certain individuals feel the rewards
from empowerment do not accrue to them, the initiative is less effective in tapping the
enthusiasm and energy intended” (Lashley, 1995, p. 29).
Lashley (1995) also conducted a study of McDonald’s restaurants in Wales
using the five-dimensional framework to establish what employees could and could
not do. Here changes to the management of these restaurants were implemented, “to
restructure the management hierarchy and, through empowerment, to encourage a
more entrepreneurial approach to the management of these restaurants as business
units” (Lashley, 1995, p. 29). Employee perceptions of empowerment, and the
organisational limitations, which had been placed on employee roles, were also
analysed. The McDonald’s approach was found to represent the ‘hard’ human
resource approach (Wilkinson, 1992). It emphasised “the production aspects such as
systematic measurement and control of work, setting standards of performance, using
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statistical procedures to assess quality” (Lashley, 2001, p. 230). This could lead to
decreased discretion on the part of employees, in the decision-making process. More
often, this type of empowerment was used to win employee commitment to
organisational goals, and develop personal efficacy (Lashley, 2001).
In another case study by Lashley (1999) of TGI Fridays, he found that
employee empowerment required a willingness on the part of employees to accept
responsibility for service delivery. Employees needed “to be able to interpret, and
then deliver, the customer service required” (Lashley, 1999, p.792). He concluded
that hospitality service organisations used a variety of empowerment forms which
differed dependent on the ‘fit’ “between the management of employees and [the]wider
business strategy, rather than one in which empowerment represented ‘best’ practice
in generating employee commitment to organisational objectives” (Lashley, 1999,
p.792).
A further case study by Maxwell (1997), at the Glasgow Marriott discovered
that employees had a more positive response to empowerment when the advantages
and disadvantages of the process were explained to them. In this instance, the
advantages of empowerment for employees were improved job satisfaction, and
customer service, together with faster decision-making and personal development.
Some of the disadvantages were “communication difficulties, unclear work practices,
higher levels of pressure on staff and increased competition among employees”
(Erstad, 2001, p. 331). However, employee empowerment also needed the support of
training to define the limits, extent and implications of the empowerment process.
Hales et al. (1998), in their findings from studies conducted in five-star hotels
in Amsterdam, discussed the ambiguities and dilemmas relating to the definition,
application and purpose of empowerment within the service management literature.
They discovered that differences arose when management attempted to find a balance
between “the need for control to secure employee compliance, with the need to cede a
degree of autonomy to secure co-operation and initiative” (Hales et al., 1998, p.88).
The concept of empowerment, in their opinion, was centred on ‘choice’, through
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increased discretion by employees, in how they perform the service; rather than
‘voice’ which increased involvement in the decision-making process. Moreover,
empowerment was regarded by many as a management strategy wherein “control via
regulation and supervision is replaced by more indirect controls” (Hales et al., 1998,
p88).
Hales et al. (1998), found that despite management accounts of
empowerment, in practice, empowerment had led to increased responsibility for
employees, with little ‘choice’ or ‘voice’ in decision-making, and how they performed
their work. They also found that suitable support systems in the form of recruitment,
training and remuneration and reward schemes were not evident. Their findings
supported the research literature on empowerment that stressed the importance of
organisational support systems, for the successful implementation of empowerment.
Results of this study showed that empowerment as it existed in five-star hotels in
Amsterdam, despite managerial rhetoric, was limited even within a supportive work
environment.
Although empowerment has been widely accepted as an important
management strategy for improved employee performance within tourism and
hospitality, its implementation within organisations can be met with apprehension
from managers. Sternberg accorded this concern on the part of management, to the
fact that the implementation of empowerment meant a major paradigm shift for
managers, within which they were required to relinquish elements of control “even
when they cannot give up accountability” (1992, p.69).
Furthermore, empowerment in many organisations required the redefining of
management roles within organisations, and also entailed managers accepting that
empowerment involved ideas like trust and respect for the judgement of their
subordinates or employees (Sternberg, 1992). Two different features of
empowerment were discussed in Sternberg’s research paper. Firstly, empowering
employees to make routine decisions and secondly, to make amendments to the
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system, which include: “the policies, procedures and rules; equipment and supplies;
and the physical plant” (Sternberg, 1992, p.69).
Empowering employees to make routine decisions
One of the applications of empowerment is when employees are granted the
authority to make routine decisions. Sternberg, (1992, p.69) defined authority as
when “an individual can make and implement a decision without prior approval from
another person”. Where decisions need approval by a superior before
implementation, the employee was not empowered. Resistance by supervisors, to the
empowerment of frontline employees, was normally based on a lack of trust in the
ability of the subordinate to make the decision. However, many frontline decisions
are concerned with service recovery, reducing mistakes, employee responsiveness and
this made empowerment to make routine decisions important. Any reluctance to
empower frontline employees on the part of management “reduces productivity, slows
response time, and diminishes employees’ self esteem” (Sternberg, 1992, p.70).
Whilst, the implementation of empowerment, essentially meant that
supervisors relinquished some of their control, management could set ceilings within
which employees must operate. These ceilings would then reduce management
concerns that too many concessions may be granted to the customer, thus affecting the
financial profitability of the organisation. Furthermore, techniques that involved
employee selection and training can be used to ensure that employees at all levels, are
capable of making good decisions, and understood the extent to which they are
authorised to carry out decision-making (Sternberg, 1992).
The primary reasons for supervisory approval were to reduce mistakes and
guarantee accountability. These benefits must be balanced “against the cost to the
organisation in terms of reduced efficiency, productivity, and worker self esteem”
(Sternberg, 1992, p.70). Although empowerment had many positive benefits for
organisations, like creating more responsive frontline employees, and increased
customer satisfaction, Sternberg (1992) pointed out that difficulties could arise when
employees were not fully aware of the extent or limits of their empowerment.
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Management underwent role changes when empowerment was implemented
within an organisation. Their primary roles changed “from controlling and directing
people to training, coaching, and facilitating” (Sternberg, 1992, p.71). Even when
empowered employees made mistakes, they must be coached, rather than disciplined.
The use of punishment only made employees reluctant to support decisions that
involved using initiative and innovation, to ensure customer satisfaction.
Empowering employees to improve the system
Organisations can inadvertently build boundaries that limit operational
efficiency, employee productivity and potential customer satisfaction through the
creation of ineffective policies and procedures. Many managers believed that they
had created a positive work environment that encouraged employee feedback e.g.
suggestion boxes, ‘open door’ communication policy; whilst employees felt that their
suggestions were ignored, or supervisors lacked the time to assess and evaluate each
suggestion (Sternberg, 1992). Where this occurs, many employees found it easier to
ignore the facilities created to help them improve the system. Employee feedback is
essential, and a primary reason for this type of communication is the close relationship
frontline employees have with customers and their needs or complaints. This
relationship with customers mean that frontline employees could make significant
contributions towards improving service delivery, by sharing the information they
learned within these service encounters.
A further barrier to empowering employees to improve the system exists when
managers believe that the system would work if correctly used. Managers spend a lot
of time getting employees to carry out tasks the ‘right way’, rather than accepting that
there was more than one way to achieve organisational objectives. This has
perpetuated traditional management approaches, which maintain that employees
should be controlled, rather than coached and empowered to take actions that improve
the existing system (Sternberg, 1992).
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Human personality factors can also create barriers to empowerment, especially
where supervisors are threatened by innovative suggestions from new or creative
employees. In such cases employees soon come to feel that there is little or no chance
of them contributing to system improvement, due to lack of opportunity and support.
Few employees have the determination to follow up their suggestions within an
environment that lacks positive reinforcement and opportunities for improvement and
change.
Contemporary management opinion however supports the statement that
significant “gains in efficiency, productivity, and guest satisfaction are generated by
making improvements” to the system (Sternberg, 1992, p.71). Improvements are
most likely to emerge with empowered employees who are encouraged to make
recommendations and implement the changes themselves. Empowering employees to
make changes in the system, requires that organisations design processes and systems
in line with their unique cultural needs and capabilities. Organisations should
encourage employee feedback , and recognise and reward employees who provide
innovative ideas. Systems should also be created within which employees are
encouraged to analyse “and evaluate their own ideas” (Sternberg, 1992, p71).
Management executives have created further barriers to empowerment,
because of the lack of trust they have in the capabilities of their subordinates.
However, for empowerment programmes to be successful, management should
respond to their workforce by cultivating attitudes that include trust and respect, rather
than distrust and control. By providing employees with the relevant training and
guidance they need, any risks associated with empowerment can be minimised, and
considerable benefits realised by the organisation, resulting in competitive advantage
(Sternberg, 1992).
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PROBLEMS, MYTHS & LIMITATIONS
Empowerment has been acclaimed as a new management philosophy, that has
attempted to solve one of the basic problems of human resource management, namely,
how to gain increased compliance and co-operation from employees. The
empowerment process has advocated that employees should be given latitude over
their work performance in addition to participation in organisational decision-making.
A fundamental problem in organisations was that employees represented a ‘cost’ to
the organisation, however, increasing the efficiency of employee performance could
reduce these labour costs. This could be achieved by using strategies like
empowerment to encourage employees to develop their skills and realise their full
potential in the workplace.
Although employee performance needs to be optimised, individuals are likely
to react differently to management strategies for human resource management.
Unforeseen problems can arise when dealing with individual employees, therefore
some “degree of co-operation,
responsibility, initiative, flexibility and commitment” is needed from employees
(Hales et al.,1998, p.88). The challenge for management is in finding a balance
between control and autonomy.
In contrast to strategic management principles of control and regulation,
advocates of management strategies like employee empowerment, job redesign and
employee participation; stress the importance of facilitating autonomy through
increased ‘choice’ and ‘voice’. ‘Choice’ is related to increased autonomy over how
employees conduct their work, and ‘voice’ to increased participation in decision-
making within organisations (Hales et al., 1998).
However, control and autonomy are frequently seen as competing strategies.
Alternative viewpoints argue the case for balance between the two, dependent on
business types, organisational goals and operating strategies (Lashley, 2001). For
businesses, which are highly technical in nature, management strategies are likely to
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reflect higher levels of control. In contrast, where effectiveness is dependent on
products and services, which are predominantly market-led, strategies that are more
flexible exist. These focus on engaging employee co-operation, and responsibility for
their actions, through increased autonomy.
Further criticisms of the literature on empowerment, claims that the term is
difficult to define, ambiguous and in many cases loosely used (Lashley, 1994;
Honold, 1997; Hales et al., 1998; Wilkinson, 1998). It is unclear in many cases,
whether the literature is “comparing like with like”, as the historical context within
which empowerment has developed is rarely considered, with many viewing it as a
completely new concept (Wilkinson, 1998). Furthermore, little consideration is given
to “why, to whom and where it should be applied” and how it should be implemented
(Hales et al., 1998, p.89).
The literature also fails to discuss issues related to the implementation of
empowerment, its individual contexts and the conditions necessary for successful
implementation (Wilkinson, 1998; Lashley, 2001). Advocates assume management
and employees would automatically support empowerment and its potential benefits.
Much of the literature “takes a universalistic approach”, supporting the concept as a
panacea for every situation and organisation (Wilkinson, 1998, p.40). Any research
studies of employee empowerment should consider the individual situations, extent
and limitations, within which it is implemented. Empowerment exists in a variety of
forms that differ dependent on the amount of power employees are able to exercise.
Wilkinson (1998, p.40), maintained that most empowerment programmes are designed
not to increase employee participation in decision-making, but to “secure an enhanced
employee contribution to the organisation”.
Academic and expert reports of management initiatives, which promote
employee empowerment, exist in diverse forms, and they are influenced by different
management intentions for empowerment. Lashley (1996, p.333), claimed that
“quality circles, autonomous work groups, suggestion schemes, 'whatever it takes
training', etc. all represent different forms of empowerment and are likely to represent
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different perceived benefits, both intrinsic and extrinsic, to the individuals who are
supposedly empowered”. However, when reviewing the existing literature on
empowerment, there is little agreement on “definition and terminology” (Lashley,
1996, p.333). Much of the literature uses the term ‘employee empowerment’
interchangeably with terms like: employee involvement and employee participation,
without addressing any of their similarities or differences.
Many definitions of empowerment are contradictory. For example: within the
context of services, empowerment has been defined as “the act of vesting substantial
responsibility in the people nearest the problem” (Barbee and Bott, 1991, cited in
Lashley, 1996, p.334). Bowen et al., defined empowerment, as management sharing
decision-making power with frontline employees (1992, p.32). This includes four
main components:
1. Information about the organisation’s performance;
2. Rewards based on the organisation’s performance;
3. Knowledge that enables employees to understand and contribute toorganisational performance; and
4. Power to make decisions that influence organisational direction andperformance
Much of the literature on employee empowerment has not recognised that
organisations use different forms of empowerment developed “in response to
managerial perceptions of their commercial needs” (Lashley, p.334). For many,
empowerment is a management strategy, developed in response to advances in
technology, global competition, the growth of service industries worldwide, and a
desire “to engage employees on an emotional level as a counter to powerlessness”
(Lashley, 1996, p.334). In their opinion, empowerment improved performance in
organisations.
However, in order to understand the relationship between empowerment and
improved organisational performance, Lashley (1996, p.334), claimed that
empowerment must be analysed within a framework that encompassed a variety of
factors. These included: employee perceptions of empowerment, management
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meanings of empowerment, diverse forms of empowerment, ensuing changes in work
roles and behaviour, and the resultant impacts these have on employees, or those being
empowered. For Lashley (1996), the link between empowerment and improved
performance in organisations is not automatic. It was necessary to monitor each stage,
understand the necessary changes, and assess whether these have generated a
successful outcome.
When considering employee satisfaction, and strategies for motivating
employees, it is important to also consider culturally based expectations relating to
quality of life. For some cultures, this is closely related to material needs, and for
others the needs of the community as a whole come first (Hofstede, 1984). An
extension to the quality of life, is an individual’s quality of work life. How the
quality of work life contributes to quality of life is a matter of individual choice and
influenced by cultural values and norms. As this research thesis has explored the
concept of employee empowerment within tourism and hospitality in Fiji, cultural
values are an important issue when analysing the findings from the case study of The
Wakaya Club resort. To this end, findings are not only analysed using the findings
from the review or relevant academic literature, but also Hofstede’s (1994), Theory
on national cultures (See Chapter 3).
SUMMARY
This chapter has reviewed literature and rhetoric related to problems associated
with the delivery of consistent quality services within a global market, and has
presented many different factors that must be addressed. This thesis focused on the
concept of employee empowerment as a potential solution to this problem, within the
tourism and hospitality sectors in Fiji.
Whilst the hospitality sector has recognised the significance of empowerment,
given its dependence on individuals as service providers, consideration must be given
to the research and experiences of other business sectors, in order to attain the full
benefits of an entrepreneurial culture of empowerment. As the literature on
employee empowerment has shown, the concept is difficult to define and has many
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dimensions, with forms of empowerment that are diverse and different for each
individual organisation. Organisations wishing to implement employee empowerment
have to understand the complexities inherent in this process, and that it requires the
support of both management and employees.
Academic research and literature on empowerment is clearly summarised by
Erstad (1997) (See Tables 5, 6 & 7), who maintained that it is a complex process that
“requires a clear vision, a learning environment both for management and employees,
and participation and implementation tools and techniques, in order to be successful”
(1997, p.332). However, in spite of the “growing internationalisation of business, the
vast majority of published literature on empowerment maintains an Anglo-Saxon
cultural perspective” (Klidas, 2002, p.2), with limited literature or research on the
implications for applying empowerment within a cross-cultural or international
context. Harris & Kumra (2000) supported this statement by arguing that Western
management criteria for success may be inappropriate in a global context, and may
lead to failure rather than success. Furthermore, a challenge of successful employee
empowerment, was that, apart from management support, through the provision of an
environment conducive to empowerment, employees have to want to be empowered
(Honold, 1997).
Therefore, these western strategies for employee empowerment may not be
successful when used locally, within a predominantly traditional Fijian or Indo-Fijian
workforce. Thus, the successful implementation of this concept could require that
empowerment strategies be redesigned with an understanding of traditional indigenous
Fijian and Indo-Fijian cultures, and how best to use this management technique to
motivate a local Fiji workforce.
The top-down management style of most organisations within Fiji, (Nabalarua,
1999; Reddy, 2001) and the influence of the traditional societies, within which many
indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians live, could have some bearing on individual
employee behaviour and their willingness to accept and take responsibility for western
management concepts like employee empowerment. Nabalarua (1999, p.10) affirmed
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that in Fiji, traditional and modern value systems coexist and “the cutting edge of
work motivation lies in an ability to replicate old ideas and practices in a form that
accounts for particular local needs and circumstances”.
This thesis has investigated the concept of empowerment and how, and the
extent to which, it can be used in tourism and hospitality services in Fiji, in order to
increase competitive advantage by improved service quality. Employee
empowerment was explored as a strategy that local organisations could use to
motivate their employees into undertaking greater responsibility for service encounters
culminating in a more ‘delighted’ customer.
Due to the lack of research on this subject with regard to Fiji, an in-depth case
study of The Wakaya Club resort was conducted, to collect primary data for
comparison with existing literature and research findings. Wakaya is an example of a
world renowned resort, which has had success in implementing its own version of
empowerment, which takes into consideration both its own organisational culture and
objectives, together with the challenges of motivating employees within the context of
traditional Fijian culture (R. Miller, personal communication, 27 October, 2002).
Previous research conducted by Gibson (2002) and Gibson & Naidu (2002), at
Wakaya, using the (See Appendix 5) Three Dimensional Model for Enhanced
Customer
Service - 3DMECS (Frodey, 2002), found that employee empowerment was practised
at the resort, however the form and specific dimensions of the concept were not
investigated in any detail. However, the fact that empowerment existed at all, given
local managerial practices, was a significant determining factor in the choice of
Wakaya as the location for the case study. Another primary factor for selecting
Wakaya is that it is extremely unusual for a researcher to be given complete access to
a company, let alone a luxury resort. The opportunity to study Wakaya, was one I
could not turn down, and the fact that I had access to all areas of the resort, without
any supervision from management, meant that I was able to collect rich data from
employees, that was not influenced by the presence of management. In my opinion,
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this unconditional access to all departments of the resort (both front and back stage) is
also representative of the behaviour of a superior service organisation.
This decision was further influenced by comments from Linda Honold (1999),
in her PhD dissertation on employee empowerment, which stated that in order to
understand the many dimensions of empowerment, it is necessary to find
organisations, which have implemented it. Only then is it possible to analyse the
academic literature and rhetoric on empowerment with the findings of primary data
collection from an organisation that was actually practicing it.
It is my hope that this research thesis will provide some contribution and
recommendations for future research into the problem of maintaining consistent
quality services within the tourism and hospitality sectors in Fiji. By exploring
employee empowerment, and the influence of national culture on employee motivation
and job satisfaction within the local Fiji context, findings from the analysis of both the
primary and secondary data (See Chapter 6) have been critically analysed (See
Chapter 7), in order to discover the suitability of this concept as a potential solution to
this research problem. In Chapter 5, the research problem, methodology and
statistical analytical approaches that were used to analyse the primary and secondary
data are discussed.
In Chapter 3, which follows, cross-cultural management literature is
discussed. This includes Hofstede’s Theory on National Cultures, management
approaches in Fiji and the influence of culture on organisational management and
employees in the Fiji context. It also includes a review of available literature on
management in Fiji, a brief background on the Fiji tourism sector and related problems
with service delivery and consistency.
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CHAPTER THREE
THE INFLUENCE OF NATIONAL CULTURE ON SERVICES
MANAGEMENT – THE FIJI CONTEXT
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Organisations competing in international markets are faced with increased
diversity in the workplace both at home and abroad. This has resulted in increased
recognition of the need to study cross-cultural management, and the effects of
different cultural value systems and national cultures on Human Resource
Management (Hofstede, 1984; Jackson, 1995; Klidas, 2002). Management theories
and models are mainly based on research originating from North America and the
West (Jackson, 1995; Klidas 2002). Any assumptions and strategies that have
developed, as a result of this research, should “consider the problem of
ethnocentricism in understanding” (Jackson, 1995, p.1) cross-cultural management.
Culture plays an essential role in the socialisation of people, allowing them to
share emotions, meanings and lifestyles for human interaction to take place and
flourish (Banutu-Gomez (2002). It creates a safe social environment for human
interaction, and peoples’ understanding of their roles and place in society and how to
behave in reality (Banutu-Gomez, 2002).
Mattila (1999), stated that previous research by Hsu, and Tan and McCullough
in 1985, emphasised the importance of culture in shaping people’s values and attitudes
especially in services that require a high level of contact between customers and
service employees and facilities. Reviews of cross-cultural management literature
have pointed out that management “models developed in one culture may not easily
translate to another” due to differences in traditions and values (Evans, Hau, & Sculli,
1995, p.125).
HOFSTEDE’S THEORY ON NATIONAL CULTURES
To gain a better understanding of the possible cultural dimensions that shape
people’s values, well-established dimensions of culture that have been widely used in
cross-cultural research are Hofsede’s four dimensions for analysing national cultures
(Jackson, 1995; Mattila, 1999). In studies undertaken by Hofstede in 1980, he
identified four dimensions for analysing the cultural relativity of the quality of life.
These dimensions included: Power distance; Individualism/Collectivism;
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Masculinity/Femininity; and Uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1984). A further
dimension, which influences employee behaviour is people’s attitudes towards time.
The time dimension is essential for analysing service quality in Fiji, for not only is
time an important factor in evaluating service delivery and quality, concepts of time to
both Fijians and Indo-Fijians can vary greatly from that of Westerners (Reddy, 2001).
Power Distance
This cultural characteristic is concerned with the extent to which the less
powerful within societies accept that inequalities of power within a society is normal.
Whilst inequality is found in all cultures tolerance levels differ. National cultures
can display low power distance e.g. USA, or high power distance e.g. Fiji (Hofstede,
1984; Saffu, 2003).
Individualism/Collectivism
The influence and significance of “family relationships, [are] often used as a
cultural discriminator” (Evans et al., 1995, p.127). Hofstede’s research on national
cultures, places societies “on a continuum of individualism versus collectivism”
(Evans et al., 1995, pp. 127-128), with Western societies being more individualistic,
and most Asian and South Pacific societies more collectivist (Saffu, 2003).
Small power distance societies
e.g. USA, UK
Large power distance societies
e.g. Fiji, China, India
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Table 1: Cultural Distances according to power distance
(Source: Hofstede, G. 1995, p.151)
Individualistic cultures are predominantly self-interested or interested in their
nuclear family. Whereas collectivist cultures are related by birth to one or more in-
groups which include extended families, clans/tribes or an organisation. These in-
groups provided security and protection for their members, in exchange for everlasting
loyalty and commitment (Hofstede, 1984). The collectivist nature of South Pacific
Island societies, means that individual behaviour is also influenced, by deep-rooted
traditional customary obligations and relationships. These influences have resulted
in the need for organisations to recognise and develop motivational strategies and
rewards that are more culture specific. Traditional rewards and recognition that are
based on salaries and monetary incentives, may be insufficient. HRM initiatives and
management principles that are universally applicable, need to be adapted to suit
individual local contexts, as successful HRM strategies and practices that are culture
In the family:
Children encourage to have a will of theirown
Parents treated as equals
Children educated towards obedience toparents
Parents treated as superiors
At school:
Student-centred education (initiative) Teacher-centred education (order)
Learning represents impersonal ‘truth’ Learning represents personal ‘wisdom’from teacher ‘guru’
At work:
Hierarchy means an inequality of roles,established for convenience
Hierarchy means existential inequality
Subordinates expect to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to do
Ideal boss is resourceful democrat Ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat (goodfather)
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specific (Hofstede, 1984; Ramamoorthy & Carroll, 1998; Nabalarua, 1999; Klidas,
2002).
In a study conducted by Ramamoorthy et al., (1998), on
individual/collectivism and alternative HRM practices, they found that significant
differences exist between the two cultures. For example, differences existed in the
selection and recruitment process. Organisations in individualistic societies focused
on individual abilities, qualifications and cognitive ability tests as selection criteria.
Whereas, in collectivist societies, organisations considered criteria other than just the
“ability to perform the job” (Ramamoorthy et al., 1998). Any performance related
deficiencies that occurred in collectivist organisations, were compensated by increased
“employee loyalty, lower employee turnover, and compatibility with the organisation”
(Ramamoorthy et al., 1998). They found collectivism focused on “co-operation and a
permanent relationship between the employers and employees” (Ramamoorthy et al.,
1998), that emphasised group and loyalty based rewards, and job security over
performance based pay.
Masculinity/Femininity
Masculine cultures have different social roles for men and women. Men are
expected to be assertive, ambitious, competitive, and focus on achieving material
success. In contrast, women undertake roles related to caring for family, children and
the elderly or weak.
In feminine cultures, social roles are less defined and likely to overlap, with
neither gender displaying overt needs for assertiveness or competitiveness. In both
masculine and feminine cultures, political and work related institutions reflect male
values. However, in feminine cultures, there is more emphasis on quality of life,
interpersonal relationships and the less powerful (Hofstede, 1984).
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Uncertainty Avoidance
This is related to the way in which people from different cultures feel
threatened by situations they perceive as beyond their control. Consequently,
situations that are perceived as being “unstructured, unclear or unpredictable”
(Hofstede, 1984), are avoided. Cultures displaying high uncertainty avoidance are
more likely to value strict codes of conduct, security, aggressiveness, low risk taking
etc., with low uncertainty avoidance cultures being more relaxed or easy going, and
more comfortable with risk taking (Saffu, 2003).
Time
Lastly, a further dimension that can influence service delivery is how different
cultures and societies perceive time. For example: Westerners “see time as an
unending continuum that can be subdivided into precise units which form part of an
interlocking logical system” (Evans et al., 1995, p.127). In contrast, Pacific
Islanders, as a generalisation, have a more casual attitude towards time, due to the
deep-rooted influence of traditional lifestyles that are unused to precise planning,
scheduling and punctuality (Qalo, 1997). Americans and Westerners generally view
time as a factor that is controlled by the individual, for example: “meetings are
scheduled to start at specific times and last for a specific duration” (Farrell, 1999, p.6).
Whereas other cultures may view time as a series of events, that are essentially
uncontrollable. Therefore, cultural interpretations of time are a fundamental factor in
understanding the problems related to consistent quality service delivery in Fiji.
“Fiji Time”
Recently published research findings into businesses in Fiji by Reddy,
supported the statement that the concept of time was valued differently “to the extent
it is in the West” (2001, p.101). He found that two common expressions were “Fiji
time, and Indian time” with both implying lateness (Reddy, 2001, p.101). Moreover,
many promotional or advertising communications on Fiji refer to the phenomenon of
“Fiji time” but more positively relating it to relaxation rather than lateness. In Fijian
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it is referred to as “malua fever” with malua meaning slowness or in the case of
tourism, relaxation. The following is an excerpt from Fiji Magic a free tourism
newspaper that very clearly portrays the concept of Fiji time:
Fiji Time is an attitude and a South Pacific phenomenon. It is the reason the
11 o’clock bus sometimes doesn’t leave until 12.15 and why inhabitants of
these magical isles have so much time to laugh, sing and socialise. In fact, Fiji
Time makes Mexican manana look like rush hour. Visitors to Fiji often find it
difficult to adjust to Fiji Time, but once they do they quickly begin to enjoy the
phenomenon.
(“Relax you’re on Fiji Time”, 2003, p.26).
Whilst this Fiji Magic quote may evoke romantic notions of exotic natives,
dancing hula girls, relaxation, beaches, palm trees, watching the world go by, etc. A
Westerner’s understanding of ‘slow’ and that of a Fijian or South Pacific Islander, are
still very likely to reflect different perceptions of time. There are other cultural
features that are conveniently omitted from this image, that may affect visitor
satisfaction e.g. the affects of standing in the humid tropical mid-day sun, or torrential
rain; whether or not the visitor has another connection to make at the end of their
journey etc. These factors may quickly remove any romantic feelings of ‘malua
fever’ no matter how willing the visitor is to gain an understanding of the local
culture.
THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON MANAGERIAL APPROACHES
Managing generally entails directing the work of employees. Effective
management is dependent on how skilled managers are at communicating their
requests to employees, and how committed employees are “to carrying out the
appointed tasks in a manner that conforms with the managers’ wishes or in a way that
produces the result they desire” (Evans et al.,1995, p.130). This is a general
reflection on the relationship between managers and employees. Many differences
arise when comparisons are made of management approaches in different societies.
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Many of these differences are due to the existence of different cultural values (Evans
et al., 1995; Banutu-Gomez, 2002; Saffu, 2003).
Some of the main differences that exist between Western and South Pacific
management approaches “can be explained in terms of the paternalistic value of
orientation” (Evans et al., 1995, p.130) in the South Pacific. Respect and obedience
accorded Chiefs, elders and parents are transferred to the workplace in the form of
employee obedience to superiors. Control and communication between managers and
employees, in many South Pacific companies, are similar to those within the family.
Characteristics like independence, self-confidence, and the ability to take
responsibility for decision-making, are “determined by the values of the society”
(Saffu, 2003, p.63) to which an individual belongs. In many organisations in the
South Pacific, the manager plays the role of the benevolent autocrat/benefactor,
similar to the father figure within families, and workers obey their instructions
(Hofstede, 1995; Evans et al., 1995; Nabalarua, 1999; Reddy, 2001).
RELEVANCE OF HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS TO FIJI
Fiji is a multi-racial society with the two main ethnic groups being indigenous
Fijians and Indo-Fijians. Both these racial groups display different degrees of
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. This has made the management and motivation of a
multi-racial workforce, extremely challenging. Indigenous Fijians, like many South
Pacific Island cultures belong to a predominantly masculine, collectivist hierarchical
culture (Niukula, 1995), that accepts high power distance, and uncertainty avoidance
(Saffu, 2003). Indo-Fijians, in contrast, belong to a predominantly masculine,
individualistic culture (Niukula, 1995), but display characteristics of lower power
distance and uncertainty avoidance. The extent to which these different groups
respond to similar management practices, or where strategies like employee
empowerment, must be adapted to motivate these groups will be analysed in Chapter
7, using Hofstede’s five dimensions and relevant literature.
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Implementing employee empowerment, within a Pacific Island context, could
present challenges based on employees’ traditional cultural behavioural norms relating
to: power distance, respect for authority, and ultimately their willingness to be
accountable and take responsibility for their actions (Reddy, 2001; Banutu-Gomez,
2002). Human relationships that involve trust, commitment, and teamwork, are
complex. For Pacific Islanders these are further compounded by cultural
backgrounds, traditional communal obligations, thus requiring assumptions of
differing motivational factors (Qalo, 1997; Reddy, 2001).
CULTURE AND EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT IN FIJI
As previously stated, empowerment is a concept which, even when accepted
by management, needs to be voluntarily adopted by employees (Honold, 1997;
Lashley, 2001). Within a Pacific Island context this could present further challenges
based on an employee’s traditional culture. Furthermore, Coleman (1996, p.35)
claimed that “empowerment will not work if employees do not have some intrinsic
motivation to make a contribution”. Thus, research into employee empowerment
must consider a variety of factors that affect individual employees.
In Fiji the two main ethnic cultures, in the main, displayed a large power
distance (Hofstede 1984), and the existence of “unequal distribution of power within
[South Pacific] institutions and society is generally accepted” (Saffu, 2003, p.64).
Cultural factors needed to be considered if Western management techniques, like
employee empowerment were to be accepted and successfully implemented (Hales et
al., 1998).
Most organisations in Fiji, and the South Pacific in general, have traditional
top-down management styles, that reflect the benevolent benefactor attitudes of their
colonial predecessors (Nabalarua, 1999; Reddy, 2001), and their hierarchical
indigenous cultures. Therefore, it might be assumed that the existence of employee
empowerment within local organisations in Fiji is negligible, given the nature of
existing organisational cultures. The existence of top-down management in Fiji is
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further confirmed by Reddy whose research found that senior management in many
third world countries like Fiji “make decisions on their own and do not expect to be
questioned on the method used [as consultation with employees of lower rank was]
below their status” (2001, p.77).
Moreover, when considering indigenous Fijians in business, Qalo, (1997, p.
82.) observed that they lived in “two worlds of tradition and modernity [where their
business environment comprised] a maze of protocol, inter and intra connections, false
modesty, etiquette, decorum, niceties, and competition”. Additionally, unlike
Western management practices that encourage precision, efficiency, punctuality and
documentation, Fijians lack of attention to detail, within a business framework, is a
reflection of a subsistence mindset, which still exists within indigenous Fijian
lifestyles.
Research has shown that management concepts like empowerment, require a
“shift in leadership style and in particular the abandonment of traditional autocratic
and directive leadership in favour of democratic and participative leadership”
(Lashley, 1997). This is especially relevant within a multi-cultural context where
employee behaviour can be influenced by additional local factors based on ethnicity.
Strategies for the implementation of empowerment must be carefully
developed, in order that employees fully understand the concept, and the level of
support they can expect to receive from management. Employees need to be trained,
coached and given the tools to allow them to accept the concept, and take
responsibility for the role they play within the service encounter and the delivery of a
quality service (Tschohl, 1998; Appelbaum et al., 1999; Honold, 1999). Lack of
understanding of empowerment, given the cultural context of Fiji Island employees,
could lead to their reluctance towards acceptance of the concept, thus posing further
challenges to maintaining competitive advantage through high quality, consistent
service.
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INDIGENOUS FIJIAN CULTURE
Culture has been “defined as the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one category of people from those of another”
(Hofstede, 1984, p. 389). Indigenous Fijian culture today has three main influences:
the Church, the Fijian Community, and the Government (Niukula, 1995). Their
culture is hierarchical and led by a hereditary chiefly system. Chiefs are shown
respect, and recognised as leaders of the community, who possess authority and
power. Respect is also shown to the elderly, visitors and men (Niukula, 1995).
Fijian culture uses language and words to show respect to different members of
their community. Chiefs are addressed differently, with words of deference.
Immediate family and other communal relationships are also addressed with words
that reflect the relationship each person has to the other. Respect, however, is mutual
between the people and their chiefs. There are two main sides to the chiefly system.
The people have responsibilities to their chiefs and in return “are also served and
given leadership at other times” (Niukula, 1995, p.24). This benevolent/paternal type
relationship is also found within many organisations within Fiji (Nabalarua, 1999).
These cultural factors were considered when the findings of the case study were
analysed (See Chapters 6 & 7), and recommendations for future research were made
in (Chapter 8).
TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY – FIJI
Fiji is the primary tourist destination for visitors to the South Pacific (Keith-
Reid, 2002) and tourism is Fiji’s main export industry and “foreign exchange earner”
(Clarke, 2003). Its core markets are Australia and New Zealand, with other main
sources being United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan and Korea (Fiji Visitors
Bureau, 2003). Tourism in Fiji is “currently experiencing unprecedented levels of
demand” as international travellers choose the perceived safety of South Pacific
destinations, over other global markets that have been negatively impacted by health
and security concerns (Clarke, 2003; Keith-Reid, 2003). The government of Fiji is
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committed to supporting the tourism industry through investment in tourism
infrastructure, especially related to the transport and accommodation sectors (Clarke,
2003). However, although tourism has the potential to be “an effective tool for
sustainable development” its success “will be determined to a large extent by human
resources, which can delivery efficient, high-quality services” (Yamakawa, 2001).
The rapid growth of international tourism, advances in technology and
dynamic continuously changing tourism markets, has made the focus on issues related
to human resource development vital. Tourism is by nature a labour intensive service
industry, and its sustainability is largely dependent on the quality and capabilities of
its manpower (Yamakawa, 2001). The absence of skilled manpower within the Asia
Pacific region is considered “a major threat to the overall development of tourism”
(Yamakawa, 2001).
Due to the interactive nature of tourism services, it is imperative that
management and employees possess excellent interpersonal cross-cultural
communication skills (Garavan, 1997). Small independent tourism operators face
major challenges providing quality services when compared to the diverse
management skills possessed by multinational hotel chains. The long-term
sustainability of tourism destinations and organisations is not only influenced by price
and availability of attractions, but the existence of high quality services. Repeat
visitation is vital to continued growth in tourism, and quality service is an important
factor for meeting service expectations.
Furthermore, an important factor in the consumer decision-making process is
word-of mouth communication (McColl et al., 1998; Pizam, 1999; Zeithaml et al.,
2000). The existence of sub-standard service quality, compounded by modern
technological channels of communication via the World Wide Web, can be instantly
conveyed to potential tourists, thus becoming a major deterrent to potential travel and
repeat visitation. The important role tourism plays in Fiji’s economy and the shortage
of skilled employees (Yamakawa, 2001; South Pacific Tourism Organisation, 2002),
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means that the industry must focus on human resource issues, in order to provide
innovative, quality services that will sustain the future of its tourism sector.
CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS OF SERVICES IN FIJI
Any consumer of services worldwide, at some point has encountered problems
with consistent service delivery and Fiji is no different. However, in Fiji,
organisations of all types and sizes have faced enormous challenges related to
delivering high quality, consistent services that meet the expectations of the
experienced, discerning global consumer. For example, a Fiji Times journalist on a
recent field trip to the Yasawas, with the University of the South Pacific Tourism and
Hospitality students and lecturers, described their dinner at the Sheraton Royal in Nadi
as: “the longest three-hour, three-course meal I ever sat through” . However, she
described breakfast the next day at the same hotel as being “something worth talking
about” (Vakarewakobau, 2003, p. 16). This variation in service quality from one day
to another, is not unusual in Fiji and is a problem that tourism and hospitality
organisations need to address.
Research is needed to explore the possible reasons behind this. Potential
topics that should be researched when looking for answers to this problem should
include local: organisational management styles; understanding of international
consumer expectations; the existence of human resource management practices like:
training and selection, motivation, incentive and reward schemes, employee
empowerment within organisations; the influence of traditional cultural factors e.g.
time; or a combination of all these factors.
Any potential solutions to this problem may be complex, but to compete within
a global marketplace, as is the case with the international tourism and hospitality
industry, it is imperative that these challenges are practically addressed through
academic studies like this. However, when exploring potential solutions, studies must
also access whether or not western concepts like employee empowerment (Klidas,
2002), are likely to be successfully implemented in Fiji’s tourism and hospitality
sectors, and any adaptations that may be necessary given the local cultural context.
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SUMMARY
This chapter has reviewed literature on cross-cultural management, and how
different cultures and value systems can influence the effectiveness of HRM. As a
primary objective of this study is to ascertain whether a western management strategy,
like employee empowerment, can provide the same benefits for service quality and
consistency in frontline service encounters within tourism and hospitality, we must
also consider local indigenous employees, and their willingness to accept
empowerment. To this end, Hofstede’s theory of national cultures was defined as a
framework with which to analyse cultural aspects of the findings of the case study of
Wakaya. Also outlined in this chapter, are brief descriptions of different aspects of
this study, as they relate to the Fiji context.
The review of literature on employee empowerment in Chapter 2, has referred
to a variety of empowerment models and dimensions used by different researchers as a
framework for their analysis of the types and forms of empowerment that exist in
different organisations. Chapter 4, which follows, outlines a number of the different
models that were discussed in Chapter 2. The different models outlined in Chapter 4,
provide a number of dimensions from which to interpret and discuss the findings of
the case study in Chapter 6. The data interpretation and discussion based on these
models and relevant academic literature can be found in Chapter 7.
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CHAPTER FOUR
MODELS OF EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT
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Research into employee empowerment has been conducted using a number of
different models. This Chapter will discuss some of the different models.
RELATIONAL OR MOTIVATIONAL MODELS OF EMPOWERMENT
In general, empowerment models can be placed in two broad categories;
relational or motivational. Relational empowerment models are concerned with
management styles and engaging different forms of employee participation and
commitment. Motivational models relate to empowerment as it concerns individuals
through the provision of different degrees of autonomy, latitude, power and control
and their relationship to feelings of self-efficacy, and the extent to which individual
employees have the power to take control, use initiative and make useful contributions
to organisational success (van Oudtshoorn & Thomas, 1993).
Research has also shown that empowerment can refer to a variety of
dimensions which include: “control of one’s own work, autonomy on the job,
variations of teamwork, and pay systems that link pay with performance” (Honold,
1997, p.202). These dimensions are also dependent on an individual’s ability and
desire for empowerment, whilst other dimensions are management techniques which
may facilitate empowerment, but where individual employees are able to choose to be
empowered or not. As previously mentioned, “leaders create an environment where
individuals are able to make that choice [and for empowerment to be introduced
successfully within an organisation] each organisation must create and define it for
itself” addressing their own cultures and unique requirements (Honold, 1997, p.202).
However, implementing empowerment within organisations is a difficult and
time-consuming process, with many empowerment programmes proving ineffective,
resulting in a need to identify and understand the key factors for successful
empowerment (Siegall et al., 2000). Critics perceive empowerment as a
management tool, and point out that whilst it may exist within organisations, it is
limited by regulatory controls that specify limits of employee discretion, and can
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include increased responsibility without any substantive increase in power or control
in the workplace (Hales et al., 1998).
Lashley’s Five Dimensional Framework
Research conducted by Lashley (1995b) at McDonalds used a five-dimensional
framework of analysis to establish what employees could and could not do. He also
analysed employee perceptions of empowerment, and the organisational limitations
that were placed on employee roles. Previous research findings from different
organisations discovered that when empowerment was unrealistically restricted or
when employees “feel the rewards from empowerment do not accrue to them, the
initiative is less effective in tapping the enthusiasm and energy intended” (Lashley,
1995b, p. 29).
Empowerment as introduced in McDonald’s restaurants in Wales, focused on
empowering supervisors and restaurant managers. Empowerment in this case was
based on increased autonomy and rewards, with supervisors and managers being held
responsible for their decisions. However, McDonald’s supervisors and managers felt
that the boundaries within which they could operate were not clearly stated, thus
creating feelings of uncertainty amongst employees.
Nixon and Cook’s Five-point empowerment strategy
Nixon (1994) suggested a five-point empowerment strategy for organisations,
which encouraged individual and team participation in achieving organisational goals.
This strategy comprised the following steps: establishing a vision; prioritising and
acting only where most impact was possible; developing strong relationships with
colleagues; and using internal and external support groups. A similar outline of the
stages of empowerment by Cook (1994), (See Figure 4), maintained that it included
“the vision, values, management role as facilitator, teamwork, training support and
process improvement which are all reviewed and monitored at the end of the process”
(Erstad, 1997, p.326).
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Bowen and Lawler
Bowen & Lawler (1992), compared empowerment approaches to production
line approaches. Production-line approaches focused control at top levels of the
organisation, whereas empowerment approaches focused on introducing different
degrees of control at lower levels. The differences in these two approaches are based
on the differences in locus of control for the four main features:
1. Information about organisational performance (e.g. operating results andcompetitor performance)
2. Rewards based on organisational performance (e.g. profit sharing and stockownership)
3. Knowledge that enables employees to understand and contribute toorganisational performance (e.g. problem-solving skills)
4. Power to make decisions and influence work procedures and organisationaldirection (e.g. through quality circles and self-managing teams)
(Bowen et al., 1992, p. 36).
They identified three approaches for empowering employees. These represent
different levels of empowerment dependent on the level of control and involvement
assigned to frontline employees. These are:
1. Suggestion involvement – [where] employees are encouraged to makerecommendations through, for example, suggestion schemes and qualitycircles, however, their daily activities remain the same and management retainsthe power for decision-making.
2. Job involvement – [where] jobs are redesigned and employees are multi-skilled. This includes increased freedom to plan their daily work, andincreased feedback. Higher quality work is an outcome of enriched jobinvolvement, as employees feel more motivated and satisfied in their day-to-day work activities. Teamwork is often used in complex service encounters,which involve multiple workers. This involves training employees to dealwith the increased complexity of their roles, and supervisors to be moresupportive of frontline employees. However, high-level strategic decisionsare still the responsibility of senior management.
3. High involvement – this exists where low-level employees are involved indecisions regarding their jobs and team performance, together withorganisational performance. Skills in team work, problem solving and
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business operations are developed, but can be expensive to implement (Bowenet al., 1992, p. 36).
Their research found that only interested employees responded positively to
job enrichment strategies, which provided more challenging work and autonomy.
They also believed that advantages were found in both the production line and
empowerment approaches, dependent on different situations.
Production-line approaches were successful where high volume, low cost
services were offered, for example: fast food restaurants and supermarkets. On the
other hand, the empowerment approach succeeded within more complicated services
like: hotels, resorts, and airlines. In these cases, they found customers were prepared
to pay for personalised services and employees were empowered to customise service
delivery to meet customer needs.
A further factor that influenced which approach to use was time. When
service providers were interested in building relationships with customers, or in the
case of hotels and resorts, where employees developed relationships with customers
during their one or two week stay, they recommended empowerment as the best
management approach. In contrast, in labour intensive services where customers
expected quality, inexpensive, fast, reliable service and service providers dealt with
thousands of brief encounters daily, for example: Disney, or McDonalds; a
production line approach was recommended with elements of suggestion involvement
as a form of feedback. A primary factor in the production line approach was whether
the service providers was prepared to invest in the additional cost of employee
selection, training and retention strategies, together with what customers wanted and
were willing to pay for. In their opinion, management should select the approach that
best suited the needs of their employees and customers.
Furthermore, Bowen et al. (1992) claimed, that the business environment also
influenced which management approach to implement. Where organisations operated
within unpredictable environments as is the case with airlines and hotels, and where
customers have a variety of specialised needs, empowerment is more appropriate.
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However, organisations that operated in more stable environments, where customer
expectations were predictable and less complicated, the production line approach
would be preferable. Here managers were able to predict most events and designed
policies and procedures to deal with them.
Wilkinson’s Five management motivations for empowerment
Wilkinson (1998. p.46), claimed that empowerment schemes vary and include
five main managerial motivations, which “range from the mechanistic (i.e. structural
change) to the more organic (concerned with attitudes/culture)”. These include:
“information sharing, upward problem solving, task autonomy, attitudinal shaping,
and self-management” (Wilkinson, 1998, p.47).
Information sharing
The sharing of information is an essential component of empowered
management. This involves the increase of downward communication to employees
using in-house newsletters, team meetings etc., that communicate the organisation’s
vision, goals and position in the marketplace. Increased downward communication is
thought to improve employee understanding of managerial decisions and increase their
commitment to the organisation. A criticism of this by Wilkinson (1998) is that
increased information does not necessarily empower employees, but reduces their
opportunities, as management changes its position from telling employees they should
do something, to explaining the reasons why they should do it. Ultimately, the same
goal is achieved but using a different tactic.
Furthermore, for information sharing to be successful, employees must also be
able to express opinions and suggestions, other than “task related problems”
(Wilkinson, 1998, p.47), through upward communication. However, employees must
be assured that if their suggestions or complaints are not received favourably, this will
in no way affect their job security. Employees should also be encouraged to
participate in horizontal communication that may improve their performance, by
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collecting ideas and information from other teams. This can be done using cross-
functional teams and engaging in problem solving strategies.
Upward problem solving
This has a variety of dimensions, which include: communication of problems
to management, frontline decision-making due to greater autonomy and responsibility,
and elements of suggestion involvement (Bowen & Lawler, 1992), where management
decides whether or not to take action on employee suggestions. A further element of
this is the inclusion of employees in designing more innovative work processes.
Task autonomy
This is where work teams have more autonomy and responsibility in areas
related to: “task scheduling, monitoring of attendance, health and safety issues, the
flow and pace of production, …setting improvement targets”, and recruitment and
training of temporary employees (Wilkinson, 1998, p.48). By using the collective
knowledge of task-related teams, management still determines the composition of the
team, but employees are able to focus on problem solving related to operational
issues, leaving strategic decisions to senior management.
Attitudinal shaping
This is a psychological process where employees are given the training and
skills that allow them to experience empowerment as a state of mind, without any
actual change in practice. This process has been used in service industries, enabling
more successful service encounters, through increased confidence and responsiveness
during service recovery.
Self management
In reality, this rarely exists as this approach is normally constrained by limits
that are pre-set by senior management. These initiatives are also concerned with
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increased employee participation in decision-making, through information and
knowledge sharing, referred to by Bowen et al. (1992), as high involvement.
The Cycle of Capability Model
It is not only within services that empowerment is seen as an important
management technique. However, in order to assess the extent to which
empowerment is beneficial to service organisations, Lashley (1999), suggested that a
framework for analysis be selected within which empowerment can be explored. To
this end, the Cycle of Capability (Heskett et al., 1997) was used as a framework, to
design the Employee Survey Questionnaire (See Appendix 3), with questions based on
this model (See Figure 2: Questions associated with the Cycle of Capability).
The main idea behind The Cycle of Capability “is that satisfied employees are
loyal and productive employees, [with their main basis for satisfaction being] their
desire to deliver results to customers” (Heskett et al., 1997, p.11). However, in order
to deliver satisfactory services, frontline employees must have interpersonal skills,
“the latitude (within well-specified limits) to use their judgement,…training and
technical support, …and recognition and rewards for doing so” Heskett et al., 1997,
p.11). Heskett et al. (1997), further claimed that employee contribution and
performance were critical to providing quality customer service and business
performance. This claim is supported by Silvestro & Cross (2000, p.246) who
maintained that “links between employee and customer satisfaction [have been
repeatedly made] in the service quality literature”.
Customer-employee Satisfaction Mirror
Service encounters between frontline service providers and customers are the
centre of the service profit chain, and the process associated with the ‘satisfaction
mirror’ (See Figure 2) contends that positive service encounters result in increased
loyalty and satisfaction on the part of both the customer and employee (Heskett et al.,
1997). However, the prospective success of these encounters begins “with hiring the
right people” (Heskett et al., p102). Research, by Schneider and Bowen in 1985,
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documented the “Customer-Employee Satisfaction Mirror” in banks (Heskett et al.,
1997). They found that satisfied employees reflected similarly high levels of customer
satisfaction. Since then, companies like Nordstrom in the USA, have found that
paying and rewarding frontline employees well, and providing them with good
working environments, was beneficial for the long term profitability of the company,
and helped create relationships between employees and customers (Heskett et al.,
1997). However, these relationships do not lead to customer loyalty and competitive
advantage unless they can be repeated consistently. Successful face-to-face
encounters in services, are dependent on employees possessing high levels of
interpersonal skills (Garavan, 1997). This is especially important in services like
tourism and hospitality, where high levels of perceived risk exist (Kotler, Bowen &
Makens, 2003).
Creating a Cycle of Capability
The successful implementation of this cycle includes a series of interrelated
elements (See Figures 1, 2 & 3). The cycle of capability maintains “that frontline
employees should be given as much latitude to perform their jobs as possible”
(Heskett et al., 1997, p.128), within a supportive environment.
SUMMARY
This Chapter outlined a number of different models of employee
empowerment, and discussed their various dimensions. Generally, empowerment
models fall into two broad categories: relational or motivational. Relational models
refer to different management styles and ways of engaging increased employee
participation and commitment. Motivational models are related, to how empowerment
affects individual employees, by providing them with different degrees of autonomy
and power, to take control in frontline service encounters. Employee empowerment
schemes differ for each organisation, but whatever the form of empowerment,
successful implementation requires the support of both management and employees.
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Employee satisfaction can lead to increased service quality and customer
satisfaction, as satisfied employees are likely to perform better in frontline service
encounters (Heskett et al., 1997). Empowerment is difficult to define, as it differs by
organisation. However, empowerment models cover a variety of dimensions that
include: clear understanding of company vision and values, innovative leadership,
management playing the role of facilitator, careful employee selection, high quality
training, supportive environment, latitude to meet customer needs, clear limits on and
expectations of employees, frequent rewards and recognition, multi-skilling,
information sharing (both upward and downward), teamwork, and process
improvement. As previously stated the findings of the case study in Chapter 6, will
be interpreted and discussed, based on the different elements of employee
empowerment, and outcomes of the literature review in Chapter 2. Cultural aspects
of this data will also be compared with the data from the review of cross-cultural
management, and Hofstede’s Theory on national cultures (See Chapter 3).
In Chapter 5, which follows, the research problem and research objectives are
stated, together with the research methods used to collect the data for this study.
Chapter 5 also addresses issues concerning reliability, validity and ethical
considerations as they relate to this study.
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CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
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INTRODUCTION
Due to increased globalisation, many tourism and hospitality related
organisations are facing the challenges of managing their businesses in different
countries, and across diverse cultures. These organisations see different degrees of
“decentralisation and empowerment as key answers” (Gross-Turner, 1993, p.163) to
their problems.
Globalisation, increased competition, and more discerning experienced
consumers are some of the main reasons for the recent interest in employee
empowerment, and its possibilities for improved service quality, employee satisfaction
and subsequent relationship to competitive advantage (Erstad, 1997; Lashley, 2001).
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Tourism and hospitality services in Fiji have difficulty maintaining consistent
service quality. This research project was conducted to discover why this was so,
and explored the concept of employee empowerment as a potential solution to this
problem.
The study investigated how employee empowerment has been used in tourism
in hospitality services, based on the supposition that the implementation of
empowerment with service organisations has the potential to provide benefits related
to increased service quality and consistency. These benefits from empowerment can
enable organisations to gain competitive advantage within competitive global markets.
Employee empowerment in tourism and hospitality in Fiji, was investigated by
conducting a case study of The Wakaya Club resort TWC). The aim of the case study
was to discover if a western concept, which had provided significant benefits in
international service organisations, could be translated to work successfully in Fiji, on
a predominantly indigenous Fijian workforce, thus allowing organisations to reap the
benefits of improved consistent service quality, and customer satisfaction.
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RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. Conduct a literature review that examines contemporary academic opinion and
rhetoric on employee empowerment (See Chapter 2).
2. Conduct a literature review, which focuses on cross-cultural management issues
and challenges (See Chapter 3).
a. Define Hofstede’s (1984) Theory on national cultures to use as a basis for
analysis of cultural discussions.
b. Review literature to provide background for the Fiji context. This will
include:
i. General background of Indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian cultures.
ii. Traditional management approaches in Fiji.
iii. Challenges of managing a local Fiji workforce.
iv. Influence of culture on management and employee behaviour in
Fiji.
v. Provide a general outline of the important role the tourism and
hospitality sectors play in Fiji.
3. Conduct case study research of The Wakaya Club resort to provide the empirical
data from which to explore the problem statement (See Chapter 6). This case
study included:
a. Design, distribution and collection of a self-administered employee
questionnaire, with questions based on the Cycle of Capability Model
(Heskett et al. 1997). The questionnaire explored different dimensions of
employee empowerment from the individual employee perspective.
b. Numerous visits to the resort, to conduct:
i. In-depth face to face and focus interviews on site with management,
employees and guests (where possible).
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ii. Participant observation by staying as a guest at the resort.
iii. Collect secondary data from TWC company documentation and
historical records.
c. Conduct general literature review on TWC to provide general background
of resort and reviews from travel/industry experts and guests.
d. Co-ordinate data collection and write up case study (See Chapter 6).
4. Critically evaluate the findings from the primary and secondary data collection,
using the results of literature reviews on employee empowerment (Chapter 2) and
cross-cultural management (Chapter 3). Questions which will be addressed are:
a. How has employee empowerment been implemented at TWC?
i. Perspectives from both management and employees.
b. Does it provide substantial benefits for service quality and consistency?
i. If yes – What have they done that is different or similar to the
empowerment models in Chapter 4?
ii. If no – Why not?
c. Are there cultural factors that must be considered when interpreting the
data from the case study?
d. Can the benefits of employee empowerment be adapted, to consider
cultural elements, and local service companies reap the advantages of this
approach as it relates to the delivery of consistent quality services?
e. Do local management approaches, and Hofstede’s theory of national
cultures, have any bearing on the frontline employee’s ability to perform
consistent services?
5. Based on the interpretation and discussions of the research findings in Chapter 7,
make recommendations and conclusions for further research in Chapter 8. These
recommendations should be realistic and address the problem in the context of the
tourism and hospitality sectors in Fiji specifically.
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METHODOLOGY
Data for this study were gathered using predominantly qualitative research
methods. Qualitative research is an integral part of interpretive social science
research where explanations for the research problem use an inductive rather than
deductive approach (Jennings, 2001). Research that assumes an inductive approach
requires that “the data are collected using an insider’s perspective [and]…in their real
world or natural setting” (Jennings, 2001). In this study, data were collected by
means of a detailed literature review; together with participant observation, in-depth
and focus interviews, and survey questionnaires undertaken during the case study of
Wakaya.
A multi-method approach to qualitative research, with mixed research methods
of primary and secondary data collection, was used. This included a case study of
The Wakaya Club, to provide richer, more accurate data for this study. The mixed
method approach is a characteristic of triangulation, especially in qualitative research,
where questions are concerned with gaining an understanding of complex processes
within organisations that involve many actors (Cassell & Symon, 1994; Jennings,
2001). Due concern was given to the importance of authenticity, context, validity and
reliability of the data collection methods in order that resultant data were a true
representation of the participants and not compromised by the subjectivity of the
researcher, or the tendency of Fijians to tell you what they think you want to hear,
rather than what is actually true.
RESEARCH METHODS
Case study methodology was used to provide the empirical data for this
research study. The Wakaya Club was chosen for the study, because not only is it a
local example of an international recognised resort that consistently delivers high
quality service, it does so with a 100% local workforce. Previous research I
conducted in 2002, showed that they practiced elements of employee empowerment.
During that research project in 2002, Robert Miller (RM), the General Manager,
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offered to give me access to carry out any research I may be interested in, for my
Masters degree. For the duration of this study, I was afforded the privilege of
complete access to: both front and backstage areas of the resort, unlimited access to
management and employees, together with any relevant information found within the
company records. This unrestricted access not only contributed to rich data
collection, but is unusual in organisational or case study research, where some of the
primary areas of concern, are related to gaining and maintaining continuous access to
an organisation (Hartley, 1994).
Case study
This thesis supports the basic assumption (supported by the literature review in
Chapter 2) that meanings and forms of empowerment are varied, and that research
studies of its application should examine the context in which empowerment might
apply (Honold, 1997; Lashley, 1995). A case study approach was used for this
investigation with a view to provide meaningful rich data through “an analysis of the
context and processes involved” delivering high quality consistent services in tourism
and hospitality (Hartley, 1994, p.209).
Arguments exist both for and against the use of case studies in organisational
research. Supporters for this research method claim that case studies are able to
provide rich, meaningful data and allow the study of “social processes in their
appropriate context” (Hartley, 1994, p.208). A counter argument, considered by
Hartley (1994, p.208) to be outdated, claimed that case studies lack rigour and
reliability and failed to “address the issues of generalisability” that were effectively
addressed by quantitative methods. Furthermore, he claimed that, if the potential
weaknesses of the research method were recognised, with links made to relevant
theory within the context of the case study, they “can be theoretically exciting and data
rich” (Hartley, 1994, p.208). This is what I have done in Chapters 6, 7 and 8.
The following definition for the case study is provided to establish a clear
understanding of what this approach entailed, in the context of this study:
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A case study is a detailed investigation, often with data collected over a period
of time, of one or more organisations, or groups of organisations, with a view
to providing an analysis of the context and processes involved in the
phenomenon under study. The phenomenon is not isolated from its
context…but is of interest precisely because it is in relation to the context
(Hartley, 1994, pp.208-209).
In a case study, the context is an inherent part of the research design, and
relevant factors of validity and generalisability must be considered (Hartley, 1994). In
this study, these issues were addressed by using multiple methods of qualitative data
collection, within the same sample population, as detailed below. It was anticipated
that if the data collected from these multiple methods returned the same or similar
results from the sample, that this would address the question of validity and
generalisability.
The case study method has been used extensively in studies of organisational
behaviour (Hartley, 1994), however the infrequent use of this method in research can
be due to a variety of reasons. Case studies are time consuming, labour intensive,
costly, and researchers often encounter difficulties associated with gaining and
maintaining access to the organisation and its employees (Hartley, 1994). As
explained in Chapter 1, and in this chapter, this was not the case with Wakaya.
However, more increasingly, case studies are becoming an acceptable form of research
into theses examining organisations (Gummesson, 2000).
Further justification for the choice of this research strategy was that the case
study enabled me to gain a better understanding of the day-to-day practices of the
organisation that could not be achieved with fleeting visits. Moreover, detailed case
studies can be fundamental “in cross-national comparative research, where an
intimate understanding of what concepts mean to people, the meanings attached to
particular behaviours and how behaviours are linked, is essential” to the outcomes of
the study at hand (Hartley, 1994, p.214).
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Finally, Conrad Lashley used case studies for his research into empowerment
at McDonalds (1995), and TGI Friday (2000), using Hartley (1994) to justify his
choice. His studies found that empowerment must be investigated in context, as the
forms, meanings and intentions attributed to the concept differ for each organisation.
Lashley found the case study method particularly useful as it enabled the
understanding of management processes and the “study of the roles, responsibilities,
and authority allocated to various participants in the organisation” (Lashley, 2000,
p.799). He also affirmed that the most significant factor with the case study was that
it “enabled an investigation of the views and impressions of the approach from
individuals in key roles” (Lashley, 2000, p.799). Since Lashley, found the case study
method a successful strategy for his research, this provided additional justification for
the use of this method in this study.
As previously described in Chapter 1, data collection methods for the case
study of Wakaya were designed to determine:
� Whether Western approaches to management using employee empowerment were
suitable for service organisations within Fiji.
� Whether employee empowerment could be successfully implemented in Fiji.
� How employee empowerment was successfully implemented in Fiji? The results
of the case study of The Wakaya Club, an organisation in Fiji that empowered its
employees, was used as the basis for the solution to this research question.
� The meanings and forms of employee empowerment at Wakaya as they related:
a) to management and b) to employees.
� The extent to which employee empowerment contributed to the delivery of
consistent, quality services, employee and customer satisfaction and ultimately
competitive advantage.
DATA COLLECTION
As discussed earlier in this Chapter and in Chapter 1, this study used a number
of methods to collect data. These methods were qualitative rather than quantitative in
nature and are detailed below.
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Historical research
Historical research on the Wakaya Club was conducted using documents from
the Wakaya museum, magazine articles, internet resources e.g. tour operator and travel
agent reviews, the Wakaya Club website, and past guests’ comments gathered from
summaries of the in house guest questionnaire (See Appendix 2 for examples from
February-August, 2003).
Participant observation
The first-hand study of the day-to-day management of the resort, together with
guest and employee activities and behaviour in different situations, was undertaken
using the method of participant observation, through social interaction with the
participants, namely the management, employees and, in some cases, guests, of the
resort. This method is justified especially where “the researcher is confident of
obtaining reasonable access; the research problem is observable and capable of being
addressed by qualitative data; and the research setting is sufficiently limited in size
and location for it to be effectively observed” (Waddington 1994, p.108). This was
certainly the case with the Wakaya Club, which is located on a privately owned island,
where access is allowed only at the permission of the resort owners or managers.
Data from the guests’ perspective were collected through participant
observation, as throughout the investigation I was accommodated at the resort and
provided with all the benefits of a full-paying guest. This enabled me to experience
Wakaya’s services in person and also the observation and experience of both guest and
employee behaviour in front line encounters, thus compensating for the limited direct
access to guests, as explained below. Secondary data were also collected from
magazine reviews, internet sites and the results of TWC in houseguest questionnaire.
Interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed as a complementary method to direct
observation. Table 4 lists potential advantages and disadvantages of using
observation as a data collection method by Hancock (1998). Due consideration was
given to any disadvantages that could occur, because of I was an active participant of
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this process. I was well aware of the need for objective observation and attempted to
maintain this stance throughout.
Interviews
A variety of interview types were conducted over a period of five visits of
three or four days each. These included both in-depth and focus group interviews
using semi-structured questions (See Appendix 4 & 5). Informal interviews were
conducted as the opportunity arose, and to confirm data interpretation and
contradictions that arose during the interpretation of the research findings. A list of
advantages and disadvantages of different types of interviews by Hancock (1998), can
be found in Table 2.
In-depth interviews
In-depth personal interviews were carried out with the managers Robert and
Linda Miller (LM), management personnel and frontline employees. An outline of
the questions for in-depth management interviews is found in Appendix 4, followed by
an outline of in-depth frontline employee interviews in Appendix 5.
Where possible, on site informal interviews were conducted with guests.
However, this was limited by the fact that Wakaya is a luxury boutique resort whose
guests are predominantly ‘rich and famous’. Therefore, their desire for privacy was
respected, and meant that any interviews with the guests were on a voluntary basis,
and could not be intrusive or detrimental to their holiday experience.
Focus interviews
Focus interviews were conducted with resort employees after the questionnaire
had been administered, in order to address points of interest that surfaced from the
questionnaire results. These were carried out in the form of informal social
gatherings in the staff village, around the ‘grog’ or yaqona bowl, in the expectation
that this form of data collection would be more culturally acceptable to the employees
who are predominantly indigenous Fijians. It was also assumed that richer more
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detailed data would be collected from the more relaxed, informal setting, as the
interviews would take the form of conversations rather than a formal interview.
Employees were also more willing to participate than with the questionnaires where
their answers had to be written down. In the case of the questionnaires, many agreed
only after they confirmed that their answers would be confidential. Even though they
were not required to put down their names, they knew that it was such a small resort
that I would know who the respondent was. Another reason for this is that because I
am local, I too have that innate ability to remember names, and consequently over the
past two years know the names of all frontline employees and management at TWC.
This had many advantages for conducting interviews and with the questionnaires,
helped with any ambiguous answers that I needed to check.
The dynamics of group interviews were taken into consideration, and care was
taken moderate the group discussion to avoid situations where certain participants
dominated the discussion and influenced other members through ‘group-think’
(Steyaert & Bouwen, 1994). This also had cultural importance, which included the
large power distance that exists in local traditional societies, and where more
important employees, church ministers or the local chief might dominate the
discussions. In addition, elements of Masculine/Femininity had to be considered when
trying to encourage the predominantly female employees to speak in front of the male
employees. In many cases I conducted informal interviews with female employees, in
the evenings when they had just finished work, or at the desks, but away from their
spouses or other male employees. These interviews were up to an hour in length
depending on how busy they were, and whether or not guests needed to be served.
A basic structured question outline was designed in order that these informal
interviews were centred on the research questions at hand rather than digressing into a
purely social gathering (See Appendix 5).
Telephone interviews
Telephone interviews were conducted with TWC’s external HRM consultant,
to discover the types of training she had conducted at the resort, the frequency of these
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workshops, and gain her expert opinion on leadership, management and employees
both at Wakaya and in Fiji generally. Her work experience has its background in
hotels and resorts so her expert opinion was even more pertinent to my research.
Other telephone interviews were conducted with Robert Miller (RM) and
other members of his staff, to gather extra information, clarify points that came from
the returned questionnaires, and to request statistics, etc.
Questionnaire design and Data Analysis
Self-administered questionnaires
Self-administered questionnaires were completed by employees. (See
Appendix 1 & 3). A list of the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires by
Hancock (1998) can be found in Table 3. Many of the disadvantages of
questionnaires in this list were overcome, by using self-administered questionnaires,
rather than other distribution and collection methods. For example: incomplete
questionnaires, respondent queries, and problems of interpretation and translation,
were answered in person by me. Where respondents felt they had more to contribute
than the options provided on the questionnaire, I was able to improvise and for
example, use an informal interview as an added complementary method of data
collection.
The questionnaire consisted of 24 statements based on the Cycle of Capability
by Hesekett et al. (1997). Different questions were developed for management and
employees based on the different elements of Heskett et al’s. (1997) Cycle of
Capability. The underlying assumption of the Cycle of Capability, is that frontline
employees should be given the support and latitude to perform their jobs in a manner
consistent with organisational policies. (See Figure 1, Questionnaire questions
associated with the Cycle of Capability, and Appendices 2, 3 and 4 for employee
questionnaire and outline management and frontline employee in-depth interview
questions respectively
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These statements were used to measure employee’s perceptions on different
dimensions of empowerment. The results of the review of employee empowerment
literature in Chapter 2, and the Models of Empowerment in Chapter 4, provided the
data for the main dimensions of empowerment covered in previous research (Bowen
& Lawler, 1992; van Oudtshoorn & Thomas, 1993; Nixon, 1994; Cook, 1994;
Lashley, 1995; Honold, 1997; Heskett et al., 1997; Wilkinson, 1998). These
dimensions included team work and planning, understanding of individual and
company operating policies and procedures, participation in decision-making, training
and ability to perform their jobs, customer service goals, quality of customer service,
latitude in decision-making, and employee feedback to supervisors or management.
The respondents were asked to rate these statements from 1-5, using both an
Importance and an Agreement Likert scale. The Importance Rating was: 1 – Very
Important, 2 – Important, 3 – Fairly Important, 4 – Not Very Important and 5 – Not
important. The Agreement Rating was: 1 – Strongly Agree, 2 – Agree, 3 – Neutral, 4
– Disagree, and 5 – Strongly Disagree.
The questionnaire also included open-ended questions on decision-making and
feedback, training and skill provision, supportive work environment, and latitude to
make on-the-spot decisions regarding customer satisfaction.
Analysis of company documentation
The analysis of company documentation is often overlooked by researchers,
but is a valuable source of information. Many western social scientists like Marx,
Engels and Durkheim, used this methodology extensively (Forster, 1994). Wakaya
has an extensive range of company documentation, which provided a valuable source
of data. For example: company manuals, memos, personnel forms, brochures, public
relations reviews, press releases, magazine reviews, database guest records, monthly
reports, weekly manager reports, legal documents, company policies and regulations
etc. Forster (1994, p.148) claimed that documentary records provided a “rich source
of insights into different employee and group interpretations of organisational life”.
Furthermore, they could provide comprehensive material to researchers who were new
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to the organisation, and provided the basis for a historical analysis of processes and
changes within an organisation. They are also an excellent guideline to the image the
company wanted to “present internally, to its own employees, and externally, to
customers or potential competitors” (Foster, 1994, p.148).
To this end, an analysis of Wakaya’s documents was conducted on site,
looking at the various departments of the resort. The results of Wakaya’s guest
questionnaire (See Appendix 2) for the past two years, were also examined to gauge
general opinions on service quality and guest satisfaction. This provided vital
secondary data on guests, which was not otherwise available given the elite nature of
the guests and the privacy and type of holiday experience offered on Wakaya, where
some guests did not wish to be interviewed in person.
Location of data
The Wakaya Club is a luxury boutique resort located on the 2,200 acre private
island of Wakaya, in the Lomaiviti group, Fiji. The island is a tropical paradise of
lush, tropical forests, soaring cliffs, waterfalls, and 27 beaches surrounded by the
Pacific Ocean. Wakaya is the only island in Fiji with wild deer, and its tropical
rainforests are also home to wild horses and a variety of exotic flora and fauna in a
myriad of colours. A large section of the island has been set aside as a wildlife
sanctuary and the reef in front of the Wakaya Club has been designated a marine
reserve (Haldeman, 2001).
Population
The population sample was drawn from the entire resort and included the
owners, managers, and employees of the Wakaya Club Resort. Wakaya has 60
fulltime employees, and 34 of these are frontline employees.
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Sample
A non-random stratified sampling method was used where the middle
management, supervisors and front line employees at the Wakaya Club were handed
questionnaires (See Appendix 3), over a period of 5 visits. The extended time span
for administering the questionnaires was because not all employees were present on
the island at each visit. These were completed by respondents, and returned to
reception, where I collected them, or I did this in person.
Questionnaires were made available to all 60 employees of the resort. These
included all frontline employees including middle management and supervisors.
However, for this study, I focused on collecting completed questionnaires from the 34
frontline employees. 28 completed questionnaires were returned. This represents a
response rate of over 82%. Returned questionnaires represented all areas of the
resort. The relatively high response rate was due to the co-operation of the
management and employees, and the fact that employees live in the staff village and
are a 'captive' sample in that most of the employees were on the island for at least one
of my visits.
Difficulties that arose, were to do with lack of understanding of time limits and
importance of data from questionnaires to any research study, together with a general
lack of understanding of the significance of any research study, in general.
Problem recognition/Limitations of the study
Due to the time constraints and the luxury/exclusive nature of this type of
resort some minor problems in the research process were encountered. These
included:
� Difficulty interviewing guests, because the majority of the guests were rich and
famous, and reluctance on my part to intrude on their privacy. However,
management supported any conversations or interactions with guests, which arose
voluntarily through my stay as a guest at the resort.
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� Employees were aware that I was FOC (Free of Charge)and there to study The
Wakaya Club, which had the potential to positively or negatively influence their
responses.
Benefits
� Unlimited access to all relevant records and resources at the resort.
� Unlimited access to the General Manager, Management and employees. Even
when not on the island, RM and his employees were always willing to answer any
questions I had in telephone interviews. I have also known Robert since primary
school and have a long-standing friendship with him that has spanned over 30
years, making my interviews and conversations with him easier to conduct. He
also knew that any information he imparted to me was provided within an
atmosphere of trust and honesty.
� Multiple visits, which allowed for a better understanding of the service experience
at Wakaya, and enabled me to develop relationships with employees, and gain
their trust. Trust in my opinion is an important factor in gaining factual data from
local employees. It allays fears that can arise with elements of confidentiality, and
job security, etc. In my experience locals can also have a tendency to tell you
what they think you want to hear, rather than what exists in reality. I made a
special effort to explain to them why it was important that they base their answers
on fact and reality, rather than any desire they may have to please me or be loyal to
the resort or top management. Furthermore, RM had also expressed a keen
interest in my findings, as he is always interested in any feedback he can get from
both guests and employees, especially when these relate to problem areas or
suggestions that he can address. In his opinion, he was always looking for ways of
improving the service they offer, and constructive criticism and feedback can only
benefit the resort.
� Participant observation by staying at the resort as a guest. This allowed me to
'experience' their service quality from an insider’s perspective.
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� Personally driven around the island by different members of management, which
allowed me to ask questions in the process for periods of up to one or two hours
Coding
Each returned questionnaire was given an Identification number, and the data
from each entered into an Excel spreadsheet. To allow for statistical analysis, where
applicable each response on the questionnaire was assigned a numerical code (Pallant,
2001). Some of the data already had numerical values e.g. age in years, importance
and agreement ratings, length of service. However, variables like sex, marital status,
and different departments were converted to numbers. The variable Sex was
assigned the following numerical values: 1 = Males and 2 = Females. The different
departments at Wakaya were assigned the following numerical values: 1 = Food and
Beverage, 2 = Housekeeping, 3 = Purchasing, 4 = Landscaping, 5 = Reception,
6 = Golf and Tennis, 7 = Dive and Fishing, 8 = Reservations and 9 = Maintenance.
The variable Marital Status was assigned the numerical values 1 = Married and 2 =
Single. All other variables provided numerical values that could be analysed.
Statistical Analysis
The data collected from the self-administered questionnaires were entered into
an Excel spreadsheet, and pie and bar graphs were generated to provide visual
illustrations of the data from the Importance and Agreement ratings, in percentages.
Basic demographic statistics were generated using SPSS. Correlations were also, run
using SPSS to confirm significant correlations between different questionnaire survey
statements and data collected from the employee questionnaire. * Correlation was
significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed); and ** Correlation was significant at the 0.01
level (2-tailed).
However, these correlations were only used to support and confirm the validity
of relationships between different answers to questions on the employee questionnaire.
For example: How guest satisfaction (Q.22) was closely related to training and skill
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provision (Q.15, 16 & 17), a supportive work environment (Q.14), clear customer
service goals (Q.18), the need to constantly exceed guest expectations (Q.21), the fact
that employees cared about fulfilling guest’s needs and centred their decisions around
fulfilling them (Q.20) and that they had the latitude to make decisions in frontline
service encounters (Q.23).
Reliability and Validity
The need for reliability and validity, although different from quantitative
research, are still important in qualitative research (King,1994), and research methods
were developed that endeavoured to ensure that replicated studies of employee
empowerment at Wakaya, could potentially provide the same results. It must be
noted, however, that whilst the basic data is likely to be the same or similar, the depth
and rigour of the collected data, could be influenced by the skill, trust and
relationships I developed with the respondents over a two-year period. As I am from
Fiji, I have a deep understanding of the Fiji cultural context. These factors can have a
significant influence on the reliability and validity of the data results.
Furthermore, the use of triangulation through multiple research methods,
comparison with similar empowerment studies e.g. Lashley (1995, 2000), validation
through applying theory to the findings, and the use of a continuous examination
process, where contradictions were re-examined, and respondents consulted for further
feedback and clarification, helped establish an accurate interpretation of the data
(King, 1994).
Results/Findings
The findings of both secondary and primary data have been documented, and
discussed in Chapters 6 and 7. In Chapter 7 – Data Interpretation and Discussion, a
critical analysis of the data, has evaluated the importance of empowerment within
tourism and hospitality services, both globally and in the local context. This data was
analysed using relevant academic literature and past research as detailed in the
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literature review in Chapter 2 – Literature Review, Chapter 3 – Cross-Cultural
Management, and Chapter 4 – Models of Empowerment.
Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations regarding both guests and employees were taken into
careful consideration when undertaking data collection at Wakaya. Guests and
employees were advised that I was undertaking primary research for my Masters in
Tourism Studies, using Wakaya as a case study. This was especially necessary where
the guests were concerned, as The Wakaya Club is a luxury boutique resort, where
many of its guests fall into the category of ‘The Rich and Famous’. The Manager of
the Wakaya Club, Robert Miller, was given a separate report on the findings of this
thesis, for information and comment. Finally, I have respected all requests for
confidentially made on the part of both management, employees and guests.
SUMMARY
This chapter has detailed the methodology that was used to collect data the
primary and secondary data for this study. The following Chapter 6 is a detailed
analysis of the case study of The Wakaya Club (TWC), which was used to provide the
empirical evidence on which to base this study on tourism and hospitality in Fiji.
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CHAPTER SIX
CASE STUDY: THE WAKAYA CLUB - FIJI
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HISTORY
Wakaya Island, is located in the Lomaiviti Group in Fiji, and was discovered
by Captain Bligh over two hundred years ago. It has had a number of owners who
operated it as a copra plantation, before its purchase in 1971 by David and Jill
Gilmour. They originally intended to divide the 2,200 acre island into 5 acre real
estate sections, for sale to a few people who would value its pristine natural
environment and ecological biodiversity. A large portion of the island has been
designated a wildlife sanctuary to protect the exotic flora and fauna, and the reef and
waters in front of the resort are a marine reserve.
Due to the difficulties they encountered accommodating prospective buyers,
the owners decided to build a small resort, which they named The Wakaya Club
(TWC). A few of the guests have now built permanent holiday homes on the island
and visit the island two or three times a year. TWC is managed as a charitable trust
which has covenants that prohibit further growth (Haldeman, 2001). Before
constructing the resort, the owners (David and Jill Gilmour) and managers (Robert and
Linda Miller) devoted 20 years to planning and building the necessary infrastructure.
This included: the airstrip, roads, water and electricity supplies and a village and
church for their employees.
TWC Club falls into the category of a luxury boutique resort. Luxury
boutique resorts have the following characteristics: pristine natural environment;
outstanding facilities; exceptional service; targets the elite traveller; and maintains its
exclusivity by possessing only a small number of rooms (Anhar, 2001; Nobles, 2002).
The resort opened in 1992 and has nine bures/cottages (U.S.$1,800 per night) and the
Governor’s bure (U.S.$2,100 per night). Each bure has a private deck, lounge and
wet bar which incorporates guest preferences, bedroom with king-size bamboo four
poster bed, luxury bathroom with open air shower and a secluded rear garden. TWC
is an all-inclusive resort and daily rates are based on double occupancy, a minimum
stay of five days with full payment due 60 days prior to arrival. Access is by air and
the island has its own plane, which is privately operated as Air Wakaya.
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TWC is an adult only resort catering in the main for the ‘rich and famous’. It
only accepts children over the age of 16, but guests who wish to take their children,
can hire the entire resort for a pre-arranged fee. The resort was designed as an ‘eco-
retreat’, where its guests could escape from the pressures of western lifestyles. There
are no telephones or televisions in the bures, and internet and telephone services are
only available at reception. Recently they have built a receiver that enabled mobile
phones to operate on the island.
VISION STATEMENT
The Wakaya Club vision statement is:
� To provide our guests with the most complete resort experience imaginable,
fulfilling their every desire;
� To be known for our friendly, unobtrusive service in every way;
� To be renowned as a bastion of ecological sanity where sound environmental
practices
and the preservation of Fijian culture are highly valued as well as
implemented; and
� To make a difference in the Fiji Islands through responsible world-class
tourism and
philanthropy directed at building better lives for today’s children.
(The Wakaya Club, 2002).
WAKAYA MANAGEMENT RESEARCH FINDINGS
The data from the management interviews are detailed below under specific
headings, which will be helpful for the data interpretation and discussion in Chapter 7.
Academic literature is also used to provide the theoretical grounding within which to
present the findings. This is in line with Hartley’s (1994, p.208) statement that if
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findings from case study research were linked to “relevant theory [the case study
method could be instrumental in providing] theoretically exciting” rich data.
Employee selection
The selection process includes identifying and employing the ideal contender
for your organisation. Many service organisations have developed employee
selection methods using psychographic recruitment procedures based on individual
personality qualities rather than academic qualifications. Furthermore, supervisors
and frontline managers are thought to be better qualified at understanding job
requirements through the selection of new recruits based on previous experience
(McColl et al., 1998).
RM, the General Manager at TWC, identified employee personality,
enthusiasm and willingness to learn as their primary selection methods. He is always
looking for new potential recruits who would be an asset to the resort. In one of our
many discussions, he said that he often asked friends and associates for
recommendations for new people. He has also made job offers to individuals who
have given him excellent service when employed by other service providers.
Example: Tagi , who works in the Reservations and Reception Departments at
TWC now, first served Robert as a waitress at local Chinese restaurant in Suva,
when she was much younger. He gave her a business card and asked her to
call him if she was interested in a job at TWC. She has now been employed at
TWC for over 12 years, starting as a waitress and rising up through the ranks
to reception, reservations and now holds the position of Supervisor in the
Reservations Department.
Robert Miller is also always willing to interview potential employees
recommended to him by friends and business associates that he trusts and knows
understand the vision and standards of service at TWC.
Example: Given my understanding of TWC, I recommended a young friend
for a job in the dive/activities section of TWC, based on his personality and
interpersonal skills. He was interviewed and employed by Robert, and has
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now been trained as a dive instructor. Today, Peter is one of the most popular
employees, amongst guests and employees alike. Guests, on the TWC guest
questionnaire forms, frequently compliment his services. RM is now
considering sending him for training in Hawaii, to run the new extension to
their gymnasium. This is a good example also of how TWC multi-skills their
employees, improving their human resources and increasing job satisfaction.
There is no structural approach to the selection process and the organisation
does not have a separate Human Resource Department. However, RM personally
interviews and selects every employee at the club. He and his wife Linda, know
every member of their staff well, and have a full understanding of the personalities and
difficulties involved with living in a small resort based community. This has a positive
influence on employee socialisation both at work and within the staff village
community.
Employee training
The provision of quality service requires that employees be exposed to
continuous training "in the necessary technical skills and knowledge and in process or
interactive skills" (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p298).
All new recruits undergo extensive on-the-job training during their three-
month probation period. Management and Supervisors conduct this initial training,
and the process is enhanced by using individual departmental manuals that clearly
illustrate pictorially and document systematic procedures and processes. Each
department has a variety of checklists, which relate to different jobs and tasks.
A critical element of this training is that the General Manager and senior
management conduct and monitor the orientation training of new employees. This is
to ensure that they have a clear understanding of the company’s expectations of them,
the quality of service provided at TWC, and fully understand the guests and their
expectations.
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TWC provides on site training twice yearly to employees on service related
issues. An external Human Resource Management consultant, previously employed
by Sheraton International Hotels, has conducted this training in the past.
TWC makes a point of ensuring that their employees are multi-skilled e.g.
reservations and reception, and waitressing and bartending. This ensures that
employees not only experience greater job satisfaction and variety, but also allows
employees to cover for each other in low peak periods and when an employee is ill or
on leave.
Example: Masseuse certified training. External training is provided for
frontline employees, for example from reception, reservations and the
restaurant, who are interested in learning to become masseuses. The owner of
a masseuse training school in Hawaii provides this training on site. Each of
the employees are trained, and certified to practice this specialised form of
massage. The instructor then visits every six months to conduct refresher
courses and train new interested employees. Learning this particular skill is
purely voluntary and the resort now has four qualified masseuses.
Employee recognition and rewards
A key element of employee retention is that organisations recognise their best
employees and "reward and promote them" (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 309). This
requires that employees are recognised and appreciated for both small and large
achievements. Rewards have traditionally included: pay increases, promotions and
bonuses (Zeithmal et al., 2000). However, TWC has also developed rewards, which
are based on traditional Fijian culture.
Monetary rewards
Monetary rewards in the form of tips from guests are pooled, with employees
receiving equal shares in the form of six monthly bonuses. Bonuses are normally
about F$1,000 each, although occasionally deductions are made for damages caused
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by employees, or non-fulfilment of job commitments e.g. absenteeism from
indigenous cultural performances at the resort.
Non-monetary rewards
Employees are all housed rent free in the Staff Village, which has male and
female dormitories, and cottages for couples, families and middle management. Each
unit has free electricity and water, and is fully furnished to include washing machines
and cooking facilities.
As explained in Chapter 3, Church and God play a vital role in indigenous
Fijian culture. A beautiful wooden church with stained glass windows (dedicated to
David Gilmour’s daughter, who was sadly murdered in Canada), has been built in the
staff village and is frequented by both employees and guests. The different religions
at the resort share the church throughout the week for prayer meetings and choir
practice, and on Sundays for church services. The church is a replica of the
Methodist church at Davuilevu in Nausori. The resort also has an extremely well
equipped primary school for employees’ children, with three teachers, located on the
outskirts of the resort.
Employees are not only paid above the local industry standards, they also
receive a number of benefits in the form of non-monetary rewards. These include
free primary and secondary education for their children. Tertiary education is also
provided for as long as children pass. At present TWC have their first children of
resort employees attending the University of the South Pacific in Suva.
All employees at TWC are locals. The majority of employees are indigenous
Fijians, with a small number of Indo-Fijian tradesmen, and a few employees of mixed
ethnic backgrounds. Some non-monetary rewards that exist at the resort are related to
cultural obligations that employees may encounter within their traditional societies.
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Example: A wild boar or deer is provided to employees for traditional
presentations (sevu sevus) at special events like funerals, weddings and major
birthdays e.g. 21, 40, 50. Free transport to the mainland, for these sevu sevus,
is also provided.
Within their traditional societies these ‘perks’ carry a large amount of prestige
and status, especially as TWC is the only island on Fiji, which has deer. The deer
were brought to the island by one of the earlier owners and they have multiplied with
little interference from man.
A further culture-bound benefit is that although employees are not allowed to
drink alcohol on the island at all, they are provided with an allowance of free yaqona
or kava every evening to drink during their daily ‘grog sessions’. Men, normally
attend these sessions, although women are welcome. Each clique within the village
has their own session. However, often people to visit more than one session in an
evening to catch up on the happenings of the day etc. The no drinking rule has
evolved after over-indulgence by certain employees and incidents of violence, which
have occurred because of alcohol abuse. Since the introduction of this rule, there
have been no further incidents of any import within the village community. However,
the ‘grog sessions’ have also recently been subjected to certain rules due to high
incidents of absenteeism, increased staff sick days and staff turning up to work red-
eyed and still under the effects of the previous night’s over indulgence.
Kava is a mild narcotic but when consumed in quantity can slow down a
person’s ability to perform well, and can also be a safety risk for both staff and guests
especially when undergoing activities like diving. Employees are now only allowed
to drink kava until 11.00p.m., Monday to Thursday, with Friday and Saturday having
no time restrictions. However, the generators in the staff village go off at 11.00 p.m.
every evening and if people decide to carry on past that point at the weekend, they
have to provide their own lighting e.g. using kerosene lanterns etc., which can be
costly. From interviews with supervisors and other employees, I discovered that
there had been a vast improvement in employee performance and a significant
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decrease in absenteeism and sick days. These restrictions have also improved the
physical appearance of employees, with little evidence now of hangovers, in the form
of red eyes and puffy faces. The resort places great importance on appearance,
especially with frontline contact employees, since employee appearance is also a form
of tangible evidence of quality (Kotler, 2003).
Internal employee promotion
TWC has a policy of internal promotion, if they have suitable candidates for
positions that become vacant. Conversely, because of the ‘flat’ organisational
structure and low employee turnover rate, there is little room for promotion for
ambitious management employees. On the few occasions where this has arisen
Robert has been very supportive with personal references, and helped find managers
alternative employment at larger hotels and resorts in Fiji or organisations abroad.
Example: Salesi, the Duty Manager was originally employed at the Marina as
a Dive Instructor and is now employed as RM’s right-hand man. Tagi’s case
has been explained earlier under Employee Selection. Tony, who was
employed as Reservations Manager, was originally employed temporarily as a
holiday job, as his sister worked as Reservations Manager. When his sister
moved to work in TWC office in Aspen, he was employed fulltime to replace
her. Tony has now left to further his studies and is employed in New
Zealand, as the Marketing Manager (South Pacific) for Microsoft. Tony
joined TWC at 19, and the quality of training, knowledge and service
experience he gained there, apart from his exceptional individual abilities, has
meant that he has achieved this position at 22.
Guest feedback
TWC places a guest questionnaire in each bure, and data collected for this is
entered into the company database and analysed monthly. Reports are produced and
distributed to management and owners, providing a primary source of feedback and
measurement of guest satisfaction. The questionnaire also gives the guest the
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opportunity to commend individual employees who have enhanced their holiday
experiences, by providing them with exceptional service. These comments are then
shared with individual employees and the rest of the staff.
Example: Josaia, the activities manager receives frequent commendations for
providing guests with memorable experiences when engaging in activities like
hiking, diving, deep-sea fishing, etc. Fijians, in general, have an amazing
capacity for remembering peoples’ names, and the contexts in which
encounters take place. Josaia has provided many return guests with enhanced
service encounters. E.g. Guests have expressed surprise and delight on their
return to TWC, when Josaia reminisces with them about incidents and
experiences they had on previous visits. These types of encounters make
guests feel ‘special’ and create the perception that their holiday experiences are
even more personalised.
An envelope is also placed in the guest information folder in each room. This
is for voluntary contributions to the employee bonus fund. A recent
contribution by a satisfied guest for a two-week holiday was US$10,000.00,
which is substantial evidence of enhanced customer satisfaction. Guests who
wish to reward individual employees for exceptional service are also able to tip
them in person. Tipping is not compulsory in Fiji, so any contributions are
made on a voluntary basis and although not expected, are much appreciated by
employees.
EMPLOYEE LATITUDE IN DECISION-MAKING
Latitude and responsibility for decision-making are key dimensions of
empowerment, and can lead to increased perceived service quality (Heskett, et al.,
1997). Employees at TWC are provided with the training and skills and strongly
encouraged to do all they can to facilitate individual guest requirements. These
decisions can range from minor requests for adjustments to menus, to major requests
for vintage wines, special menus, cocktail parties etc. Where requests cannot
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reasonably be covered under the all-inclusive daily rate, guests are offered the choice
of paying extra or choosing alternatives that can be provided within the normal rates.
As long as guests are prepared to pay for special requests, and they are not unethical,
TWC will go out of their way to ensure that these are fulfilled.
Example: On one occasion, and this I am told is their most unusual request, a
guest made a request for glue for her false eyelashes. The resort sent their
plane to Suva with an employee to purchase the glue from a local chemist and
then fly it back. The guest paid the US$415 for the return flight to Nausori,
and the cost of the glue (Miller, 2002, personal communication).
However, requests that are out of the ordinary, are normally implemented after
consultation and with the assistance of management. This type of empowerment
allows the employees to make decisions and take responsibility for their work (McColl
et al., 1998; Lashley, 1995). TWC’s management and employees are all highly
customer oriented and their commitment to guest satisfaction, is evident in the guest
comments and their high return rate of over 45%.
This type of empowerment through increased latitude within the decision-
making process in frontline service encounters, is built into the systems and processes
of the company. Employees also strongly agree that this is an extremely important
feature of the exceptional service they provide (See Appendix 1, Question 23).
Example: Commonplace evidence of this I have experienced an observed on
numerous occasions when ordering meals. The restaurant has a well-planned
limited set menu, although, if desired, guests have the opportunity to order
specific meals and have individually planned menus. In general most guests
select from the menu provided, especially in the case of breakfast. Waitresses
will make on the spot adjustments to meals, dependent on guest requests.
They are very well trained in how individual dishes are put together and are
able to provide you with detailed descriptions of each dish. Any changes are
conveyed to the Chef and implemented on the spot.
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The training and importance of this autonomy for successful frontline service
encounters, is supported by the literature review in Chapter 2. This is evident in the
results collected from the survey questionnaire administered to employees (See
Appendix 1). This is supported by data from Q.23, Q.20 and Q.22 of the survey
questionnaire respectively, that showed that 90% of employees thought it important
that they have autonomy when making frontline decisions, 97% agreed that decisions
they made were based on fulfilling guest needs, and 97% agreed that guests were
satisfied with their services. The implications of this data could be that the high level
of autonomy and customer orientation at TWC has had a significant impart on
customer satisfaction, which by implication means a high level of consistent quality
service.
COMMUNICATIONS
Internal marketing communication is an important management strategy for
engaging employee commitment to quality service delivery. It is also a prerequisite
for ensuring that company promises and customer expectations are either met or
exceeded during the service encounter (Zeithaml, 2000). The internal marketing
process includes vertical communication (downward and upward) and horizontal
communication (across functional boundaries).
Vertical/ Two way communication
Effective vertical communication within companies is dependent on
organisations providing frontline “employees with the information, tools, and skills to
perform successful interactive marketing" (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 419). This
includes company newsletters, in house magazines, e-mails, memorandums, employee
briefings and recognition and reward programmes (Zeithaml, et al., 2000; Kotler et
al., 2003). Other forms of downward communication can be provided via the
communication of external marketing strategies that include company promotions,
publicity, advertising and customer mailings.
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Downward communication
TWC does not have a company newsletter but its ‘sister’ company Fiji
Natural Artesian Water produces a quarterly newsletter entitled Paradise Times, which
features TWC in each edition. Paradise Times is distributed to both the employees
and guests at the resort. Regularly featured in the newsletter are feature reviews of
TWC, from travel or fashion magazines, and commendations for both Fiji Water and
TWC, from their ‘rich and famous’ clientele e.g. Michael Bolton, Gary Player, Celine
Dion etc.
The newsletter also showcases reports on visits by guest celebrity chefs to the
resort. These celebrity chefs not only cater for resident guests, but train employees in
the Food and Beverage department. Learning new cooking styles and menus is
eagerly anticipated by employees in this department and is a significant factor of
increased job satisfaction and job enhancement. This is substantiated by data collected
from open-ended questions of the survey answers from the Food and Beverage
department. The newsletter not only helps employees understand TWC’s service
promises to potential customers, it also increases their awareness and understanding of
their guests and commitment to company service standards and objectives.
Upward communication
Upward communication enables companies to increase management awareness
of "what can and cannot be delivered" by the employees (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.
419). The existence of open communication channels between management and
employees allows potential service failure points to be anticipated or minimised.
Frontline employees are given the opportunity to point out where problems exist, and
offer ideas, which can be used to provide feedback and input into adaptations of
existing service processes.
RM conducts meetings with management and supervisors three times a week
on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. During these meetings both supervisors and
managers, report any incidents that have happened at the resort. These incidents vary
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from personal observations and service encounters, together with any information they
may have received from guests or employees. These topics are discussed, and dealt
with almost immediately.
Example One:
On one of my visits, parts of the shower and vanity tap attachments in my bure
kept falling off, and needed repair. The same thing happened in a friend’s
bure on a separate visit. We pointed out to Tony, the Reservations Manager,
and Salesi, the Duty Manager that this may also be happening in other bures.
Although there had been no previous reports of this, a possible explanation
may be that guests may have thought they had broken the attachments,
increasing their reluctance to report them.
On my next visit I observed both in my own and through visits to other bures,
that all faucet attachments had been cemented into the taps, leaving no room
for this type of incident to occur in future.
Example Two:
I experienced another example of management’s willingness to listen to, accept
and act on reports from guests during another of my visits. In Suva, many
customers of Cost-U-Less store, had discovered that the canned Diet Pepsi sold
at that particular time had lost its taste and sweetness. During a tour of Vale
‘O’ (David & Jill Gilmour’s residence on Wakaya), I passed on this
information about the faulty Diet Pepsi to RM. Robert immediately went to
the refrigerator in the kitchen at Vale ‘O’, pulled out a can of Diet Pepsi,
opened and tasted it and confirmed my observation. He immediately called
his Duty Manager, and informed him that all cans of Diet Pepsi in every part of
the resort were to be removed, inventoried and returned to Cost-U-Less. Half
an hour later, Salesi called back to report that these instructions had been
carried out.
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On our return to the resort a couple of hours later Robert requested permission
to enter my bure and check my bar fridge to see if his instructions had been
implemented. They had and the fridge had been re-merchandised to fill in the
gaps in the soft drink display.
This type of follow-up by the General Manager is, in his opinion, necessary to
ensure that instructions were implemented. Employees expect him to check
up on them but are unaware when this may happen, consequently, reports that
actions have been taken need to be accurate. This process Robert says is very
necessary when dealing with employees who culturally have different concepts
of time, and where when asked questions about their actions ‘yes’ can also
mean ‘no’ or ‘not yet, but I am about to do it’. In his opinion this is not
enough to ensure that an instruction has been carried out. The only way he can
be absolutely sure of this is to make spot checks in person. (See Chapter 7 for
cultural discussion).
Weekly meetings are held between employees and management. At all
meetings employees are encouraged to participate, and provide feedback by reporting
on different events that occurred during the week. Where problems exist, Robert
Miller engages employees in the process of problem solving, by brainstorming
different situations with them, and listening to their potential solutions. (See Chapter 5
and Chapter 7 for cultural reactions that may occur with regard to providing feedback
in these meetings).
On these occasions, he plays the role of ‘Devil’s Advocate’ and provides them
with potential reasons why their ideas may or may not work. In his opinion, not only
does this help employees develop their problem solving skills, they also gain an
understanding of the financial implications of their suggestions. As is later explained
in the findings from the employee questionnaire, employees understand the
importance of their participation and their need to take responsibility for their actions
and report them to the relevant supervisors or managers. They also feel validated by
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this process when their input is listened to by management, and included in any
potential solutions.
At TWC employees and management possess mobile phones, which provide
them 24-hour access to each other. A further use of this form of communication, is
when the resort shuts down telephone communications, because of problems related to
continuous pestering by the ‘paparazzi’, when famous guests are thought to be present
on the island. Employees and management then are still able to communicate using
their mobiles.
Horizontal communication
Horizontal communication across functional boundaries or departments is a
key feature of quality service delivery (Zeithaml, et al., 2000). However, barriers
may exist where different functional departments have different goals and perceptions
of customer needs and expectations.
At Wakaya, most employees undergo some elements of cross-training, and
multi-skilling. Apart from the benefits this provides, with regard to work schedules,
leave, and replacement of employees at short notice who are ill, or have unexpected
personal commitments (a frequent occurrence in Fiji) e.g. death of a family member
or prominent member of traditional society, village or church commitment etc. These
strategies also increase employee understanding of the services provided by different
departments, and barriers to horizontal communication are minimised.
Example: At TWC waitresses are also trained as bar tenders, kitchen
assistants, masseuses and in guest activities like tennis and golf. Reservations
and Information Technology employees are also trained to work in reception
relieving employees on breaks and leave. This cross training provides the
employees with excellent insight and perceptions of the challenges and roles
required of different departments at the resort. This process also helps
employees work better as a team, and increases their understanding of each
other’s roles. Linda Miller, also expresses the opinion, that because most of
the employees are indigenous Fijians, they come from a communal culture,
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which gives them a better understanding of teamwork. This mindset, she feels
contributes to their performance, especially with regard to the teamwork
required between departments to deliver the high quality of service that is
expected of them by both management and guests.
RATIONALISED PROCESS
As discussed in Chapter 2, services possess a number of unique characteristics,
which make the design of consistent high quality service processes difficult to
rationalise. These are namely: intangibility, inseparability, variability, heterogeneity
and perishability (McColl et al., 1998; Zeithaml et al., 2000). The analysis and
documentation of each step within a service encounter, is an essential part of planning
a rationalised process, and must consider the perspectives of an organisation’s internal
and external customers. To this end, a crucial element of the planning process is the
matching of service specifications with customer expectations, and this includes:
the ability to describe critical service process characteristics objectively and to
depict them so that employees, customers, and managers alike know what the
service is, can see their role in its delivery, and understand all of the steps and
flows involved in the service process (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 205).
Before building the resort, the owners and managers of TWC spent almost 20
years conducting a resource inventory and audit of the island, and researching their
potential clientele. Before opening the resort in 1992, they also spent an additional
four years planning their service offering and training employees for different
departments. This, they feel, has helped them anticipate many of the potential
problems that may occur, and through the careful planning of the practical processes
associated with delivering different service offerings, they were able to minimise any
future occurrences.
However, they are continually researching alternatives to improve their
services, by investigating new technology, innovation and analysis of feedback from
guests, employees, their competition, friends and associates. It is their opinion that
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the positive attitude they have towards continuous improvement, helps them maintain
their competitive advantage and customer satisfaction.
Example: On my last visit to TWC I discovered that they were building a
large extension to their gym. Robert Miller explained that there was an
increased demand worldwide for a healthier holiday experience, and they had
noticed this from the behaviour on site of many of their guests. Included in
the gym would be yoga and specialist massages, exercise programmes etc.
They planned to send one of their employees to Hawaii to undergo specialist
training in this field so that they would be able to offer their guests the benefits
of a fully qualified instructor and all the services that came with a fully
equipped gymnasium/yoga experience. Four of their female employees have
already undergone certified training as yoga instructors.
EXPECTATION MANAGEMENT – EMPLOYEES
Service quality is closely linked to expectation management and internal
customer (employee) behaviour has a direct influence on the five main areas of service
quality, namely: reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy and tangibles
(Zeithaml et al., 2000). The existence of well trained frontline service employees, or
boundary spanners, are especially essential in services. Frontline employees need to
possess both the mental and physical skills needed to perform their tasks. In many
instances, “these positions require extraordinary levels of emotional labour, frequently
demand an ability to handle interpersonal and inter-organisational conflict, and call on
the employee to make real-time trade-offs between quality and productivity on the
job” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 290).
TWC employees have a clear understanding of what the company expects of
them, and what they can expect from the company in return (See Q.2, & Q.4 of survey
results). This is conveyed to them using training, monitoring and the provision of
detailed job description or job specification forms. They are also trained to
understand the vision of TWC, and the level of commitment they must give the
company in order that they maintain the high level of service they require. This is
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further facilitated by the use of in-depth scripting, detailed planning, documentation,
in the form of departmental manuals and checklists, role-playing, customer feedback
forms, and the anticipation of critical incidents.
Employees have a clear understanding of consequences they face for non-
performance of their roles. However, many of the consequences are culture bound.
RM feels that penalising employees by deducting sums from their wages, is not only
unfair, but has little or no effect on indigenous Fijian employees. However, if he
withholds benefits like the deer or wild boar, they would normally get for a traditional
presentation as part of their community obligations e.g. for a funeral, wedding,
birthday etc., they are never likely to repeat the behaviour that got them into trouble in
the first place. The loss of face that this represents within their traditional society, is
extremely important to them and they will do almost anything to avoid this happening.
He says, however, that he has rarely had to penalise an employee in this way,
and when he has done so, that employee has never repeated his/her negative behaviour
twice. It also provides the other employees with an example that they do not want to
experience personally. He and his wife Linda are far more interested in positive
forms of reinforcement and prefer to manage by example, providing an environment
within which employees feel challenged to keep up or one step ahead of them. They
both feel that if employees see that the Millers are willing to take on any tasks, they
are likely to mimic their behaviour. LM spends a lot of her time getting ‘down and
dirty’ in the gardens throughout the resort, and RM is quite likely to be seen turning
his hand to anything from cooking and preparing a meal, to fixing the plumbing and
toilets in the guest bures. Male employees especially enjoy the challenge of trying to
anticipate RM’s every move or request, and keep up with his pace of work.
Employee satisfaction at Wakaya is further evidenced by their low turnover
rate of less than 2%. This is unusual in an industry renowned for seasonality and high
staff turnover.
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The service delivery process
Management tools that assist in the successful design and implementation of
rationalised processes include: standardisation of service behaviour and actions, the
establishment of formalised service targets and customer defined operational standards
(Zeithaml et al., 2000).
The service delivery process can be separated into different segments, which
include: “the points of customer contact, the roles of customers and employees, and
the visible elements of the service” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 206). These components
can be further divided by: the Line of Interaction, the Line of Visibility and the Line
of Internal Interaction (Zeithaml et al., 2000). These lines can be used to help
organisations plan their service delivery process. In this instance, the lines are used to
explain TWC’s service offerings, and the types of interaction their employees have
with their guests. At TWC their systems and processes have been planned in detail
and not only facilitate service delivery, but are focused on increasing customer
satisfaction.
Line of Interaction
The line of interaction symbolises the direct interaction between the guest and
the resort. As an example of how TWC plans and manages their service encounters I
have detailed their service with respect to Arrival in Fiji, Transfer to the Resort and
Check-In. Everyone who travels has been faced at some time with delays on arrival
and check-in. TWC attempts to minimise these and has put a lot of work into
planning and anticipating any possible delays in order to make the experience as
effortless as possible for their guests. They believe that first impressions are extremely
important, and any negative encounters guests may experience at with delayed flights,
or delays at Nadi International Airport, are likely to influence guests’ perceptions of
TWC.
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Example: On arrival in Fiji, guests are met at Nadi after they have cleared
customs and immigration and taken directly to the Air Wakaya plane. Bures
at TWC are never rented 24 hours before any check-in. This is to ensure there
are no delays related to servicing rooms, prior to guest arrival and allows for
early check-in and late checkouts.
On arrival at Wakaya island, guests are met by one of the managers, in four-
wheel drives and driven to the resort. At the resort, guests are greeted with
fruit cocktails, walked through reception and taken straight to their bures,
where they are greeted with vintage Tattinger champagne, presented in an ice
bucket decorated with hibiscus flowers (another example of enhanced service
value). There is no formal registration process. On the way to the bures, they
are given a brief orientation of the resort. Guest details are researched and
collected during the reservation process, which normally occurs 60 days before
check-in. All payments are taken care of in this period so any financial
transactions, which occur on site, are only related to ‘extras’ purchased during
their stay.
Porters deliver the luggage to the bures, whilst reception employees walk the
guests to their bures. All frontline employees have already received
comprehensive briefings of guest details one month before arrival, with a final
briefing the day before arrival. No introductions are necessary, except for
employees introducing themselves, and guests are referred to by name from the
moment they arrive. At the bure, all the facilities and activities at the resort
are explained in full. This process is designed to minimise delay and put the
guest at ease from the start. Guests are very appreciative of this express
check-in, as most of them have travelled long distances, with the main target
market for the resort being the United States.
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Line of Visibility
This line separates all the services that are visible to guests from backstage
services e.g. kitchens, laundry, office and administration (Zeithaml et al., 2000).
Example One: Unlike my experience at many other resorts or hotels, guests
at TWC are encouraged to view the backstage areas, especially the kitchens
and vegetable gardens if they are interested. Some guests cook their own
meals collecting produce from the gardens, and using the results of their day’s
fishing activities.
Employees are trained to provide efficient service, without being intrusive.
RM, explained that they consciously practice an unobtrusive management
approach, and socialisation with guests is only at their behest. In the case of
VIP guests, who hire the Gilmour’s house Vale O, or the entire resort, either
RM or his Duty Manager, make daily contact with guests, to discuss their day,
and any special requests or problems they may have. Contact with other
guests is only on request. This ensures the guests have complete privacy.
Other compulsory contact points, are closely related to ensuring guest safety.
These include all hiking, diving, and fishing activities, and when guests want
to engage in a sightseeing tour of the island. Managers act as drivers and tour
guides, as for a variety of reasons, which include safety, potential accidents
and insurance claims etc., guests are not permitted to drive themselves.
Example Two: On all my visits to the resort, I found that guests were able to
go into the kitchen and see any of their meals being prepared. Another feature
of the kitchen is a Guest Chef cooking area, where anyone who is interested in
cooking can prepare their own meals, and socialise with any other interested
guests.
TWC has a group of Italians, who have been visiting the resort every year
since it opened in 1992. An important part of their holiday revolves around
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their catching fish, collecting vegetables from the resort gardens and then
preparing meals in the kitchen at the end of every day. They cook not only
for their own party but provide extras for other guests to sample. This is a very
lively occasion, with wine a very important part of the cooking experience,
normally resulting in other guests joining the party atmosphere.
Example Three: Housekeeping and maintenance activities are rarely carried
out in front of guests. The movements of each guest are closely monitored by
all frontline employees using their mobiles or intercoms. As soon as guests
are certain to be out of their bure for a reasonable length of time (the resort
calculates 30-40 minutes minimum) housekeeping employees go in and service
the rooms. This is also the case with landscaping gardeners, who carry out
their gardening tasks in planned segments of 30 minutes, normally when guests
are at the restaurant or participating in activities. Employees are continuously
updated on the movement of guests, so that they are able to complete their
tasks and leave before they are seen by any of the guests. In my experience as
a guest, you feel that you are being served by a group of invisible employees,
as deck chairs, empty glasses, used towels etc. are continuously removed,
folded or replaced, without any contact with employees. All guests I have met
on my numerous visits to the resort have been suitably impressed by this
‘phantom-like’ service.
Line of Internal Interaction - Systems
This line represents the division between the activities of frontline employees
and the activities of support backstage employees (Zeithaml et al., 2000). An
important backstage support system at TWC is the role that their reservations
employees play in facilitating, supporting and maintaining the consistent standards of
high quality luxury personalised service delivered at TWC.
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Example: At TWC they use the powerful Libeca computer database and
reservation system to manage and record data related to guest reservations,
credit card and payment details, personal preferences, records of all
information related to previous visits e.g. which bure they stayed in, Food &
beverages consumed, activities they participated in etc. The collection of this
data enables them to successfully manage and exceed customer expectations
on return visits.
They have also introduced other forms of modern technology to improve their
service quality. This has included the building of a satellite receiver to receive
mobile phone signals. As previously explained this allows management and
employees to have 24 access to each other and the outside world, in case
normal phone lines fail. They have installed at Vale O, a special fibre optic
cable that has been boosted to deliver fast internet connection. This has been
put in to cater for those guests who require this type of internet access whilst
on holiday. At the resort there are no telephones in any of the bures except the
Governors, so the only telephone or ‘slow’ internet access is available at
reception. Although this type of improvement may not seem significant to a
person from the more developed world, in a less developed country like Fiji,
this use of advanced technology substantially improves services like the
internet, which are taken for granted in the western world.
When TWC first opened, they actively discouraged telephone and internet
access for guests, and promoted the total escape and getaway-from-it-all type
holiday experience. However, as times have changed, and increasingly, the
guests have requested cell phone or internet access, this has been installed but
only in certain areas. There is still the desire on their part to offer the ultimate
holiday in peaceful and tranquil surroundings. The silence, apart from the
cooing of doves or other birds, and only occasional voices of guests (but no
children), soft music, etc. are all part of their attraction.
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Mobile phones are only used in specific areas of the resort, so for the
international guest, the lack of car horns, sirens and phones ringing only add
value to their experience.
STANDARDISATION OF SERVICE BEHAVIOUR AND ACTIONS
The translation of customer expectations into fixed quality standards depends
on the extent to which tasks can be customised or standardised (Zeithaml et al., 2000;
Lashley, 2001). Consistent service quality for many routine, daily tasks, can be
successfully executed by following a set of rules and procedures.
Example: At TWC each department is furnished with manuals, which
provide them with step-by-step instructions, checklists and photographic
representations of the final layout for every task or service offering. These
include Housekeeping Pre-Check In Lists and Evening Turndown procedures,
Food and Beverage preparation, etc. These lists are signed by the employee
who does the task, checked and signed by their Housekeeping Supervisor, and
then checked again and signed by one of the Reception Supervisors.
RM explained that in a country like Fiji, which has many difficulties with
maintaining consistent quality, through experience, he has found that the only
way, is to have continuous checks and follow-ups, with all employees involved
in the process being held accountable if a problem arises, due to lack of
attention to detail. These checklists have been planned down to the smallest
detail e.g. check the all areas of the sofas and chairs for peanuts. This
attention to the most minute detail and anticipation of every task that may be
needed, e.g. cleaning the bure, is another primary factor in the high service
standards at TWC.
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In the Food and Beverage department, the Menu Manual, has pictures of how
each dish must look when it is served to a guest. During my stays I have
actually ordered my meal, gone back stage, watched it being prepared, had it
served to me, photographed my meal and then compared it with the photo in
the manual. My meals have always been exact replicas of the photos, which I
found amazing, but a very successful way of maintaining the standard of every
meal that is offered at the resort.
This process also applies to Repair and Maintenance and there is a concerted
effort to maintain a high level of physical plant. The resort has its own
mechanics, electricians, carpenters, builders, and workshops that continually
check and service the resort. Expert service people e.g. computers, printers,
architects etc. are flown in by Air Wakaya at a moment’s notice, when needed.
The ultimate success of these standardised procedures are predicated on
accountability. Because each checklist is signed by the employee who
performed the task, checked by the immediate supervisor and then by the
relevant manager, the process of continuous follow-up and monitoring,
minimises potential failure points, and maintains consistent quality.
Formal service standards and goals
Many of the companies that are successful at delivering consistent service
quality have established formal standards and procedures, which act as step-by-step
guides to how each service should be performed. They then set realistic goals against
which the applicability of these standards and procedures are regularly monitored and
measured (Zeithaml et al., 2000).
Example Supervisors and managers at TWC have standard procedures and
goals for replying to any mail or phone calls they receive. They must
prioritise their work so that any of these communications are fully answered, or
acknowledged, by the end of each working day. Their goals and standards
work because they have specific time limits that are easily measured. Their
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computerised telephone system can printout lists of calls made, dates, times
etc. for follow-up or monitoring.
Customer defined standards
Standards of operation should not only be linked to organisational goals for
efficiency and productivity, but should consider customer needs, feedback in the form
of complaints and suggestions, and customer values and expectations of the service
(Zeithaml et al., 2000).
Hard customer defined standards
Zeithaml et al. (2000, p. 227), defined hard standards as “things that can be
counted, timed, or observed through audits”. The results of making customers wait
e.g. Check-in, can detrimentally influence customer perceptions of service quality and
customer satisfaction.
At TWC they not only manage their own service performance effectively, but
also anticipate the potential service delivery of related service providers e.g. Airlines,
Airport Immigration, Customs etc.
Examples: This is evident in their Express Check-ins facilitated by pre-
payment, and ensuring that bure accommodation is ready and serviced 24
hours prior to guests arrival. Fast service of meals, even when customised to
individual guest requests, are made possible by the provision of limited menus
(already previewed by guests prior to arrival), and the fact that as much pre-
preparation as possible is done on the meals, so that no individual course takes
more than about 10-15 minutes to prepare.
As previously explained, the meet and greet service provided by the resort at
Nadi International Airport guarantees that guests are transferred as quickly as
possible to Air Wakaya and the resort. Where guests have experienced flight
delays that are no fault of the resort, they ensure that on arrival at TWC guests
receive special ‘treats’ e.g. free massages or diving lessons to compensate them
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for the delays, and result in positive service recovery. These services are not
all part of the all-inclusive service offered by the resort. However, RM stated
that for their specific target market i.e. the elite luxury visitor, it is not money
but time, which they are short of and find important. In tourism and
hospitality it is vital that services providers understand how time affects
consumer behaviour, and that for many of them “time is perceived as a form of
price” (Ittig, 2002, p.239). This can provide service providers with valuable
insights into customer expectations and perceptions of service quality and
service performance. At TWC, both management and employees have an
excellent understanding of these concepts, and why they need to minimise
service failures, or in cases, which are beyond their control, over compensate
to ensure enhanced service recovery and potentially increase customer loyalty.
RM stated that service recovery on behalf of other related service providers or
even competitive resorts was very important, as guests perceive all services as
part of their holiday experience. He has also found that guests have difficulty
differentiating between service failures at different stages of their travel. Even
when guests have checked in after negative experiences at other resorts he
provides all kinds of added extras which go beyond their expectations, and in
many cases have led to them becoming loyal repeat customers of TWC. He
claims that by managing secondary service recovery well, they have gained
many loyal return guests. He feels it is also essential, to compensate for
service failure at other resorts because visitors view Fiji as their holiday
destination, and in many cases do not differentiate between one resort and
another. Therefore, a negative experience elsewhere can still affect a
consumer’s future choice when selecting or evaluating future holiday
destinations.
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I observed the type of secondary service recovery performed by TWC on one
of my visits. A honeymoon couple called from a competitive resort in Fiji
where they had stayed two days, to say that the resort was not as they had
imagined for their honeymoon and could they book the remainder of their three
week holiday in Fiji at TWC. Within an hour, RM had sent the Air Wakaya
plane to collect them and fly them to the resort. He also asked one of his
managers to listen to their experiences, discover exactly what they wanted
from their holiday, carry out ‘disaster management’, and smooth the way for
their arrival on Wakaya. After discussions with the guests, the manager was
able to contact RM by mobile phone and update him. When RM met the
guests in person at the airstrip, he was better able to deal with them and
describe the types of services the resort offered. He had also arranged for
canapés, extremely expensive vintage champagne and resort employees to
greet them by giving a short traditional Fijian welcome ceremony and Fijian
singing. These are all services which are not normally provided on arrival, but
the couple were so impressed, that by the second day of their stay they had
already booked and paid, to return for their one year wedding anniversary the
following year. RM pointed out that he has the human resources to cater for
unexpected arrivals, and the extra benefits and organisation, are clearly
justified, as TWC will probably have in these honeymooners, guests who will
return year after year.
Soft customer defined standards
Soft customer defined standards are perceptions based on "opinion-based
measures that cannot be observed and must be collected by talking to customers,
employees, or others" (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.228). These standards provide
feedback by way of direction and guidance in order that employees can achieve
customer satisfaction through understanding customer perceptions and beliefs.
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Example: TWC personalises each guest experience by: conducting extensive
background and previous trip research, acting on any titbits collected by
managers or employees through contact on site with guests, and this enables
them to repeatedly deliver enhanced holiday experiences. The resort provides
unlimited 24-hour room service and although they practice their unobtrusive
management approach, employees and managers are extremely observant.
RM recounted a small incident with a female guest who during lunch happened
to mention that she was missing her ‘M & Ms’. He had them flown in the next
day from Suva and placed in her room. When she returned to her bure that
afternoon she was delighted to find them in her fridge. RM also claims that
exceeding expectations does not have to be costly, and little actions like the ‘M
& M’ incident can greatly enhance guests’ perceptions of the value they are
receiving from their holiday experience and it makes them feel ‘special’ and
important. He has found that for many of their guests, their level of
satisfaction is closely linked to self-esteem and status.
One -time fixes
These are defined by Zeithaml, et al., as one-off actions carried out by an
organisation that can include: “technology, policy, or procedure changes, when
instituted, address customer requirements” (2000, p.229).
Example: On my first visit to TWC for this research study I noticed that the
bathrooms, and access from the bedrooms to the lounge and wet bar changed,
since I last went in 1992. RM explained that a few years ago a few of the
guests who visited one of the private homesteads on the island, called
‘Lawedua’ had been impressed by their outdoor open air shower, and being
return guests discussed with RM, the possibility of these types of showers
being installed in all the bures. TWC looked into the viability of this, found
that they were feasible, closed the resort for a month during low peak season,
and installed the showers. These open air showers with their lava stone walls
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are extremely popular, and guest experiences are further enhanced when
having a hot shower, and it suddenly starts raining – an amazing experience.
FACILITATING TANGIBLES (INTERNAL CUSTOMER)
A key role of physical evidence is facilitating tangibles. It is associated with
how an organisation’s physical environment “assists in the performance of service
employees through the service design, layout and functionality” (McColl et al., 1998,
p.184). From a customer’s perspective tangibles can include features like : “signage,
air temperature or seating facilities” and how they influence consumers’ perceptions
of service quality (McColl et al., (1998, p.184).
Example One – Internal customers (Employees)
At TWC, employees work in pleasant, comfortable and mainly air-conditioned
surrounds. They are supported with modern equipment and technology e.g.
computers, instant internet connection (N.B. access to internet in Fiji can be
very difficult, expensive and timely), access to the mainland for them and their
families using Air Wakaya, together with 4 wheel drive air conditioned cars
and trucks carrying the company brand logo. The resort possesses an
impressive state-of-the-art kitchen, and makes for an enjoyable work
environment for Food and Beverage employees.
On one of my visits, the resort had taken delivery of a very expensive piece of
machinery (about $100,000.00) for the landscaping department. This
machine was a type of lift that allowed the gardeners to cut down the coconuts
from the tall trees, thus ensuring guest safety by protecting them from falling
coconuts.
Employees live in an attractively designed and constructed staff village on the
outskirts of the resort, have their own beach, vegetable gardens and access to
fishing in areas outside of the marine reserve.
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The use of step-by-step documentation in the form of departmental manuals,
gives employees a clear understanding of what the company expects of them,
and the procedures they should undertake to deliver specific services.
Moreover, as previously explained, they are vital elements in maintaining
consistent quality services to TWC’s external customers – the guests.
The intangible nature of services, as explained in Chapter 2, means that
successful service providers use tangible cues that reduce customer perceptions of
service failure or risk. One of the ways this is made possible is by using products
supplied by recognised brand names.
Example Two – External customer (Guest) : TWC uses a variety of brand
name products throughout the resort. In their washrooms and bathrooms they
use Crabtree and Evelyn, in the restaurant they use recognised quality brands
of alcohol and wines. The kitchens also use freshly grown produce from the
resort’s own organic gardens, together with fresh seafood, fish, lobsters and
prawns. These all help TWC manage their physical evidence, by providing
substantive cues of perceived service quality.
AUGMENTED PRODUCT OR SERVICE
These refer to the added services and benefits an organisation offers its
consumers, over and above their core benefits or services and the actual product.
Kotler & Armstrong (1999, p.240), defined these as ways that an organisation engages
in enhancing its core product or service “in order to create the bundle of benefits that
will best satisfy consumers”.
Example: TWC vision statement maintains, that they "aim to provide their
guests with the most complete resort experience imaginable, fulfilling their
every desire" (The Wakaya Club, 2002). However, within their core product
of providing a luxury holiday experience for their guests there are extra
services and benefits that guests, especially first time visitors, do not expect.
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TWC prides itself in paying attention to every minute detail, thus delivering
enhanced satisfaction to their guests. Some further unexpected aspects of their
service are Rumu Lagilagi, which houses the museum with its interesting
display of historical etchings and artefacts, the original paintings found
throughout the resort, the frangipani posies on the four poster bed and
individual mat bedroom slippers following turndown, home-made cookies, and
complimentary sarongs. The wet bar in the bures are stocked with alcoholic
and non-alcoholic beverages, candy, chocolates, macadamia nuts etc.
customised to individual guest requirements (available at no extra charge).
Apart from all these, front office employees provide guests with a detailed
guided tour to their bures when they check-in, then ask guests if they need
anything further. Guests are assured that anything more that they may need
during their stay will be arranged.
Glancing through the resort guest book and the summary reports from TWC’s
guest questionnaires, a further augmented service, is the attitude, personalities,
friendliness and inherent knowledge of all employees at the club. To quote a
regular guest I met at TWC, and this statement was also substantiated by his
wife and other guests: “I have travelled all round the world, to resorts with
better accommodation, better beaches and activities, better food etc., but never
have I been anywhere where the staff are as friendly, and this is why I come
back to Wakaya”. In the conversations I had with them each evening over
aperitifs I discovered that they travelled extensively, taking and least four or
five international trips outside of the United States every year. They
compared TWC to international resort chains especially the AmanResorts in
South East Asia. However, they felt that employees in South East Asia had
culturally different attitudes towards power distance, friendliness and service,
describing the natural friendliness of the local Fijian employees as one of the
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key attributes, which they valued and thought, made TWC special, and the
main reason they returned each year for a fortnight.
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
The implementation of efficient feedback systems for both internal and
external customers, are essential for quality service delivery and meeting or exceeding
customers’ expectations.
Example One: TWC has developed mechanisms and systems that encourage
feedback, and, where applicable, are designed into their rationalised processes.
Every step of many of their processes is documented, and checked by
employee, supervisor and front office or manager. This allows for the
highlighting and solving of problem areas at an early stage.
Example Two: All employees at TWC are trained to listen and ensure that
guest requests are fulfilled. Even if these requests are not their responsibility,
they must make the necessary arrangements, and inform the guest accordingly.
On one of my visits a colleague of mine mentioned to the Chief Engineer that
she was interested in going on a trek the following the morning. She wanted to
photograph the deer and see some of the birds e.g. peregrine falcons and fruit
doves, that she had heard other guests discussing. At dinner, the bartender
asked her if she was still interested in the walk, and if 7.00 a.m. was suitable.
After agreeing to the arrangements, an early morning call was arranged, with a
housemaid waking her at 6.30 a.m. At no time in this process did she have to
leave the bar, or make any arrangements herself. At 7.00 a.m. the next day
she was collected by the activities manager and taken on her trek. The
following day at dinner the Chief Engineer called by to hear how she enjoyed
her trek. This is an important part of the accountability and feedback process
at TWC. The employee who has the first contact with the customer, after
requests have been fulfilled, must always check back with the guest to see how
things went, if there were any problems etc. Many of the enhanced service
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experiences at TWC are the result of an efficient system of continuous
feedback between employees and guests.
Employees who overhear guest comments that need some form of action are
required to use their initiative and pass on these comments to the relevant
employees. At no point, have I ever heard an employee or manager say no to
a guest’s request, or say it is not my responsibility, and pass the query on to
someone else.
PRICE
Price is often seen as the most visible tool in the marketing mix. It can also be
an important indication of perceived service quality. For example if prices are low,
this can be interpreted as a reflecting the poor quality of the product or service. TWC
practises what can be described as, Prestige Pricing. This is a specific “form of
demand-based pricing [from service providers who specialise in] high-quality or status
services” (Zeithaml, 2000, p.447). With this pricing strategy, increased prices can
lead to increased demand, as from the customer’s standpoint “the costlier service has
more value in reflecting quality or prestige” (Zeithaml, 2000, p.447).
Example: After the 2000 coup in Fiji, occupation rates at TWC fell by 30%.
To compensate for this loss of revenue, they increased their rack rates by 30%.
Not only did this make up for revenue loss, TWC found that it actually
increased the number of bookings they received.
TWC is a luxury resort and is priced accordingly with all-inclusive prices
ranging from about US$1,600-$6,500 a day. RM explained that although at
this level of travel, guests still want value for money, price is not the main
factor in their choice/selection process. Their guests are more concerned with
status and self-actualisation. They are experienced, discerning consumers who
travel to collect memories and experiences, not photographs (Mowforth &
Munt, 1998). Many of them take 6 or 7 international journeys a year, in this
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price bracket, but providing them with different types of experiences
dependent on the bundle of benefits they seek and the purpose or motivation
for each particular holiday. Their resort choices also vary accordingly. This
was supported by conversations with guests, who described the different
resorts they visited worldwide, dependent on whether they were going on a
family holiday, holidays with teenagers or grandchildren or looking for
experiences that include culture and heritage, spa and health or wine and
gourmet cuisine etc.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF OVERALL QUALITY
The intangible nature of services can mean that customers search for tangible
cues or physical evidence. They use these as a form of pre-purchase evaluation and
also when assessing “their satisfaction with the service during and after consumption”
(Zeithaml, 2000, p.253).
Example: TWC has an extremely attractive recently revamped interactive
website (http://www.wakaya.com/). The websites allows potential clients to
take a virtual tour of the resort which includes the bures, dining room,
governor’s bure, and Vale O (David & Jill Gilmour’s home, which is also
rented), download the company brochure and copies of Fiji Water’s “Paradise
Times” with its reviews of TWC as pdf files. It is also possible to read
magazine reviews from travel experts, and comments from some of the rich
and famous guests. Guests can then contact the resort direct or their office in
Aspen to order press kits, make reservations or make general enquiries.
Websites can be very effective reflectors of physical evidence, and perceived
service quality, especially in travel related services.
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Servicescape
An organisation’s physical buildings/plant, machinery, landscaping and
environment etc. are all known as the servicescape. Services like resorts rely heavily
on physical evidence for communicating "service quality attributes, setting customer
expectations, and creating the service experience" (Zeithaml, 2000, p.252).
Facility exterior
This includes the exterior design, signage, landscaping and surrounding
national environment.
Example One - Architecture: TWC’s structural design is strongly
influenced by traditional Fijian architecture. These include the 9 guest bures,
the Palm Grove restaurant, which is housed in a building, modelled on a
traditional Chief’s bure, and an outdoor deck with thatched covered dining
tables. The beating of the traditional lali (carved wooden log-shaped drum) is
used to call guests to each meal.
Example Two – Landscaping: LM, is responsible for the planning and
landscaping at TWC. The gardens have been carefully designed for easy
maintenance and beauty. Tropical plants and shrubs that are suited to the
local environment are used, and these act as natural sound proofing between
each bure. Many of the trees and shrubs are used to convey the romantic
ambiance and image of ‘Paradise on Earth’ e.g. frangipani trees have been
purposely grown over the swimming pool, so that the white and yellow flowers
fall and float in the pool. These trees are also found throughout the resort so
that the yellow and white flowers fall on the grass below. Doves have been
attracted to gather outside the guest bures by purposely feeding them. They
regularly feed outside the bures, and each morning guests awake in tranquil
surroundings and complete silence except for the sounds or nature e.g. doves
cooing, ocean waves, and the wind through the coconut fronds.
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Example Three – Natural environment: Wakaya possesses a wide variety of
exotic tropical flora and fauna. It is extremely beautiful with a large portion
of the resort set aside as a natural reserve. The tropical rainforests are filled
with fruit doves in a myriad of colours, red deer, wild boar and pigeons, jungli
murgi (colourful wild fowl), peregrine falcons, kingfishers, crested iguanas etc.
A large portion of the reef and sea in front of the resort has been designated as
a marine park in perpetuity. Many guests have told me that they consider the
diving to be some of the best in the world, comparing favourably to diving
experiences in Belize. Aside from employee friendliness, Wakaya’s natural
beauty is often mentioned in guest reviews.
Facility interior
The first impression you get when arriving at TWC and on entering the
reception area is of friendliness, understated quality, and efficiency. Guests at TWC
appreciate the subtle, sophisticated tasteful interior decoration, with little of the
excessive opulence of other luxury resorts, in the same price range but catering for the
‘nouveau riche’. It is interesting to note the value many of the guest place on the
‘snob’ or status ascribed to TWC through the word-of-mouth communications of
many of their ‘rich and famous guests’. This elite luxury sector of tourism caters for
guests who appreciate subtle, sophisticated taste, and not excessive opulence or
luxury. The casual understated physical surrounds have been carefully planned to put
guests at ease immediately making them comfortable and promoting the image of
friendly, beautiful but not intimidating surroundings.
The architectural design and interior decorating at TWC, was overseen by Jill
Gilmour, and uses Fijian artefacts, and crafts from other Pacific Rim Countries
(Haldeman, 2001). The interior walls of the guest bures are covered in matting,
original paintings are found on each wall, wicker and rattan lounge suites, fully
stocked wet bar, bamboo four poster beds, hand held massagers, first aid kits in
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bathrooms, brand name shampoos, conditioners, bath salts & soaps etc. None of the
bures (except the Governor's) have phones or televisions, as the main idea behind the
Wakaya experience is to 'get away from it all'. Internet and phones can be used at
Reception.
The interior of the Palm Grove Restaurant bure is impressive, with its 60-foot
ceiling, magi magi bound beams, sunken bar etc. As previously stated, following
guest suggestions, TWC closed for a month to install new open air showers, with lava
stone walls, which are now one of the focus points of the guest bures.
Other tangibles
Consumers use other tangible clues to assess the quality of an organisation.
Examples of these are business cards, stationery, invoices and statements, annual
reports, employee uniforms or dress codes, brochures, internet websites etc.
Example One: Printed stationery and brochures at TWC are printed on high
quality recycled paper. They are having a simple and elegant design
displaying the company logo, which is based on their red deer.
Example Two: The female employees wear simply designed uniforms based
on the traditional Fijian jaba (top) and sulu (long skirt), whilst male employees
wear bula shirts and sulus. The uniforms have the same print, but colours
differ by department and shift. Activities, and Repair and Maintenance
employees who are predominantly male, wear uniforms that are better suited to
their jobs. These are navy blue cargo shorts, and golf shirts embroidered with
the TWC logo. The golf shirts are in different colours dependent on
departments.
Further tangible evidence of quality is seen in the exquisitely elegant china,
place settings, cutlery and crockery used throughout the resort. Presentation is
a very important feature of perceived value and quality at the resort, but special
attention is given to the appearance of each meal. Guests are pleasantly
surprised every time they are served a course.
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The layout of a facility or resort can also facilitate how guests interact with
other guests, as well as resort employees. This design can also help guests
understand the role they play in service encounters relative to that of the resort’s
employees. Furthermore, Zeithaml et al., (2000, p. 259) claimed that facility design
can also reveal “what parts of the servicescape they are welcome in and which are for
employees only, how they should behave while in the environment, and what types of
interactions are encouraged”. (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.259).
Example One: At TWC it is possible to see which department an employee
belongs to by the colour and style of uniform. However, guests are able to
access all areas of the resort, go backstage e.g. kitchens, visit the staff village,
and attend church services on Sundays in the village. Although guests are not
avidly encouraged to enter backstage areas like the laundries, staff kitchen,
repair and maintenance workshops etc., if they wanted to visit these areas, they
would never be prevented, and the relevant employee would always be willing
to show them around. During my stays at the resort, I was encouraged to go
anywhere I wanted in the backstage area of the resort, and employees were
always willing to answer my questions, show me their systems, and explain
their different responsibilities and tasks.
Example Two: At the resort the word ‘tourist’ is never used. LM believes
that if you refer to visitors as tourists they act like tourists, however, subtle
management of guest behaviour is possible if guests truly feel they are being
treated as guests visiting your home. Further management of guest behaviour,
to preserve cultural mores and customs of the indigenous Fijian employees, is
made possible by the provision of detailed
Codes of Conduct are inserted in the guest information folder in each bure.
E.g. There is no topless or nude swimming allowed at the actual resort, guests
are required to wear shirts or sarongs over swimsuits when having lunch, no
swimwear is allowed at dinner, and guests are asked to be casual but smartly
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attired – they discourage the wearing of jeans, t-shirts and tennis shoes at
dinner. Dress codes for church on Sunday ask that local customs are
respected, guest shoulders should be covered and no revealing clothing worn.
The Guest information folder, found in each bure, provides guests with
detailed information, which anticipates practically any basic questions guests
may have relating to all the facilities and activities offered at the resort. It also
provides them with basic information on Fiji and TWC. Topics included in
this folder include: Resort communications, Weather, Dining, Attire, Laundry
Service, Water and Electrical Power, Medical Situations and Emergencies,
Rates and Policies, Diving, Weddings etc. For guests these details are also
included in the TWC promotional kit, or available as downloads from the
TWC website, they are able to plan and prepare for their stay at the resort, and
also gain a better understanding of what to expect of the service TWC offers.
Most first time visitors to the resort, conduct some form of research before
travelling abroad, whether by reading expert travel magazine reviews, WWW
research or company brochures, etc. This type of information, is a useful
method of gathering pre-trip information or pre-acculturation, and many guests
have commented positively on the information provided by TWC.
Another role of the servicescape is that of facilitating the performance of
“persons in the environment” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.257). The resort has anticipated
difficulties guests may have when using any of the entertainment-based equipment, in
both their bures and the recreation bure located in the Rumu LagiLagi.
Example: Detailed scripts in the form of instruction booklets are conveniently
located by each piece of equipment. These include instructions for the CD
players and intercoms in the bures; together with the DVD, wide screen
television and music centre found in Rumu Lagilagi. If there are still any
problems, there is always an employee available who, is willing to help the
‘technologically challenged’.
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BRAND IMAGE
Branding enables products or services to be identified “as belonging to a
particular organisation and differentiation of its products from those of its
competitors" (McColl et al., 1998, p. 179). TWC has a very strong brand image,
which is closely linked to its ‘sister’ company Fiji Natural Artesian Water – also
owned by David Gilmour. The Fiji Water brand has a well-recognised corporate
image especially in USA, although its reach is increasing worldwide. It is well
advertised and promoted internationally, sponsoring major events or charities e.g.
HIV-Aids, The Oscars, Rock concerts, Golf and Tennis tournaments, health
campaigns like leukaemia and other types of cancer, etc. The link between the two
companies is very beneficial for TWC, given that their clientele is predominantly
American. The close link to TWC, can only benefit Wakaya's image in the eyes of its
luxury elite clientele. Fiji Water’s sponsorship of The Oscars, and its prominent
display in many recent movies and TV episodes, and its relationship with TWC, has
greatly influenced consumer perceptions and created a strong image that both
companies are the brand of choice for many rich and famous clients. This also
potentially increases the ‘social status’ of guests who visit the island. The
relationship between the two companies is evident throughout the resort and an
extremely effective, but inexpensive form of marketing and promotion for both.
Example: Fiji Water is merchandised throughout the resort e.g. prominently
displayed in the door of the wet bar fridge, bedrooms, bathrooms, at each meal,
and at all activity centres. The coffee table in the bure has a paperback on the
benefits of silica in water, with a bookmark in the shape of a Fiji Water bottle,
conveniently placed at the Chapter on Fiji Water. Whilst much of the
servicescape at TWC gives the impression of being effortless, every step has
been carefully planned to anticipate and enhance the experience and bundle of
services they offer their guests.
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Guests recounted incidents of how Fiji Water is prominently merchandised in
well known supermarket chains, or restaurants, and many have purchased it
because it reminds them of their holiday experience and the wonderful times
they had at TWC, or because they were about to go there, eventually
purchasing it continuously because of its individual benefits as an excellent
product. Either way every time they drink Fiji Water, they subconsciously
relive their holiday. As part of the recollection stage of their ‘tourist’
experience, this is a very effective way of keeping the image of Wakaya and
Fiji alive.
In a broader context, the Fiji Visitors Bureau and other tourism industry
organisations are continually trying to increase the image of Fiji as a tourist
destination. TWC has linked into this destination brand image as well.
Example: In each Guest Information Folder and in the resort Boutique, there
is a selection of postcards of Wakaya, all imprinted with the phrase “Perfect
Fiji”.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND PROMOTING SERVICES
Kotler et al. (1999, p. 368), defined promotion as “the ongoing process of
communication between an organisation and its target markets”. A key reason for
dissatisfaction is the gap between what an organisation promises and what it actually
delivers to a consumer (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1990). Due to the careful
planning and attention to detail that TWC has put into developing and performing their
service, they are not only able to deliver the basic promises they make to their guests,
but continuously exceed guest expectations, as shown by the compilation of Guest
Comments found in Appendix 2.
Not only do the management and owners of TWC have a clear understanding
of their target market, and individual guest profiles (gained through in-depth research),
both couples have personal lifestyles that closely match those of their guests. This
gives them a complete understanding of the intricacies involved in fulfilling and
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exceeding their guests’ expectations and providing them with that dream holiday in
paradise.
Publicity & Advertising
RM advised me that TWC did not use any form of paid advertising, but its
symbiotic relationship with Fiji Water, enables it to ‘piggy-back’ and benefit from the
extensive advertising and promotional campaigns conducted by Fiji Water.
As a form of communication, publicity is a relatively inexpensive promotional
tool, and in many cases more acceptable to potential customers because they perceive
it to be unbiased, provide them with expert opinions and in many cases uses
recommendations from past or existing customers.
Example: TWC has received many rave reviews published in elite magazines,
from specialist travel and gourmet food journalists, travel and tour operators,
etc. who have visited the resort. These magazines include: Conde Nast,
Vogue, Tatler, Gourmet, Bon Appetit, Architectural Digest etc. These are all
magazines I discovered from guests that they not only subscribed to, and
(especially in the case of the women) read when looking for reviews of new
places to go on holiday.
TWC and Fiji Water receive a lot of publicity from newspaper interviews with
the owner or general manager, which includes press coverage of the many awards it
has won e.g. Andrew Harper’s Hideaway Award. Added prestige and importance is
given to these articles through the use of recommendations from celebrity guests e.g.
Celine Dion, Pierce Brosnan, Michelle Pfeiffer etc.
Publicity is, however, only one element of the promotional mix, and its success
can be difficult to measure. A communication strategy that TWC uses effectively, is
the inclusion of a selection of expert reviews in the promotional kit that is sent to
potential guests, and also the Guest Folder, prominently displayed in each bure.
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Guests at TWC are discerning experienced travellers, who consider themselves
‘responsible travellers’. For many of them, an important part of their travel
experience, is learning, and this includes understanding new cultures and local
customs, so that they can avoid insensitive or offensive behaviour. Employees and
general guidelines provided in the Guest information folders provide this information
on site. RM or one of his managers also takes the time to stop by guest tables at
mealtimes for quick chats, and casually mention the different reviews and where they
are located in the bures for guests to read. Whilst his actions may seem casual, the
reasons behind them have been well thought out, and provide an informal form of
follow-up to see if guests have read the reviews and other information in the bures.
Personal selling
Personal selling is a form of two-way communication that encourages the
development of an interactive relationship between the buyer and seller (McColl et al.,
1998).
Example: TWC has an office in Aspen, Colorado, which provides access to
many of the guests who ski or own second homes there. It also actively
nurtures long-term relationships with special travel agents and tour operators,
who represent their ‘suppliers’. These wholesalers or retailers visit TWC for
periods of up to a week at a time. RM claims that they are better able to sell
and communicate the ‘Wakaya experience’ because they have experienced it
first-hand. The enthusiasm they then convey to their customers about Wakaya
is not only genuine but based on personal knowledge. It also makes them
better qualified to answer specific questions about TWC’s services and
activities, together with general information about travel to Fiji.
A further benefit of this type of orientation for their suppliers is that he is able
to communicate directly with travel agents, and travel journalists, develop
personal relationships with them, and conveys to them TWC’s perceptions of
the services they offer. This also helps TWC manage the communications and
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promises their suppliers make to potential clients, reducing the likelihood of
gaps developing between unrealistic guest expectations and the actual services
offered.
Word of mouth
Positive word-of-mouth communication (WOM) is a valuable and important
medium for promoting and organisations products and services (McColl et al., 1998;
Pizam, 1999; Zeithaml, et al., 2000; Gremler, Gwinner & Brown, 2001). Potential
customers assign considerable value to this type of communication because it is not
commercial, and organisations do not have any influence over customer
recommendations. Negative WOM, is even more important, as it too can have
significant impacts on a potential customers decisions. Research has shown that happy
customers tell 5-6 other people, whilst unhappy customers tell 11-12 others (McColl et
al., 1998). This increases the need for immediate and equitable service recovery
strategies, as the impact of negative WOM can be detrimental to an organisation’s
future sales.
Example: RM maintains that at this level of luxury travel, especially, WOM
recommendations by their potential guests’ friends, relatives and peers have a
significant influence on their travel choices. The celebrity guest list at TWC,
originally developed purely on WOM communication between the owners
extensive network of friends and business acquaintances. However, these
networks have since broadened to include, specialist elements of the tourism
industry.
Past experience
TWC has a high rate of return patronage with rates improving from 30% in
2002 to over 40% in 2003. A number of past guests have also purchased real estate
and built homesteads on the island, and some of them return annually for up to six
months at a time. Many of the homesteaders bring family and friends with them, who
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then return home and spread the word about Wakaya, further increasing their potential
guest list.
As many of the guests at TWC are returnees, over the years they have
developed close friendships with management, employees and other guests they have
met during their stays. As in the example of the Italian group, many guests pre-book
and return as a group, at the same time each year.
Example: There is a group of guests who have for the past few years booked
the whole resort each year during the Christmas and New Year period. This
also allows them to bring children under 16, and celebrate their holidays
together as a family.
PRIVACY
An observation made by RM of this luxury tourism, and more specifically, the
‘rich and famous’ market segment is guaranteed privacy from intrusive news
reporters, press and service provider employees. TWC has very strict procedures and
policies that are clearly understood by management employees, and breaking of these
rules is treated with immediate dismissal. This form of confidentiality is written into
each employee’s contract.
Example: Employees at TWC are trained not to discuss guests with outsiders
or press, guaranteeing the complete privacy and anonymity that many of their
famous clientele rarely experience. All access to the island is controlled by
Wakaya and normally provided via Air Wakaya, together with the fact that the
island is privately owned, means that access is monitored and restricted by
TWC. When the island is booked by famous personalities, all travel to and
from the island shuts down once the guests arrive, and no one enters or leaves
the island until after the celebrities leave. No one is allowed on the island
except for management, TWC employees and their immediate families. The
island is also patrolled daily to ensure that there are no attempts to access the
island by sea. These security patrols are a normal part of the service and not
just for the benefit of celebrities.
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A further comment by RM is that, the F$55,000.00 a day that guests pay to
book the resort outright for minimum stays of 5 days, although most book for
up to two or three weeks, is irrelevant, as price is not the issue. The benefits
they gain are related to the freedom and privacy they experience to relax and
spend time with their family and friends.
EXPECTATION MANAGEMENT – GUESTS
An important aspect of defining levels of customer satisfaction is customer
perceptions and expectations of the service. Customer perceptions are concerned
with subjective evaluations of service experiences, whereas customer expectations are
“the standards of or reference points for performance against which service
experiences are compared and are often formulated in terms of what a customer
believes should or will happen” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p. 28).
Example: At TWC they have to a large extent managed guest expectations
through their detailed forms of two-way communication. Further influences
on guest expectations have been shaped by positive WOM communication
from previous guests and industry related sources e.g. travel agents, tour
operators, expert travel magazine reviews, etc. These comments are available
for potential guests to access on the Wakaya Club website (See Appendix 2
for Guest Comments).
Beyond expectations and managed service encounters
Many organisations focus “on meeting customer expectations by closing the
gap between customer perceptions and expectations” (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.421).
However, more recent service maxims encourage organisations to exceed customer
expectations by delighting, exciting, surprising and amazing their customers (Zeithaml
et al., 2000; Lashley, 2001). As previously detailed, extensive research and planning
has enabled TWC to consistently exceed guest expectations. Apart from the
extensive research they have conducted to create guest profiles, their use of in-depth
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scripting, role-playing, training, documentation and maps greatly assist in the
management of service encounters.
Example: Four years before the opening of TWC, employees underwent
extensive training in all facets of their job requirements. Role playing was
used extensively as an educational tool, with the Gilmours and Millers playing
the role of guests, taking part in the different activities and service offerings,
and anticipating any enquiries the guests may ask. Employees had to answer
these questions in real time, and then TWC top management designed carefully
scripted answers for employees (similar to the Disney experience) to ensure
that any information that an employee communicated to guests was based on
fact, and well presented. This role playing was conducted in all departments
from activities to housekeeping, food and beverage, etc., with the Millers or
Gilmours undertaking all the nature treks, and dives themselves.
Consequently, from both my own observations, and guest comments, I can
verify that employees are extremely able at answering most guest enquiries.
However, RM is adamant that when in doubt, under no circumstances are
employees allowed to engage in ‘storytelling’ a favourite pastime of many
locals. Policies and procedures exist whereby if employees are unsure of any
answers related to guest enquiries, they must contact a supervisor or manager,
who will research the answer and then get back to the employee or guest
directly. RM firmly believes that because their guests are well educated and
travelled, they are likely to be offended or upset if they are provided with an
answer based on fiction, and might embarrass themselves if they pass false
information on to other guests.
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UNOBTRUSIVE MANAGEMENT STYLE
RM personally describes the management approach practised at TWC, as being
a purposefully designed, unobtrusive management style, which is suited to their
clientele and, when compared to some similar resorts in Fiji, likely to give them a
competitive edge. This is substantiated by many anecdotal incidents RM recounted to
me on different visits.
Example: Guests have been known to cancel bookings and transfer to TWC
because they did not like the ‘in your face’ management styles practised at
another resort. At this level personal preferences are the name of the game and
each guest has different expectations and perceptions of the benefits and value
they want from their travel experience. Whilst some individuals enjoy more
organised holidays with active interaction and input from management, others
prefer the seemingly casual unobtrusive style of TWC. RM also states that
when dealing with the niche element of the honeymoon market, guests have
different specific needs for this moment in time. These needs are likely to
differ from their expectations of future holidays when they return for wedding
anniversaries or other subsequent stays. However, RM feels that, whatever the
differences, the onus is on the individual resort to fulfil them. With regard to
honeymooners, many of these differences are related to socialisation with other
guests, communal dining, privacy and romance.
AMBIENCE
A feature of TWC that is an essential element of meeting or exceeding guest
expectations is the overall image of the resort and this is encapsulated in the layout,
design and landscaping. Guest reviews, comments they have made to me in person
and my own experience all support the impression Wakaya gives of a ‘magical place’.
The atmosphere is very relaxing with the only sounds heard throughout the resort
being those of nature. Most guests also at some point refer to the lack of children as
being an important contribution to the silence and quiet.
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Example: In conversations with guests of all ages, they confirm that the fact
that TWC is an ‘Adult Only’ resort is an added benefit for their choice of
destination. Older guests told me that when they took their grandchildren on
holidays they chose other resorts that were more suitable to that type of holiday
e.g. resorts that included or were next to theme parks and had more kids related
activities, kids clubs, etc. However, they also made conscious choices to travel
to resorts that were kid free and gave them a different experience, fulfilling
different needs.
LM also stated that many of their guests started as honeymooners at Wakaya,
then they lost them for a while when they had young children, and then would
probably gain them again when the children got to 16. Other guests with
young children still returned to Wakaya to holiday needing an adult only
holiday with a break from their children, or just to take a break from their
hectic lifestyles and relax in peaceful surroundings returning home rejuvenated
and ready to deal with their real worlds. The other option, and with TWC
there is always an option, is for guests to hire the entire resort and this then
enables them to bring their children e.g. Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise.
SERVICE ENCOUNTERS
Service encounters, otherwise referred to as ‘moments of truth’ can be defined
as any interaction a customer has with a service (McColl et al., 1998). Customers
evaluate service performance at each stage of their interaction with a company’s
employees. Thus, it is essential that service providers manage their service
encounters with care. Increasingly, not only are service providers seeking to manage
the quality of these encounters but they are also looking at building ongoing
relationships with their customers (McColl et al., 1998; Kotler et al., 2003). One of
the ways that organisations can build relationships with their customers is by
anticipating and managing critical incidents.
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Anticipating critical incidents
Critical incidents are particularly satisfying or dissatisfying interactions that
occur between customers and frontline employees (Bitner, 1990; McColl et al., 1998).
TWC continuously delivers positive ‘moments of truth’ by exceeding guest
expectations. This is possible because the managers and owners have anticipated
critical incidents, and trained their employees to deal with them by turning them into
positive ‘moments of truth’. Through critical incident analysis using data gathered
from both positive and negative examples of service encounters from their own
experience, and that of other resorts, TWC management has not only designed
solutions for each situation, but also strategies for how these potential service failures
can be avoided or corrected beforehand. However, the focus at TWC is always on
creating positive encounters. RM states that employee feedback is encouraged and
welcomed when designing strategies for increasing positive and minimising or
eliminating negative ‘moments of truth’. In his opinion, his frontline employees have
direct contact with guests, understand the practicalities of their roles and tasks, and
are, in many cases, able to provide simple innovative solutions to a problem.
Example One: At some point or other all guests comment on the standard of
the food at TWC. Increasingly guests are demanding meals made from fresh
organic produce, and placing emphasis on health as part of the bundle of
benefits they expect from the holiday experience. Guests have commented
that, in their experience, Wakaya’s food is either the best or some of the best
they have experienced in the world (See Appendix 2). The fact that many of
the ingredients for their meals are provided from the resort gardens, or seas,
only serves to enhance their enjoyment.
The following is a detailed review of a visit to Wakaya by Charles Dale, a
celebrated American Chef and owner of two restaurants in Aspen. He
recently visited Wakaya with his wife as part of TWC’s Guest Chef
Programme. During his visit he also helped RM and the resort chefs with new
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ideas for menus and provided cooking demonstrations that guests were able to
participate in. He described their stay as follows:
“Wakaya for me was paradise. My wife was laughing at me because I kept
using the word extraordinary over and over again to describe everything I saw,
from the flowers to the scenery to the people, to the club itself. But it's true!
While I was there I spent a couple of days cooking, and the time I spent in the
kitchen proved to be as relaxing as the rest of my experience. I had a really
fun time working with the organic produce and the fresh seafood the staff
would bring in daily.
The staff at Wakaya are just so extraordinary. There I go, using that word
again, but they really are. It is obvious that they love what they do. And why
wouldn't they? They get to live in one of the most beautiful places in the
world. I can't wait to go back. It was one of those lifetime experiences and a
privilege to share what I know and love with the people who were there, both
guests and employees” (Aspen Chef Charles Dale Lauds Fiji Water, 2002,
p.2).
Example Two: I witnessed another food related positive ‘moment of truth’
that is a frequent occurrence at TWC. A honeymoon couple who were renting
Vale O, caught a yellow fin tuna and a large wahoo (swordfish) on their first
ever attempt at deep-sea fishing. They were extremely proud of their
accomplishments, and donated their catch to the resort as part of the dinner
menu that evening. This sharing not only increased their status in the eyes of
other guests, but provided a focal point of conversation for the evening. That
evening new friendships and relationships were forged, not only between the
guests but with the employees as well. Everyone enthused over the catch and
resultant meal. Ultimately the evening formed the successful beginning of a
very enjoyable holiday, and created closer social interaction between guests for
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the rest of their stay. Given the urban lifestyles of many of TWC’s guests, the
thrill and sense of achievement they gain from something like catching a fish,
or collecting salad greens from the resort gardens is amazing to watch. This is
also interesting for employees given that they all mainly have some
background of subsistence related lifestyles, so what they consider normal is to
many of the guests an incredible achievement. However, perceptions of
enhanced experiences need to be understood in the context of our individual
societies and countries of origin. What might be an everyday occurrence to a
Pacific Islander may be the highlight of a holiday for a guest and vice versa.
Many successful service encounters can be facilitated by efficient management
systems, procedures and the use of technology. TWC uses its powerful Libeca
database with its detailed guest histories to create enhanced service experiences. This
is especially the case for returnee guests.
Example Three: TWC maintains a detailed record of each individual guest,
their preferred food, drinks, accommodation, etc and uses this information to
service each bure. On their return to the island, as much as possible TWC tries
to put them in the same bure, thus increasing their familiarity with their
surroundings, and promoting that feeling of coming home, or staying in a
home away from home. Returnees also express surprise at being greeted on
arrival not only by name, but with rooms and merchandise in the wet bar that
reflect the choices they made on their last stay. Restaurant employees
remember their favourite drinks, meals etc. (much of this is provided in the
pre-arrival training sessions given to employees), however these reminders are
not always necessary. RM and other members of Wakaya all confirm that their
guests are impressed with this personalised service that is over and above what
they expected. However, islanders have an incredible ability to remember
names in general (maybe it is the result of coming from a small close-knit
society) and TWC employees apply their innate ability to do this, in their
dealings with guests. I have heard anecdotal recounts of guests who have
returned after many years and gone fishing with the same activities manager,
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who took them on their first trip. They have been amazed not only when
Josaia asks them personal questions about how different members of their
family are doing, but is able to reminisce with them about the last fishing or
diving trips they went on with him, what they saw, the numbers of fish they
caught, funny incidents that happened etc. These details are not kept on the
computer database, but are the reflection on the capabilities of an exceptional
employee. This innate ability to remember people, names and events is not
unusual in Fiji and is a quality TWC recognises, and is substantiated by the
rave reviews guests continuously write about their employees. This
characteristic is also supported by the following quote from Fiji Magic:
“Fijians learn the importance of hospitality from birth and therefore enjoy
meeting strangers. And once you’ve met them, you’re not likely to be
forgotten. Fijians have the amazing ability to remember faces and
conversations no matter how brief the encounter may have been. Sharing what
they have with others is a vital part of their cultural upbringing and this
unabashed giving is done with sincerity”
(Relax you’re on Fiji Time, 2003, p.26).
LOYALTY
Research has found that there is a direct relationship between service quality
and customer satisfaction, and there is also a “significant positive relationship between
customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Yu & Dean, 2001, p.235). Furthermore,
a better predictor of customer loyalty is the emotional rather than cognitive component
of satisfaction (Yu et al., 2001). These positive emotions can significantly influence
positive WOM communications, and in many cases influence the willingness on the
part of the consumer to pay more.
Increasingly organisations are not only concerned with “attracting and
satisfying customers, but also developing long-term relationships with them” (Gremler
& Brown, 1998, p.271). TWC management agree that maintaining long-term
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relationships with their guests, is an important part of why they have such a high
return rate at the resort, much of it due to the personalised services they offer, and the
personalities of their employees. Not only does their return rate now fluctuate around
42-46%; in their experience, returnee guests tend to stay longer than the minimum stay
of 5 nights. Most normal stays for returnees are in the region of two-three weeks at a
time. In RM’s opinion, this is a high reflection of the level of loyalty they receive
from many of their guests.
HUMAN RESOURCE CONSULTANT INTERVIEW
The following is a transcript of a one-hour telephone interview, I held with the
HRM expert that TWC has used to conduct customer service training workshops.
This HRM expert owns her own consultancy, and conducts Customer Service Training
workshops at many of the luxury resorts in Fiji. She has extensive experience of the
hotel industry in Fiji, having been in charge of HRM for Sheraton Hotel in Sydney and
Nadi for many years in the early 1990s. Although information from this interview
was useful in confirming my observations and conclusions with regard to TWC, her
comments were more useful with regard to general information on management
approaches and service delivery in Fiji hotels and resorts generally.
Most of the consultancy she carried out, and this includes Wakaya, were for
resorts or hotels that do not have a HRM department to undertake training in customer
service. The most popular workshop she conducts is the Customer Service Skills
Workshop, which everyone, including management, is required to attend. This
consists of two four-hour sessions. In these workshops she obtains feedback from
both management and employees, and uses this to identify what the company is doing
well and the obstacles preventing them from delivering good service.
From this information she then plans the next stage of her training. Some of
the common obstacles she has found in Fiji organisations are: ‘Blockhead’ managers;
lack of training, inexperienced employees, excessive hierarchy, red tape and
accountability (should flatten structure). Based on feedback from workshops she is
able to decide on a plan of action, and advise HRM department and executives.
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Recommendations can include: restructuring, focused skills training, increased access
to training etc. She believes that you cannot simply motivate people as motivation is
intrinsic and differs for each individual. However, what we can do is improve
customer service systems, by upskilling employees, and develop efficient systems in
the workplace. Local companies also need to recognise the importance of the
internal customer. If they give their employees good working conditions, and the
training and skills to carry out their jobs and achieve organisational goals, this will
remove barriers to better service and workers will perform better because they are
being stimulated by their work environment.
In her opinion, the solution to customer service problems in Fiji begins with
company managers. In order to have good quality service we need leaders or
managers who understand their employees. We also need to focus on training and
upskilling our frontline supervisors, and create or employ supervisors who are leaders.
In her experience in Fiji, managers promote supervisors, depend on them to achieve
organisational goals but give them no real authority. Our supervisors are the weak
link in the service chain. Managers assume that supervisors have the skills to do the
job and that promotion is incentive enough to get them to achieve organisational goals.
A primary weakness in this line of thinking on the part of managers in Fiji, is that
promoting employees to supervisors does not come with any training and skills, so this
can lead to resentment on the part of employees when a supervisor does not
understand how to deal with directives from management.
Example: Many problems that exist in hotels and resorts are related to
overtime. In her opinion, overtime is mainly the result of bad planning,
although it is sometimes necessary in emergencies. Management often send
supervisors directives to save money on overtime. Even when supervisors
have already signed off on employee timesheets, they are known to cut back on
reported overtime hours, which creates employee resentment. ‘Blockhead’
managers do not take the time to find out why the overtime was needed and
create ways to remove the need, as, like supervisors, they are also not taught
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the skills to deal with the problem. Employee resentment then affects service
quality and performance.
In her opinion, managers, and this includes expatriate managers, need to have
cross-cultural management training, so that they become leaders, like RM of
Wakaya, who not only has the training and skills to lead his employees but also
fully understands their individual backgrounds and cultures. The quality of
consistent service delivered at TWC, is in her opinion, a reflection of RM’s
leadership, and passion for the resort, their customers, service quality, and
employees. His attention to detail and deep understanding of their service
offering, the needs of his guests and his employees are, in her opinion, the
main reason Wakaya is so successful.
Ultimately, for local companies to deliver consistent quality service, we need
good leadership and managers who are well trained in cross-cultural management
skills. They need to provide a supportive environment for supervisors and employees.
This requires that everyone from managers downwards are provided with adequate
training in a wide variety of areas.
WAKAYA EMPLOYEE RESEARCH FINDINGS
The survey questionnaire is described in detail in Chapter 4, and a copy is
provided as Appendix 3. A statistical analysis of each question of the survey, with
pie graphs can be found in Appendix 1. In this section, I will briefly summarise
these findings under headings from the Cycle of Capability model in Figure 1, and
they will be then discussed generally in Chapter 7, with the rest of the research data
from TWC.
Respondent demographics
Of the 28 frontline employees who returned questionnaires, 60.7% (17) were
female and 39.3% (11) were male. 46.4% (13) of them were married and 53.6% (15)
single. 25% of the respondents at TWC have children. TWC tries to employ staff
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spouses where they are interested in working. However, potential employees are not
necessarily employed as couples. These spouses are employed either in different
departments of the resort, or in the main Wakaya parent company, that deals with the
real estate construction, rentals, and maintenance.
RM states that females are better suited to serving TWC’s guests, and he has
no problems with alcohol, theft, etc. at the bar. When he has had male bartenders, he
has inevitably encountered problems with drinking, and theft of alcohol and cigarettes.
Alcohol is banned for staff at the resort, to prevent problems. His statement is
supported by conversations I have had with Dick Smith (Owner) and Margaret
Thaggard (General Manager) at Musket Cove Resort (Personal Communication,
2002), who also confirmed that all their bartenders and waitresses are female for the
same reasons given by RM.
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As the pie graph above shows, the employees at TWC are relatively young with 59%
being under 30. In the main, the older employees are either management, or
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supervisors and hold the more skilled positions at the resort. Many of these older
employees have been at the resort for over 10 years, with the longest term of
employment being 17 years. However, most of the employees have been at TWC for
at least 3 years, and the average length of employment is 6.75 years.
To a large extent, departments are divided by gender. This applies to
Reception, Reservations, Housekeeping and the Waitressing and bar sections of Food
and Beverage where all employees are female. However, the kitchen section is
equally divided between male and female. Departments like Activities, Landscaping,
Repair and Maintenance, and Purchasing are all 100% male domains. Many of these
divisions are also related to the outdoor and physical nature of many of the jobs
assigned to men. A further consideration by TWC is that because many of the
employees are married to each other, given the restrictions of island lifestyles, not
directly working together in the same departments, makes for more harmonious
private lives. However, given the focus TWC has on employing people based on
their personalities, RM states that his employees are placed in departments that in his
opinion are better suited to their individual personalities and abilities to deal with the
different job specifications and guests. A few of the female staff do, however, engage
in some of the activities e.g. gymnasium – yoga & massage (all female), and tennis
and golf. The office and administration department employs both males and females.
The bar graph below shows that the departmental distribution of employees is
concentrated in departments like Food & Beverage 32.1%, Housekeeping 17.9% and
Reservations and Reception 21.4%. As these are the main service departments of the
resort, the levels of staffing are understandable. The activities department, split
between the Marina and Golf & Tennis centres, are the next most frequently used
services at the resort, and is represented by 10.7% of employees.
TWC at maxim capacity can house 18 guests, and boasts a staff to guest ratio
of 12:1 (The Wakaya Club, 2003). Actual employees at TWC are 60, which gives a
ratio of 3:1, however, when needed the resort draws from employees who work for the
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parent company Wakaya Limited, and staff the luxury homesteads on the island, that
are either rented, or just managed by Wakaya Limited.
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Training
The majority of employees at the resort (97%) are aware of the need for
training and skill provision, for them to perform their jobs well. 70% of them agreed
that they were given the training and skills. The discrepancies are explained in
Appendix 1 Q.15. In the main, employees understand the importance of being
provided with the necessary skills to do their work well, and agree that TWC does this.
Most of TWC employees felt it important that Wakaya had a training and
development plan for them. Whilst over half the employees agreed that there was a
training and development plan at TWC, a large number were Neutral (24%), or
disagreed. There are many possible reasons for this (See Chapter 7). Those who
disagreed are all senior employees, and given that Wakaya is an extremely ‘flat’
organisation, although their jobs to a large extent are guaranteed for life, as shown by
the low turnover rate of employees, there is also very little room for upward
promotion. (See Appendix 1, Q.16).
97% of the employees recognised the importance of having a customer service
training programme at the resort, with 66% agreeing that this was the case in reality.
TWC has a very rigorous training and customer service programme for each
department, so where employees disagreed or were neutral, this would seem yet again
due to cultural interpretations of the meanings associated to ‘training’. Many
employees think you have to take an external course to be ‘trained’, and on the job
training is just something that comes with the job, but of no significant importance.
(See Appendix 1, Q.17).
The data from the questionnaire clearly shows employees not only felt it was
important to have and understand their responsibilities and priorities, but they also
agreed that this was in fact the case in their workplace. For example: 38% of
respondents felt it was Very Important, and Strongly Agreed, whilst 58% of
respondents rated the statement Important and Agreed that in the workplace their
responsibilities and priorities were clearly explained and understood by them. (See
Appendix 1, Q.2).
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At TWC not only do employees find it important that they have challenging
work goals, they largely also agree that this is the case. Possible explanations could
be related to boredom, especially for those doing repetitive jobs, so continuous
challenges and stimulation can minimise this. Other explanations could be cultural,
and related to the working relationship that all employees have with RM. (See
Appendix 1, Q.12; and Chapter 7). Furthermore, not only do all employees
understand the importance of having a supportive work environment, so that they can
perform their services well, they also mostly agreed (86%) that this was the case. (See
Appendix 1, Q. 14).
The data show that not only do the employees at TWC place a high degree of
importance on the existence of clear customer service goals, they also understand them
and agree that this exists in reality. (See Appendix 1, Q.18). They also all agree that
TWC has a strong focus on customer satisfaction and service quality. (See Appendix
1, Q.19). To this end, they all felt it important that they understood TWC’s company
policies and procedures, and did their best at work. 90% agreed that they all tried to
perform their work roles and tasks to the best of their ability. (See Chapter 7; and
Appendix 1, Q. 4 & 13).
Teamwork
Teams at TWC are functional teams based on the different departments at the
resort. The data showed that in general not only do employees feel it important to
understand their team’s expectations of them, they also have a high degree of
understanding of their tasks and what their team members expect of them. (See
Appendix 1, Q.3).
When looking at the correlation between the importance of clear plans for team
productivity and agreeing that these actually existed in practice, there is very little
difference to be found between respondents who felt this was important and agreed
that this existed in reality i.e. 41.7% Important and 45.8% Strongly Agreed.
However, differences appear when comparing those who felt it was Important – 45.8%
and Agreed that it existed 29.2%. There is also a significant difference between the
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Fairly Important rating of 12.5% and the Neutral agreement rating of 25%. (See
Appendix 1, Q.1).
The data from the questionnaire clearly showed employees not only felt it was
important to have and understand their individual responsibilities and priorities, but
that they agreed that this was in fact the case in their workplace. For example: 38%
of respondents felt it was Very Important, and Strongly Agreed, whilst 58% of
respondents rated the statement Important and Agreed that in the workplace their
responsibilities and priorities were clearly explained and understood by them. (See
Appendix 1, Q.2).
However, within their personal lives in the staff village, employees also belong
to social groups where they work together to fundraise for traditional village
obligations, worship, and sport or just socialise e.g. ‘grog’ groups.
Example: There are a number of different religious groups on the island, who
have prayer meetings, bible study, and church services. Staff also have groups
divided into the 3 Fijian confederacies of: Kubuna, Burebasaga, and Tovata.
These groups have monthly meetings and fundraise for these traditional
obligations. They also have other groups that are divided by different
provinces e.g. Tailevu, Cakaudrove, Rewa, Lomaiviti, Naitaisiri, Nadroga, Lau
etc. that also have different cultural obligations that they work together to
contribute. Then within these groups, they have cultural commitments to their
individual village communities.
The resort also has three main Christian religious groups i.e. Catholic,
Methodist and Pentecostal among the indigenous Fijian staff, and then Muslim
and Hindus among the Indo-Fijian staff. Apart from this there are the resort
sports teams e.g. Netball, Rugby & Volleyball that compete in inter-island
competitions. This makes for a very complex little community, with
employees belonging to more than one group at a time.
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As explained earlier in this Chapter, LM feels and RM agrees that the
traditional cultural groups that their indigenous Fijian employees (who make up 100%
of their frontline employees at TWC) belong to, create a natural learning platform for
their employees understanding of how to work together in teams. Also within these
traditional groups, all indigenous Fijians understand how they are related to each
other, and what the cultural obligations of belonging to each group entails. This
understanding for them is innate, and work hand in hand with their functional teams at
work. The Millers feel that, in the end, the traditional and work relationships are
complementary, and make for a more united and committed workforce. Personal
groups at TWC also provide the majority of the recreational and social activities at the
resort, so play an important part in staff socialisation, personal family lifestyles and
ultimate happiness.
Supportive work environment
As previously stated staff at TWC confirmed they had a supportive work
environment. They have the training & skills to do their jobs, and understand the
company’s operating procedures and policies well. As shown in Appendix 1, Q. 7, all
employees thought it important that they were valued and respected by their fellow
colleagues; however, in reality only a little over half, i.e. 55% agreed that this was the
case. The importance placed on this can largely be explained by elements of Fijian
culture and status within their community (See Chapter 7). However, many of those
who were neutral or disagreed that this happened in reality worked in predominantly
backstage Departments, where their services may be taken for granted or seen as
having less status than frontline employees in Food and Beverage, Reception &
Reservations, and Activities/Marina (See Chapter 7 for more detailed discussion).
Although all employees felt that it was important they felt free to express
themselves at work, in practice this seemed to be affected by a variety of factors like
seniority, length of employment, age, gender and whether or not they were frontline or
backstage employees. (See Appendix 1, Q.9, & Chapter 7 for cultural interpretation).
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Views on constructive feedback (See Appendix 1, Q.6), varied between
backstage and frontline employees. In predominantly backstage Departments, where
employees roles were strictly defined and scripted, as is the case with Housekeeping
and Landscaping, they did not consider feedback important and, in fact, did not
actively provide each other with feedback. However, the more prominent frontline
employees valued the importance of providing each other with constructive feedback,
and agreed that it happened in reality. These included Food & Beverage,
Reservations, Reception, The Marina and Activities Departments.
There seems to be a discrepancy between that fact that employees (93%) felt it
was important that they were considerate toward each other and work together to solve
problems, and whether or not this actually happens. 52% agreed with this statement
but 31% were neutral (See Appendix 1, Q.8). This however, does not match up with
other findings with regard to striving to perform their jobs to the best of their abilities
(90% agreed), the high value placed on delivering quality service (93% agreed);
exceeding guest expectations (97% agreed) and 97% agreeing that guests were
satisfied with the service they received. Given that the services they deliver are all
interrelated as TWC holiday experience is a bundle of services and benefits, it would
seem highly unlikely that they were able to achieve such high standards of guest
satisfaction, if they did not work together well. It leads me to suppose that such a
high percentage was neutral, because they have been trained well, and work together
as a matter of course, both in the work and personal relationships. It is not something
they consciously think about; they just unconsciously do it. This explanation, in my
opinion, also to some extent refers to the data on communication between team
members and different departments. A further explanation for the difference between
the importance and agreement ratings for this statement, could be whether employees
worked in frontline departments or backstage. Apart from the different procedures in
each department, it might be suggested that frontline employees were more likely to
communicate with each other as they have more contact with the guests. Most of
their roles are defined by strict operating policies and procedures, manuals, scripting
and checklists. Consequently, the extent to which any exchange of ideas they have,
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actually impacts on their service performance may be negligible. It is only when
guests make specific requests that they have the latitude to make changes. This strict
adherence to the set procedures are also in RM’s opinion an essential factor in
maintaining high quality, consistent services.
Customer satisfaction & Latitude to meet customer needs
Data strongly supported the luxury holiday experience as stated in TWC
Vision statement. Employees not only feel it is important, but strongly confirm that
they are strongly encouraged to continuously exceed customer expectations, and
provide exceptional service. (See Appendix 1, Q.21, & Chapter 7). Moreover, both
the importance and agreement ratings showed that employees were very customer
focused, and not only care about their guests but go out of their way to fulfil their
every need. One of the frequent comments made by guests related to the genuine
friendliness and attention they receive from all employees at TWC. (See Appendix 1,
Q.20, Appendix 2, & Chapter 7).
All employees confirmed that they were highly motivated to please their
customers, by delivering high quality services. The majority of them (97%) also
maintained that guests were happy with the service quality they offer at TWC. The
high guest returnee rate, and glowing comments they receive from guests also support
these results. The majority of these employees work in frontline departments of the
resort, and the high level of contact and interaction they have with the guests allows
them to gather direct feedback from guests. (See Appendix 1, Q.22).
Finally, with regard to latitude and autonomy when serving guests, the results
showed that not only do employees feel it important that they are given the freedom to
improvise and make frontline service-related decisions, those employees who deliver
frontline services at Wakaya have the latitude and empowerment to do this. (See
Appendix 1, Q.23).
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Clear limits on and expectations of employees
At TWC, guest satisfaction is the central objective, and employees all clearly
understand the important role they play in delivering this outcome. As previously
explained, detailed research and planning has gone in to designing every aspect of
TWC’s service offering, and service quality is maintained through the implementation
of these operating policies and procedures, using scripts, manuals, signed checklists
and supervisory and management follow-up.
However, when comparing the data on whether or not they all understood the
operating policies and procedures, it was found that although 100% of TWC
employees thought it was important that they all understood the company’s policies
and procedures, 24% expressed some form of disagreement and 10% were Neutral
with regard to whether or not this existed in reality. Since all the services at TWC are
delivered according to a set routine (except where guests request otherwise), and have
checklists that the employees are held accountable for, it would seem that employees
either did not give any importance to this statement. Furthermore, the service process
was so clearly defined, and they all understand and follow these steps that they do not
view these as operating policies or procedures, but just part of their everyday work
routine. This could also, to an extent, be a case of semantics, since most respondents
were indigenous Fijians with English as a second language, and lack an understanding
of the meanings associated with operating policies and procedures.
Rewards and recognition
The majority of employees (97%) thought it was important that their work was
recognised and they received recognition for a job well done. This applied to both
feedback from guests and RM, management or their fellow employees. As explained
in the Management results, employees receive a number of monetary and non-
monetary awards. Non-monetary awards are in the form of free accommodation,
electricity, free education for their children, free transport by plane to and from the
island, completely accessorised uniforms that include shoes and where it applies (e.g.
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Activities), brand name Oakley sunglasses, sandals etc., and other culture specific
rewards. (See Appendix 1, Q.5, & Chapter 7).
Employee satisfaction
The sections on rewards and recognition in this chapter and Chapter 7 should
also be taken into consideration and these have a significant bearing on employee
satisfaction (Honold, 1999; Zeithaml, 2000; Lashley, 2001). As previously stated,
the low turnover rate of 2%, minimum length of employment of 3 years, and average
length of tenure of most employees being over 6 years, with many employees having
been with the resort since or before it opened in 1992, could be taken as strong
evidence of employee satisfaction. Further evidence of employee satisfaction could
also be provided by the strong knit community lifestyles and social networks they
have developed and that work very successfully within the staff village.
EMPLOYEE INTERVIEWS & OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
Due not only to word limitations for this thesis but also to avoid repetition, I
have decided to address the data collected from the employees’ in-depth interviews
and open-ended questions; and the data from participant observation, in Chapter 7
either as examples or in the general discussion and interpretation sections.
SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the data from the case study of The Wakaya Club
resort, as an example of a Fiji company within the tourism and hospitality sectors that
practices employee empowerment. It forms the basis of the empirical evidence for
the local Fiji context of this research study, and explains the form and dimensions of
employee empowerment implemented at Wakaya. The particular form of employee
empowerment at TWC is not only multi-dimensional but has been adapted to suit the
local indigenous and Indo-Fijian cultures.
Results from the case study have shown that TWC practices a multi-
dimensional form of empowerment through: strong leadership, supportive work
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environment, selective recruitment policies based on personality and interpersonal
skills, training and skill provision, clear operating policies and procedures, clear limits
and boundaries on, and expectations of, employees, a commitment to enhanced
customer service, rewards and recognition systems. These are based on both
traditional management and local cultural practices, teamwork, internal and external
communication, and the frequent monitoring of guest satisfaction.
In Chapter 7, these results will be discussed and interpreted using the findings
of Chapters 2, 3 and 4 which reviewed the literature on employee empowerment,
cross-cultural management and Models of employee empowerment.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
DATA INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION
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EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT
Although the literature review in Chapter 2 has revealed that employee
empowerment is a concept that is difficult to define, is multi-dimensional and involves
long-term commitment by organisations, there are a number of key themes that are
addressed in most forms of empowerment. These include:
� Leadership
� Create a vision and communicate its values
� Careful employee selection
� Referrals of potential job candidates from employees, friends, peers
� Communication – upward, downward, horizontal
� Training and skills provision
� Teamwork
� Supportive work environment which include well-designed support systems like
information and technology
� Improve processes
� Increased autonomy, latitude, power to take control & use initiative
� Employees have greater latitude to meet customer needs
� Clear organisational limits and boundaries
� Clear expectations of employees
� Employees understand the limits/boundaries and what is expected of them
� Frequent recognition and rewards – balanced between monetary and non-monetary
� Periodic measurement of employee satisfaction
� Monitor and review
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The main themes from the literature, show that leaders in organisations create
an environment within which employees choose to be empowered, with different
forms of empowerment adapted to suit individual organisations, and unique cultures
(Honold, 1997; Heskett et al., 1997; Lashley, 2001).
Further outcomes from the literature review in Chapter 2, raised questions
regarding whether or not a concept like employee empowerment, based on Western
management theories is transferable to the management of organisations in other
countries (Hales et al., 1998; Klidas, 2002). Consequently, Chapter 3 reviewed
literature on Cross-cultural management, including Hofstede’s (1984) Theory of
National Cultures, and the local Fiji context.
In this Chapter these themes are interpreted and discussed using the findings
from the case study of The Wakaya Club. Employee empowerment is examined in
the light of this literature, to gain an understanding of how this concept has been used
at TWC, and whether or not there were significant benefits to be gained from
implementing empowerment in Fiji, with regard to the delivery of consistent quality
services in tourism and hospitality.
Leaders role in creating a supportive environment
Leaders play a key role in providing a work environment that is conducive to
empowerment and encourages employees to take ‘power’ as managers delegate some
of their decision-making responsibilities to them (Honold, 1999). Managers play a
coaching role and assist employees with problem solving. In theory, this is supposed
to increase employee satisfaction, as employees meet manager’s expectations by
increased performance. However, in reality this can mean increased responsibility,
with workers feeling little increased control or empowerment. For leaders to provide
an empowering environment they need to address the operational, individual and
managerial aspects of empowerment. Leadership roles include:
Creating a shared vision; providing clear top management support; the use of
team and temporary group models of organisation; responding to external
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circumstances and developing a strategy for continually scanning the
environment; redesigning work to reflect collaborative norms; the use of job
enrichment; creative use of sponsorships, role models, peer alliances, coaching
and mentoring; the development of reward systems that build ‘win-win’ rather
than ‘win-lose’ attitudes; and identification and clarification of common goals
(Vogt & Murrell, 1990; cited in Honold, 1999, p.26-27).
The individual perspective
Empowerment does not exist if employees do not take responsibility for their
actions. Factors that affect individual acceptance of empowerment include: lack of
understanding of job functions, clear understanding of accountability and reporting
procedures, lack of communication, informal reward and recognition systems,
undefined work roles leading to conflicts in the workplace and “decreased perceptions
of control and lower empowerment” (Honold, 1999, p.29). However, increased job
autonomy and job enrichment lead to increased perceptions of individual control and
empowerment. Other factors that increased worker perceptions of empowerment are:
consultation, recognition, encouragement, and mentoring by immediate supervisors
(Honold, 1999). Where employees possess greater feelings of perceived
empowerment, there is increased likelihood of better work motivation, job satisfaction,
decreased job stress and increased job involvement beyond individual job
specifications, also resulting in a greater commitment to the organisation (Honold,
1999). Employees are more likely to engage in greater participation when they feel
that the organisation provided them with social support, and access to necessary
information and resources to perform their individual tasks (Honold, 1999).
Teamwork
Collaboration in the workplace, in the form of different types of teams can be
facilitated by managers providing employees with a ‘voice’ in decision-making
(Honold, 1999). However, individual workers even within the process of
collaboration and teamwork, need to take responsibility for their individual roles
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within the team. Many employees view empowerment in the context of self-
empowerment, ignoring that fact that for teams to function successfully they need to
depend on each unit of the team, and other interrelated departments working together
to delivery the service (Honold, 1999). This inter-dependency across functional
boundaries is an important consideration for tourism and hospitality.
Changes to process or systems
The provision of an empowering environment can be facilitated by the use of
increased communication technology. Due to the existence, nowadays, of
inexpensive communication methods, it is possible to have decentralised decision-
making, and employees still remaining accountable by reporting their actions to top
management, using some form of technology (Honold, 1999).
These different approaches, contribute different elements to creating an
empowering work environment and employee empowerment, however, on their own
they are unlikely to facilitate empowerment. Current literature on empowerment
advocates that these one-dimensional approaches are inadequate, and effective
empowerment should be multi-dimensional (Honold, 1999; Lashley, 1997; Lashley,
2001).
Multidimensional perspectives
Organisations that practice a multi-dimensional form of empowerment, enable
employees to engage in teamwork, take initiative, work individually and provide them
with the autonomy and latitude to make considered decisions (Honold, 1999).
Management creates the supportive environment by providing:
A compelling mission, a structure that emphasises flexibility and autonomy,
rewards for participation and a lack of punishment for risk taking, as well as
ongoing involvement programmes and support for the integration of
employees’ work and family lives (Honold, 1999, p.35).
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Furthermore, management should offer assistance in the form of “positive
feedback, information, resources, and supportive policies” and a stress-free work
environment (Honold, 1999, p.35). Activities that facilitate empowered organisations
and increase performance include:
Multi-skilling, cross-training, self-directed work teams, and horizontal design;
human resource systems such as learning and development, job
enrichment/enlargement, peer review, and innovative compensation plans; and
total quality management that involves line employees such as statistical
process control techniques, just-in-time inventory and delivery, and formalised
supplier/vendor partnerships (Honold, 1999, p.36).
A further factor that influences company performance is the use of technology.
Successful empowerment should be ingrained into organisational culture, with leaders
setting examples for individual employees to follow, culminating in employees
becoming leaders and role models for other employees (Honold, 1999).
LEADERSHIP
Getting employees to realise their potential in service operations often means
the use of more than traditional management approaches. Managers and supervisors
need to take on the role of leaders, and employees need to be given the responsibility,
authority and autonomy to “serve customers and add value to the experience” (McColl
et al., 1998, p.250). Leadership is an essential ingredient for delivering excellent
service and quality (McColl et al., 1998), together with “successful work
achievement” (Kondo, 2002a, p.146).
TWC has very strong leadership at the top of the company. Canadian born,
David Gilmour, is the visionary and entrepreneurial mind behind both TWC and Fiji
Natural Artesian Water. He has enjoyed phenomenal success throughout his
entrepreneurial career. The following is a short biography of David Gilmour,
Founder and Chairman Fiji Natural Artesian Water, and owner of The Wakaya Club
resort:
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In 1969, Gilmour and long-time partner Peter Munk founded the Southern
Pacific Hotel Corporation (SPHC), which quickly became the largest hotel
chain in the South Pacific. A decade later, the chain was sold and the partners
formed the Barrick Gold Corporation, now the second largest gold mining firm
in the world. They followed this by forming a real estate company called
Horsham Corporation, which became TrizecHahn, and is today one of the
largest publicly traded real estate companies in North America. Back in 1971,
while on a trip to Fiji to review SPHC operations, Gilmour discovered the 5
square mile island of Wakaya. He fell in love with this island's unspoiled and
breathtaking natural beauty and, in 1972 purchased Wakaya. Together, in
1990, Gilmour and his wife Jill developed an exclusive resort on Wakaya - The
Wakaya Club. Designed and decorated by Jill, Wakaya Club Resort has
become a favourite retreat where people "who have it all, go to get away from
it all." In 1996, Gilmour started his next and most important venture, Natural
Waters of Viti Ltd (Fiji Water, 2003).
Whilst the overall management of all facets of the resort is the responsibility of
the General Manager, Robert Miller, David Gilmour is kept constantly informed of all
developments at the resort, and is a guiding force in developing the direction of the
resort and any innovations.
The TWC General Manager, Robert Miller, is a local ‘Fiji boy’ of European
extraction, who has worked with Mr. Gilmour for over 25 years and he too possesses a
similar passion for quality service, vision and the entrepreneurial qualities of Mr.
Gilmour. They are both strongly supported by their wives who also play strong
support roles in the leadership at TWC. Jill Gilmour has had a strong influence in the
designing and interior decoration of the resort, together with responsibility for the
resort boutique. Linda Miller, is responsible for the landscaping and the resort’s
organic gardens and orchid and antherium conservatories. Both couples have a very
deep understanding of their employees and families together with their cultural
backgrounds and traditions. Ultimately, TWC employees are fondly referred to as
‘the Wakaya family’, and the relationships that exist between employees and the
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Gilmours and Millers are very much based on or reminiscent of the colonial style
benevolent benefactor, and closely representing the father figure within families or
that of traditional chiefs (Evans et al., 1995; Nabalarua, 1999). This type of
leadership is well understood by indigenous Fijian employees given their colonial
history, and hierarchical traditional culture (Evans et al., 1995; Nabalarua, 1999).
RM however, is responsible for the everyday running of the resort, and it is his
leadership and passion that has a direct influence on creating the loyalty, trust, and
commitment to performance and excellence that is displayed by the TWC employees.
He is a firm believer in managing by example, and he takes an active role in all
aspects of the resort (See Chapter 6). RM apart from showing his employees strong
leadership, also possesses all the qualities necessary for a successful cross-cultural
manager, for not only do they require excellent business and communication skills,
they must have an in-depth understanding of the traditional cultures of societies which
influence their employees’ daily lives. As a local, RM has an innate understanding
of his employees, enabling him to emphasise their strong points and develop their
weaknesses. This understanding also helps him develop incentives and motivational
strategies that are culturally appropriate, and more effective than just traditional
western monetary rewards. This is explained in Chapter 6, for example: the
provision of wild boar, and deer for traditional ceremonies and celebrations, such
incentives give the employees great esteem and status within their traditional societies.
In a telephone interview, TWC’s external HRM consultant, expressed the view
that all manager’s in Fiji, and especially expatriate managers, need to have the
business, cultural knowledge and passion of Robert Miller, in order to understand their
employees and bring out the best in them. Furthermore, both the Gilmours and the
Millers, have a complete understanding of TWC’s niche target market, and are
constantly developing their services by providing new improvements, and anticipating
the changes in consumer tastes (See Chapter 6 for expansion to gymnasium).
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Example: TWC has just launched a stunning newly redesigned website
(November, 2003), which provides potential guests with even more pre-trip
information, including a virtual tour of the resort, access to menus, activities,
guest and public relations reviews, codes of behaviour, rates, and other general
information etc. This type of information can greatly decrease the risk for
customers of purchasing an intangible product, by providing them with
tangible elements by way of photographs of the resort and its facilities (McColl
et al., 1998).
Employee empowerment, has its roots in TQM, and the “success or failure of
TQM systems” is strongly influenced by “management commitment and leadership”
(Gonzalez & Guillen, 2002, p.150). Managerial leadership exhibits different traits to
traditional management, as leaders are able to influence their employees by using a
different type of authority or power, based on a relationship of trust. Gonzalez et al.,
(2002, p.150) claimed that “this trust relies on the leader’s technical, psycho-emotive
and moral competence”. Furthermore, leaders are committed to continuous
improvement and change, and have dynamic interpersonal relationships with their
employees. These relationships are influenced by the leader’s personality and
charisma, and the emotional commitment and loyalty this engages in their employees.
Both DG, RM and their wives are charismatic strong personalities who, in my
observation of their relationships with employees, and from comments made by
employees, command high levels of respect, and affection based on both work and
personal relationships that have developed over many years with the majority of their
employees. The average length of employment at TWC is over five years although
some employees have worked at the resort since before it opened in 1992.
Example: A personal example of commitment and loyalty, recounted by
Linda Miller, was when she had saved the life of a TWC couple’s child. She
said that given the traditional cultural obligations of indigenous Fijians, when
you save the life of their child, you have their commitment and loyalty for life,
and their relationship with you changes forever. Also given the close-knit
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community lifestyle at the staff village, incidents like this also increase the
respect the rest of the employees for their bosses.
Technical abilities that leaders possess can include their knowledge, aptitude,
experience, and networking abilities, all of which are likely to influence their ability to
positively influence employee performance (Gonzalez et al., 2002). The psycho-
emotive aspects of leadership are based on individual personality characteristics,
charisma, social skills and their ability to create a supportive pleasant work
environment for their employees. The final aspect of strong effective leadership, is
the ethical dimension, and “refers to right decisions and actions combined with good
intentions, and accompanied by moral correctness of behaviours” (Gonzalez et al.,
2002, p.152). The Gilmours and Millers are strong closely-knit family units who
display all these characteristics, and given the cultural traditions of their employees
with their strong religious beliefs, these characteristics further increase the
commitment and loyalty of their employees to delivering the high quality services
required by TWC, and increase their desire to do their jobs well.
The delivery of quality services requires the commitment of all employees but
quality must be all pervasive and reflected in an organisation’s policies and behaviour
of management. Leaders should demonstrate their commitment to quality, by
providing the “vision and inspiration” (McColl et al., 1998, p.251), which reflect a
company’s philosophy and policies and “provides its employees with a standard by
which to measure their behaviours” (Kondo, 2002b, p.341). Wakaya’s vision
statement was created by David Gilmour (DG), and is a reflection not only of his
belief in, and dedication to, providing the customer with excellent service, but also his
benevolent philanthropic personality, and strong belief in environmental conservation
and community participation with a particular focus on educating children. Although
differences exist between mission and vision statements, with mission statements
focusing on strategic operational objectives, and vision statements promoting elements
of corporate values many companies combine the two (Sufi et al., 2003), as TWC has.
Either way, they are both important communication tools for conveying the objectives,
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aspirations and values of a company to both their internal and external stakeholders
(Sufi et al., 2003).
VISION & MISSION STATEMENTS
Mission or vision statements express the main purpose of an organisation
(McColl et al., 1998), in the form of clear realistic objectives, and in many cases these
statements are combined into either a ‘Mission’ or ‘Vision’ statement (Sufi & Lyons,
2003). These statements are frequently “based on the founding values of
entrepreneurs, although increasingly generated by professional managers with an eye
to internal and external stakeholders” (Sufi et al., 2003, p.255). Although mission
statements are thought to be an integral part of a company’s corporate strategy by
influencing employee performance, research conducted by Sufi et al. (2003), found no
significant relationship that this was so. However, Sufi et al. (2003, p.255), accept
that mission statements play a key role in “company strategic planning processes” and
can help guide employees “towards achieving the organisation’s goal[s]” (McColl et
al., 1998, p.96).
Employee empowerment initiatives need to be analysed in conjunction with
existing organisational policies, procedures and cultures, thus mission/vision
statements also must be taken into consideration, given that they are the basic
statement of an organisation’s goals and values (Wilkinson, 1998; McColl et al.,
1998; Honold, 1999).
TWC’s vision statement not only clearly states their customer orientation and
the luxury resort experience and quality services they offer at the resort, but also their
commitment to ecologically sound environmental practices and conservation of local
Fijian culture and traditions. It also reflects the dedication of the owners and
managers to responsible tourism and philanthropic commitment to the future of
children.
Findings from the employee questionnaire in Appendix 1 also clearly
demonstrated that employees all understand the importance of TWC’s customer
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service goals and operating policies and procedures and all agree that in reality they
care about the quality of service they deliver and satisfying guests’ needs.
Furthermore, they believe that their guests are also satisfied with the level of service
that they provide. The values behind the vision for Wakaya have been well
communicated to employees and they all have a clear understanding of what the
Wakaya ‘experience’ entails. As a participant observer, I can also strongly confirm
that this is the case. From my own observations, and discussions with employees,
irrespective of their department or job position, they understand the Wakaya vision
statement, and go out of their way to fulfil the goals of the vision in practice.
Furthermore, guests are delighted with the service they get and constantly comment on
the genuine care and friendliness, that employees show them during their varied
service encounters.
COMMUNICATION
Many post-modern organisations have become flatter by removing middle
management and supervisors, thus improving communication by requiring everyone
“to go direct to the source of the information” (Sykes et al., 1997, p.95). This
approach has created legitimate empowerment as employees at lower levels are
engaged in decision-making. Furthermore, there is an increased flow of information
up to management, and down to employees.
TWC is an extremely ‘flat’ organisation with RM as General Manager, assisted
by a few (6) departmental managers or supervisors, and departmental employees at the
resort. The thrice-weekly management meetings, and weekly employee meetings are
all conducted by RM personally, and relevant outcomes communicated to employees.
He also meets first thing every morning with the Food & Beverage department, to
design the daily menus based on the availability of fresh produce each day.
The stringent systems that have been developed for each department in the
form of checklists, operational policies and procedures are all well understood by
employees, and provide efficient forms of accountability and feedback to supervisors
and management. He operates an open-door system where all employees have access
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to both each other and to relevant supervisors, managers or himself via mobile phone
and internal telephone connections.
However, the extent to which employees feel comfortable approaching him
directly with their problems, even during meetings, is questionable given the high
level of power distance that exists within Fijian cultures (Hofstede, 1984).
Example: Data gathered from in-depth interviews show that where
departments e.g. Food & Beverage are run by self-managing teams divided
into Kitchen and Waitressing and Bartending with no formal supervisor, some
employees express the preference for one of them to be put in charge, and take
over the formal role and responsibility for the department. This they felt
would make them more comfortable with reporting problems and incidents,
which occurred at work. They would prefer to have some form of authority to
report to, between them and top level management, i.e. RM himself.
A possible explanation for this could be that culturally, indigenous Fijians have
an intermediary who speaks for them when dealing with higher levels of
authority or chiefs. Since our cultural backgrounds are an innate part of our
work behaviour, this may be a desire for the continuation of an existing
cultural practice, to exist in the workplace. Another factor, could also be the
high level of respect for RM, and desire to please, that employees have, which
prevents them from conveying unfavourable information or problems.
Finally, in Food & Beverage, apart from a few chefs and a bartender, all the
employees are indigenous Fijian females. Given that traditional Fijian society
is predominantly Masculine (Hofsted, 1984) and displays high levels of
uncertainty avoidance, the existence of an extra level of authority e.g.
Spokesperson or Team Leader, may make them more comfortable, and give
rise to more constructive feedback and communication.
However, given my personal observations at TWC, this is an improvement that
will only increase the efficiency of what is already a well thought out system of
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communication and accountability. Employees at TWC have an excellent
understanding of their policies and procedures, together with the importance of the
need for two-way communication between them and supervisors of management. The
results of the employee questionnaire (See Appendix 1, Question 24) showed that all
employees agreed that it was important to report any frontline decisions they had made
to the relevant supervisor or manager, and in reality, 90% of them did this.
An observation made by the HRM consultant with regard to supervisors and
middle managers, in Fiji hotels and resorts, was that they needed to also be trained as
leaders. However, in her experience she had found that they were promoted without
the prerequisite training and expected by management to perform. A cultural
interpretation of why this type of expectation may not work, could be the high levels
of uncertainty avoidance experienced by local cultures (See Chapter 3). Where
employees feel threatened by situations they perceive as out of their control, they are
likely to feel more comfortable with structured clear strict codes of conduct (Hofstede,
1984; Saffu, 2003). TWC provides them with this in the form of clear operating
policies and procedures, manuals and checklists. It seems it is only with verbal
upward communication, that employees express any form of discomfort. However,
some supervisors also express uncertainty with downward communication to
employees in the form of training and problem solving approaches.
Example: Data collected from the open-ended questions on the employee
questionnaire showed that some of the supervisors, although trained, stated
they would feel more confident training new employees or problem solving, if
they had more formal training in these skills. This desire for formal training
courses, was a frequent comment by employees, both in the questionnaire and
in-depth interviews. However, through my own observation and in-depth
interviews with RM, employees are given thorough
on-the-job training, and, where required, certification, to give them the skills to
do their jobs. My explanation of this perceived ‘lack’ of training is explained
by semantics. It is my personal observation, that because they may not have
been sent on any formal courses, at a formal institution e.g. Hotel and Catering
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School, Fiji Institute of Technology, they did not feel that they had the
training. The in-depth training they underwent at the resort, daily and weekly
meetings and on the job problem solving exercises they undergo whenever a
problem arises, does not register in their minds as ‘training’.
These differences in meanings regarding ‘training’ would, in my opinion, be
easily dealt with either by communication from RM in the form of an explanation that
on-the-job training is not only normal in other organisations, but a legitimate form of
disseminating knowledge and skill building. Alternatively, by sending supervisors on
short courses, at vocational institutions, this would provide them with security, in the
form of some sort of certification, from a recognised formal institution. This may
reassure them that the skills they possess are those they need to do their jobs well, and
alternatively may provide them with different ideas and practices that they can
implement.
TWC provides adequate facilities for both upward and downward
communication, thus it is the degree to which employees feel comfortable with
contributing to these forms of communication, that affect the effectiveness of the
existing processes.
Departments at TWC all function exceptionally well as separate units,
however, results of the employee questionnaires and in-depth interviews show that
many employees would like more feedback, more interaction between departments,
and, in some instances, increased communication between teams. They all
recognised the importance of horizontal communication, but some employees stated
that this did not happen as often as they would like. A further element of horizontal
communication that arose in the findings of this study was more closely related to the
need for recognition from other staff, rather than any lack of information to perform
their individual roles or tasks.
Example: In some cases, employees expressed a desire for feedback on
whether or not guests enjoyed a particular meal or activity, and that they did
not receive personal thanks from both guests or other employees or
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management as much as they would like for services they had provided. This
was especially the case for backstage employees in departments or sections
that had little or no direct contact with guests e.g. Housekeeping, Kitchens, and
Reservations. This type of recognition at no time was related to monetary
awards, but more to do with intrinsic needs for recognition that they had done
well or that guests were delighted with the service they had provided. Chefs
for example, expressed extreme pleasure at receiving feedback either from
guests directly or from waitresses that different dishes they had made had been
enjoyed. They listed this as one of the things they enjoyed most about their
jobs.
In my experience, TWC has an excellent system of communication and
feedback when dealing with their external customers i.e. guests, and if this practice
was further developed to apply to their internal customers i.e. fellow employees it may
go along way to increasing employee satisfaction.
A simple solution to this would be to encourage employees, especially
frontline employees to provide feedback that is more positive to backstage employees
with regard to both internal and external customer satisfaction. Perhaps backstage
employees like the Head Chefs could come out and meet the guests at meals, giving
them more contact and interaction with guests. Furthermore, it is well known that
negative ‘moments of truth’ are more likely to be communicated than positive
(Zeithaml et al., 2000), and in the case of TWC where high quality is an expected
element of the luxury nature of the service provided, an enhanced service experience
is likely to be seen by an employee as normal or everyday. Thus, the need to convey
the thanks or pleasure from a guest or another employee is likely to be overlooked.
However, if employees were explained the importance of this type of recognition as an
informal intrinsic reward, to fellow employee, and encouraged to develop this type of
communication or feedback, this problem could be easily solved.
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Organisational values
As previously stated, employees of TWC have a clear understanding of the
company vision statement, and the organisational values and commitment to excellent
service that it conveys. They also fully understand not only the company’s operating
procedures and policies, but that they are expected to continuously exceed customer
expectations, and go out of their way to ensure that guests’ needs are fulfilled (See
Appendix 1, Results of Employee Questionnaire). Furthermore, TWC’s
organisational values are evident in the attention to detail that is spent on every aspect
of the service they provide. Careful planning and operational procedures and policies
have been implemented in every department, to ensure that employees deliver
consistent quality services. These procedures are also supported by continuous
checks by both supervisors and management, with each formal check requiring a
signature on the part of the individual responsible.
RM also firmly believes that the only way consistently high service quality is
maintained is through constant checking, follow-up, and then checking again in
person. It is not good enough to take someone’s word that a task has been done, you
need to see for yourself. He also states that this is even more so when dealing with
our local cultures where in many cases ‘yes’ can mean “no” or “I am getting round to
it”, or “I am going to do it” etc. He states that because his employees, including his
managers and supervisors, know that he will ultimately personally check any task he
has asked them to do in person, and they do not know when he is likely to do this,
when they tell him “yes” it better mean “yes”. This personal follow-up on the part of
RM I have seen on numerous occasions, and no task is too small for him to check:
from the removal of coconuts from palm trees, to checking the merchandising of the
wet bar in guest bures, to food stocks in the resort kitchen for the next day’s meals,
etc.
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TRAINING AND SKILLS PROVISION
Successful employee empowerment requires changes in behaviour on the part
of both management and employees. Management needs to move from traditional
controlling to enabling roles, to encourage employees to play a more participative role
within the organisation (Jones et al., 1996, Lashley, 2001). New management skills
needed to achieve this pertain to:
Co-ordination, facilitation, commitment and trust, communication, knowing
more precisely what your people can and cannot do, and promoting learning
and employee ownership of what they do (Erstad, 1997, p. 327).
Management also needs to have a strong understanding of organisational
values, proficiency building, increasing employee self-esteem, delegating and
coaching if they are to foster an environment of employee participation (Potter,1994).
Increased employee participation and commitment is possible if management and
employees share the same vision and values (Nicholls, 1995).
In the case of TWC, top management, i.e. RM and LM, and the owners, DG &
JG, have a clear understanding of the management skills required for facilitating an
empowering environment. However, middle management and supervisors may
benefit from more specific training, as described by Erstad (1997), and Nicholls
(1995), if only to increase their skills at getting their employees to “work beyond their
present capabilities” (Erstad, 1997, p. 327; Nicholls, 1995). This observation is
based on personal observations of middle management skills at TWC, and data
collected from the study in which some supervisors and managers expressed their need
to undergo further training in order to pass on the benefits of this knowledge to
employees under their supervision. However, the lack of certain skills in middle
management and supervisors is more than compensated by the fact that TWC is a
small organisation, and RM, as general manager, plays such a focal role in overseeing
all areas of the resort. His passion and attention to detail, ensures that any slight
deficiencies on the part of his managerial support team, are not overlooked, and the
smooth efficient operation of the resort is guaranteed. Whether or not the same
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success would be achievable in a larger organisation is questionable, and is a further
justification for delegation of authority and empowerment at all levels of an
organisation. In the opinion of TWC’s HRM external consultant, in fact, this
management approach, rarely exists in larger hotels and resorts in Fiji, due to the lack
of adequate training of both top and middle level managers, and supervisors.
Interpersonal skills
As previously explained in Chapter 3, indigenous Fijians have an innate ability
to relate to people of all levels, are naturally friendly and caring, and enjoy socialising
and mixing with people in general. These personality traits, translate very well to
tourism and hospitality related jobs. Even so, at TWC, Robert personally interviews
all new employees, irrespective of position, and declares that primarily, recruitment is
based on personality and interpersonal skills, followed by formal qualifications and
experience. In his opinion traditional work skills can always be taught, but the right
personality and interpersonal skills are inborn. Not only are interpersonal skills
necessary to provide the high level of quality service expected by TWC and their
guests, they are also essential, when living within a small island community like the
staff village. So not only does RM consider potential employees in the light of
specific job positions, but he also considers their ability to get on with his existing
employees, so as to maintain both a stable work and home environment at the resort.
Example: Although the frontline employees at TWC are predominantly
indigenous Fijians, with a few employees of mixed Pacific Island and Fijian
extraction, many of the backstage, specialist trade employees are Indo-Fijian.
Given problems he has experienced in the past with mixing the two main
cultures, he has divided the staff village into an indigenous Fijian and Pacific
Island section, and an Indo-Fijian section. This he has found to work as when
socialisation takes place it is voluntary and not affected by different cultural
values, religion, customs and traditions. Employee meals are cooked
separately with different menus at work, and specific religious requirements
e.g. vegetarian and halal food for Indo-Fijian employees are considered and
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catered to. All employees seem very happy with these arrangements and the
care and planning that has gone into these issues, and any previous conflicts
based on cultural differences have been removed. Also, staff children of all
races, attend the same primary school on Wakaya and learn to socialise with
each other at an early age, which one would hope creates more positive future
relationships. This is yet another example of attention to what to many may
seem as an unimportant detail, but to RM, an important element of providing a
good work and home environment for all his employees.
This is a prime example of cross-cultural management within a local Fiji
context, which would not only be applicable elsewhere in Fiji, but, to many Western
managers, may be considered politically incorrect. RM also says that he fully
understands that a lot of his management of the two main local cultures is influenced
by his colonial background and ancestry, however, both he and his employees
understand and accept where he is coming from. The high regard and respect
afforded him by all his employees, is not only a reflection of his personal business
skills and personality, but an acknowledgement of the care and personal involvement
he has in all aspects of their daily lives.
CLEAR ORGANISATIONAL LIMITS & BOUNDARIES
Clear organisational limits and boundaries within which a service is performed
should be developed from a company’s strategic service vision. As a vision that has
been formulated by organisational leadership “can be lost in the telling by successive
levels of middle managers, [leaders need to establish] those elements that are not
negotiable” by management (Heskett, Sasser & Hart, 1990, p.28). This is essential
where there is a focus on the empowerment of frontline personnel. As the findings
show, not only does TWC have a clear vision statement, which focuses on the
customer, and high quality service, the vision is the foundation from which
organisational objectives have been set. The careful research and planning that has
gone into the design of TWC’s service delivery processes means that limits and
boundaries vary, dependent on different individual services. Thus, the degree to
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which the autonomy to make adjustments to the service, affect customer satisfaction,
and create the potential for enhanced service delivery strongly influences the limits to
employee empowerment.
Example: Housekeeping works to strictly implemented scripts and checklists
with regard to the make-up and cleaning of bures. The only latitude in this
process is where guests request extra items for their individual use. This
ensures that the high standards of service required for the continuous upkeep of
the bures is maintained.
In contrast, in departments like activities e.g. deep-sea fishing, diving, hikes
and treks etc.; or Food & Beverage (F & B) – e.g. Private picnics, Meal
choices, Special celebrations, Weddings etc., employees are allowed more
discretion to deliver enhanced services to the customer. However, in F & B,
basic menu items are controlled by manuals with recipes and photographs of
exactly how items are to be prepared and presented. Guests therefore, can
request special selections with individual preferences regarding ingredients,
etc. However, the chefs are still required to prepare and deliver the meal
within a framework of limits and boundaries designed by RM. Most of the
tasks have specific time limits within which goals must be achieved, or a
service delivered. Time limits are important in Fiji, in a society where
attitudes towards time are significantly different to those of their
predominantly Western/American guests (See Chapters 3 ).
Attitudes towards time also affect operational efficiency, and in Fiji where
attitudes towards time are significantly influenced by traditional lifestyles, this
can affect punctuality e.g. work attendance, appointments with guests etc. and
the precision required for developing and using clear operational plans and
schedules (Qalo, 1997). RM states that the use of strict time limits and
boundaries ensures that in the main traditional attitudes towards time are
overcome.
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Employees at TWC, are well trained in their job roles, and understand the
limits and procedures they must adhere to, within their job responsibilities. They
also understand that having clear plans and procedures helps their functional teams
performance, and do not have problems with the limits and boundaries TWC sets for
them. Even where restrictions are placed on their private lives, they accept that these
are not only beneficial to their private lifestyles and create harmony and stability
within the staff village, they also understand how they benefit their work performance.
This is due to clear explanations presented by RM, LM and DG, regarding why these
boundaries have been set. These explanations are supported by real life examples of
past incidents, or potential problems that may arise, and this enforces staff acceptance.
Culturally, employees display a high level of power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, and in the case of female employees, Masculine/Femininity (Hofstede,
1984), with a cultural acceptance of male authority figures. All genders have a high
regard for authority figures and leaders, so their relationship with RM and other
leaders at the resort is based on trust and respect, and this is a key determinant of their
acceptance of any limits or boundaries that are placed on them.
Even where they are allowed the autonomy to improvise at the behest of a
guest, within frontline encounters, they are all aware of their need to report their
actions to the relevant supervisors, manager, or RM. This ensures that everyone is
kept in the picture daily, regarding any out of the ordinary adjustments to services that
were made to fulfil a guest’s request. Not only does this benefit basic processes like
stock inventory and orders, e.g. when requests for special brands of beverages, etc. are
requested, but this is also used as the basis to plan any future similar activity, and go
beyond guest expectations.
How these limits and boundaries are communicated and used at TWC can also
be related to elements of Wilkinson’s (1998) empowerment model (See Chapter 4).
For example, as it relates to task autonomy, information sharing, upward problem
solving and even some elements of self-management, where, for example, TWC
Supervisors or Managers are the frontline service employees, and through
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participatory decision making and knowledge sharing of their experiences, they can
assist in service improvements. As TWC is an extremely flat organisation, supervisors
and management often play the roles of frontline service providers e.g. conducting
sightseeing and historical tours of the island and private homesteads, etc. and for VIP
and Vale O, guests who are dealt with by management and RM personally.
CLEAR GOALS AND EXPECTATIONS OF EMPLOYEES
These are closely related to organisational limits and boundaries. TWC
employees, as shown by data from the survey questionnaire (See Appendix 1), clearly
understand the luxury guest experience the resort offers, and the goals and
expectations that TWC has of them. They confirm that they are constantly encouraged
to exceed guest expectations, and that fulfilling guest needs is the primary factor in
any service encounter they perform. The customer orientation of the resort highly
influences employee decisions and actions, and consequently affects resultant high
levels of guest satisfaction (See Appendix 1 & 2). This is further influenced by both
cultural and individual characteristics of employees, as their decisions are also based
on the fact that they genuinely care about pleasing their guests, and take pride in
achieving this. Research and anecdotal evidence shows that happy guests make happy
employees, as expressed in the Customer-Employee ‘Satisfaction Mirror’ in Figure 2
(See Chapter 4). (Heskett et al., 1997).
TEAMWORK
Teamwork is an initiative that has developed as a reflection of Japanese
management techniques and society, which promotes high levels of group work to
“gain competitive advantage” (Lashley, 2001, pp. 69), through increased quality and
productivity. The different teams at TWC were explained in detail in Chapter 6.
However, slight ambiguities existed in the data from employees, which, in my
opinion, are related more to semantics and lack of understanding of the meanings
associated with teams and their importance. As indigenous Fijian society is
predominantly collectivist (Hofstede, 1984; Saffu, 2003), what a western employee
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may interpret as teamwork is to a TWC employee an innate part of their cultural
behaviour, so nothing unusual. Participant observation confirmed that TWC staff
work very closely and well together, in a relaxed atmosphere of camaraderie that gives
guests the perception that the services they are performing are effortless. There is
little external evidence of the detailed planning and research that has been undertaken
to develop the processes that employees engage in to deliver quality service
experiences.
SUPPORTIVE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Organisations are increasingly using customer orientation as a means to gain
competitive advantage in a dynamic international marketplace. Developing a culture
of customer service orientation is a long-term investment that involves the
consideration of external and internal customer needs. Furthermore, customer
orientation must be communicated to management and employees. Successful
implementation of this strategy is dependent on all parts of the organisation working
together as a whole. Failure in one department can directly influence the
effectiveness of another, or create problems.
Apart from physical and psychological evidence of a supportive work
environment, TWC uses information technology to improve its service quality,
monitor customer satisfaction and as a “feasible way of harnessing full operational
capability” (Teare, 1996, p.63).
Example: TWC uses Libeca database software to maintain an extensive
database of its past and future guests. Extensive research is conducted on each
guest before arrival at the resort. Guest preference records are automatically
generated on re-booking, or prior to arrival, in order that bures are individually
stocked, and employees fully briefed on guest needs and preferences.
Service delivery failures at TWC are also anticipated by using TQM poka
yoke practices in the form of their explicit step-by-step documented procedures and
manuals e.g. Check-In, Housekeeping, F & B production, etc. These poka yoke
systems are “automatic warnings or controls [i.e. quality control mechanisms, put] in
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place to ensure mistakes are not made” (Zeithaml et al., 2001, p176). Careful
planning and consideration has been given to designing these procedures, to ensure
that they fail-safe their service and do it right the first time (R. Miller, Personal
Communication, April, 2002). TWC is committed to providing a luxury service
within a culture of ‘zero defects’ (Zeithaml, 2001), and believes that there is always
room for improvement. They continuously search their external environment for
innovations and developments that may improve their service quality and enhance
customer satisfaction.
Furthermore, many ancillary services at the resort are company owned and
managed on site, providing increased quality control through vertical integration e.g.
Repair and Maintenance of transport, carpentry, handicrafts, organic vegetable
gardens, orchid and antherium conservatories, etc.
INCREASED AUTONOMY/LATITUDE
According employees increased autonomy and latitude is intended to increase
responsiveness to changes in demand, improve service recovery and service quality
thus positively affecting customer satisfaction (Lashley, 2001).
As previously explained at TWC employees understand their luxury service
offering, and are given autonomy and latitude within set limits and guidelines,
dependent on the departmental functions, and specific guest needs. Where decisions
may be complicated, they have processes in place where decisions are made with the
consultation of supervisors and management. Where services are less complex or
decisions need to be made instantly, they do this and then report their actions to the
relevant supervisor or manager. Consequently, service quality is maintained as their
autonomy is also conducted within a framework of clear limits, accountability and
responsibility for their actions (Honold, 1999).
As TWC has planned for practically all eventualities, through research and
role-playing, many of the unusual requests have been provided with broad guidelines.
For a workforce that culturally can display high levels of Uncertainty/Avoidance
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(Hofstede, 1984; Saffu, 2003), this can be very reassuring for the staff, and
encourages them to choose to be empowered. The extent to which they may make
this choice if they did not have these guidelines, or consultative access to
management, needs to be researched further, with due consideration given to cultural
factors, like Uncertainty Avoidance and risk taking.
RECOGNITION AND REWARDS
These have been defined and data collected from management interviews,
participant observations and employee survey discussed in Chapter 6. Increasing
evidence from recent studies support the need for reward and recognition programmes
and the influence they have on employee commitment, loyalty, satisfaction, service
quality and customer satisfaction (Gilbert, 1998). With increased attention being
placed on empowerment, rewards and recognition should address both individual and
team performance e.g. Best Department, Employee of the Month or Year, etc.
(Marguiles et al., 1995; Born et al., 1996; Gilbert, 1998; Paraskevas, 2001).
As addressed in Chapter 3, the collectivist nature of South Pacific Island
cultures means that customary obligations and relationships have a significant
influence on individual behaviour (Hofstede, 1984; Ramamoorthy et al., 1998; Saffu,
2003). Such influences, it is suggested, requires organisations to recognise and create
more culture specific motivational strategies and rewards (Nabalarua, 1999). TWC
has many culture specific non-monetary rewards (See Chapter 6). However, data
collected from open-ended questions in the questionnaire, displayed a significant
interest by employees in a more western form of reward and recognition, namely
‘Employee of the Month Awards’. Some of the resorts in Fiji e.g. Turtle Island have
these monthly awards, with winners being acknowledged in company placed notices
in local newspapers. However, although TWC would probably not want to go that
far, if implemented, winners could receive acknowledgement in staff offices, notice
boards, Paradise Times and in person or as groups. A more cultural interpretation of
this request could be that due to the collectivist nature of their traditional culture, they
have close relationships with employees at other hotels and resorts, and either aspire to
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have similar rewards, so as not to feel left out, or they feel that the competition might
be good for their performance. These requests were mainly placed by supervisory
staff, and TWC should consider this type of incentive as a potentially inexpensive
strategy for increasing employee satisfaction and self-efficacy (van Oudtshoorn, 1993;
Lashley, 2001).
EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION
Flatter organisational structures have “led to lack of opportunities for
advancement” (Sykes et al., 1997, p. 95), decreasing the opportunities for employee
promotion to a higher level. It is necessary, therefore, for organisations to develop
alternative means of providing challenging and rewarding work roles. More flexible
work processes can not only reduce costs, but can increase employee satisfaction.
This functional flexibility can include the use of strategies like: task integration,
multi-skilling and localised responsibility
Task integration. This has two forms: 1) horizontal integration in which job
classifications widen and workers are able to rotate between a variety of tasks,
and
2) vertical integration, where manual workers take on some policy
implementation and conceptualising functions.
Multi-skilling. The development of workers in broad based skills so that they
are then involved in quality control, maintenance and direct operation of
manufacturing equipment.
Localised responsibility. The sharing of supervision responsibility on a
collective basis between the members of the team. Middle management
functions are re-appropriated by workers (Sykes et al., 1997, p. 95), e.g. rotate
that roles of Team Leaders.
The results in Chapter 6, show that TWC practices elements of all the
strategies stated above and, given other data on employees that has been discussed,
one might deduce that employees at TWC display a high level of satisfaction, which is
reflected in the quality of service they provide and guest satisfaction. Data also
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showed that employees received support from TWC in the form of training and skill
provision, and, in many cases, multi-skilling, promotion from within, monetary and
non-monetary rewards, recognition, and empowerment, all within an idyllic natural
setting. Further evidence of employee satisfaction is evidenced by the low turnover
rate, and length of employment, with the longest term being 17 years. The high return
rate of guests over the years can influence employee satisfaction, as not only is this
proof that they are providing an high quality consistent service, but friendships have
developed over time, and this more personal relationship with guests is important to
many of the employees and guests.
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
As competition increases and customers become more aware of alternatives, it
is important for service providers to understand the expectations, perceptions and
purchasing behaviour of their customers, so that they can provide their potential
customers with services based on increased perceived value. "To the extent that a
company [positions] itself as providing superior value to a selected target market,
either by offering lower prices or by providing more benefits to justify higher prices, it
gains competitive advantage" (Kotler et al., 1999, p. 221). However, it is insufficient
to make superior promises. The company must follow through by delivering the
promised service and high quality standards.
Competitive benchmarking based on the Japanese theory of dantotsu (the best
of the best) necessitates that a company continuously measures its "products, services,
and practices against the toughest competitors" (Zeithaml et al., 2000, p.245). The
Wakaya Club continuously monitors reviews on other resorts, both internationally e.g.
AmanResorts, and in Fiji e.g. Turtle Island, Vatulele, Yasawa Island Resort, Nukubati,
Waidigi, etc., that are perceived by potential or existing customers as their competition
even when, in many cases, they do not consider themselves to be servicing the same
niche market.
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SUMMARY
The primary findings of this study have been discussed in this chapter, using
existing academic literature on services management, employee empowerment, cross-
cultural factors – based on Hofstede’s Theory on National Cultures, and the case study
findings from The Wakaya Club Resort in Fiji.
For brevity, and to decrease repetition, conclusions to this chapter will be
included as part of the conclusions of this thesis, in Chapter 8, which follows.
Chapter 8 will also address recommendations for future study as they relate to the
research problem of delivering consistent quality service within the tourism and
hospitality industries, both internationally and within the context of Fiji.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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Tourism and hospitality are complex services, and maintaining high quality
consistent services can mean that the roles played by frontline employees require
interactive relationships between employees and guests, and may be difficult to
standardise, as they involve elements of autonomy and discretion so employees can
meet or exceed guest expectations (Sherman, 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
Tourism and hospitality services in Fiji constantly face problems related to
delivering and maintaining consistent high quality services. Service management
related literature claims that significant benefits are to be gained in services, with the
implementation of employee empowerment, especially with regard to frontline
services (Lashley, 2001). This thesis has explored the concept of employee
empowerment, the extent to which it is able to contribute towards consistent service
quality, and whether the outcomes of the study could be applied to tourism and
hospitality services in Fiji.
The analysis of the findings from the case study of TWC, evaluated against
academic literature, has culminated in the emergence of a number of conclusions
related to this study.
1. In Chapter 2, related literature on service quality and employee empowerment
revealed that empowerment can offer many benefits for tourism and hospitality related
services (Lashley, 2001). These benefits are predominantly related to increased
service quality through faster responsiveness to customer needs, and the potential for
positive service recovery, resulting in increases in both customer and employee
satisfaction. Where employees are concerned, increased satisfaction is linked to
feelings of autonomy, self-efficacy and self-esteem, with customers receiving the
benefits of consistent higher quality, interactive/responsive services.
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However, the form, extent, and implementation of empowerment, differs for
each organisation (Honold, 1999; Klidas, 2002). Consequently, for organisations to
gain the benefits of employee empowerment, it is necessary that they consider the
diverse forms and meanings of empowerment, their managerial intentions and the
contexts within which employees are empowered (Lashley, 2001; Klidas 2002).
2. The diverse contexts and managerial intentions can signify varied outcomes
and benefits for both management and employees, and are further influenced by the
levels of standardisation or customisation required of different service encounters
(Lashley, 2001). Leaders are encouraged to create a work environment within which
employees can choose to be empowered, and each organisation must develop and
define a form of empowerment that is suited to their own unique cultures and
requirements (Honold, 1999), as well as those of their employees.
3. The review of literature on cross-cultural management (Chapter 3) questions
the extent to which Western managerial concepts are beneficial in motivating a multi-
ethnic workforce, especially where employees are strongly influenced by deep-rooted
cultural traditions and expectations (Qalo, 1997; Nabalarua, 1999; Ogbor &
Williams, 2003; Saffu, 2003). In tourism and hospitality, the influence of national
culture on employee motivation and behaviour is a key consideration (Mwaura, Sutton
& Roberts, 1998; Harris et al., 2000; Banutu-Gomez, 2003), especially in LDCs with
high levels of expatriate ownership and management of tourism plant (Page et al.,
2001). Furthermore, expatriate managers may not have the cross-cultural skills to
lead and manage the cultural differences of their employees effectively (Bjerke, 1999;
Banutu-Gomez, 2002). Therefore the extent to which a western management
technique (Klidas, 2002), like employee empowerment, is transferable to a multi-
ethnic workforce is dependent not only on the cross-cultural abilities of individual
leaders and managers (Bjerke, 1999; Banutu-Gomez, 2002), but also the national
cultures of employees, and how this influences their willingness to be empowered
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(Hand, 1995). Western management approaches may be key determinants to failure
rather than success (Harris et al., 2002).
Cultural considerations must be explored when trying to assess the suitability
of management techniques like employee empowerment, as successful implementation
may require that it is redesigned to suit not only the national context, but in the case of
a country like Fiji, which is populated by two main ethnic cultures, the individual
ethnic cultures of employees. Discourse on national cultures can imply that only one
culture exists within a country, ignoring the diversity that can exist within countries
and “the wide variation of individual experiences within that culture” especially as
they apply to class and status (McGuire, O’Donnell, Garavan, Sughir, & Murphy,
2002, p. 30). Furthermore, peoples’ assumptions are culture-bound and this
influences “their expectations of how they should be treated at work and how they will
respond to managerial practices” (McGuire et al., 2002, p. 30).
4. Apart from using established management literature to analyse this study, the
Fiji context needs to examine potential cultural differences that may exist, due to
differences in national cultures, from those of the western dominated management
theory. A well-used theoretical framework for analysis is Hofstede’s (1984) Theory
on national cultures (See Chapter 3). The main dimensions of this theory are Power
Distance, Individualism/ Collectivism; Masculinity/Femininity;
Uncertainty/Avoidance and Time. This framework was very useful for analysing the
cultural aspects of this study, and also makes it easy to replicate, or compare future
cross-cultural research in this area, in Fiji.
Organisations in Fiji practice top-down traditional (western) management
approaches, where bosses tell, and employees do (Reddy, 2001). This management
style does not create an environment that is conducive to the implementation of
employee empowerment, which requires managers to act as leaders and coaches.
Local employees are unlikely to choose to be empowered without a supportive
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environment, given the high levels of power distance and uncertainty avoidance that
exists with traditional indigenous Fijian, and Indo-Fijian male-dominated societies that
accept disparate degrees of power both within organisations and society (Saffu, 2003).
Empowering managers promotes autonomy and encourages employees to take
responsibility for, and actively participate in, decision-making within frontline service
encounters, thus developing previously untapped human resources, and theoretically
enabling increased service quality and consistency (Lashley, 2001).
Multi-ethnic workforces in Fiji are further influenced by the fact that within
the one country, indigenous Fijian employees belong to a collectivist culture, and the
Indo-Fijians an individualistic culture. This can have a bearing on management
approaches, especially with regard to strategies like teamwork, rewards and
recognition, training and skill provision, employee selection, interpersonal skills,
upward/horizontal communication, providing a supportive work environment, and
employee expectations and satisfaction (McGuire et al., 2002). For example:
monetary rewards and incentives may be more successful at motivating Indo-Fijian
employees, whereas non-monetary culture specific rewards or a combination of both
may be more successful at motivating indigenous Fijian employees.
Furthermore, for Pacific Islanders human relationships involving trust,
commitment and teamwork are complex, and strongly influenced by diverse cultural
backgrounds and traditional obligations, therefore the assumption of different
motivational factors is needed (Qalo, 1997; Nabalarua, 1999). Within Fiji, cultural
factors must be considered if a Western management approach, such as employee
empowerment, is to provide any significant benefit to organisations searching for a
solution to the problem of delivering consistent quality services, both generally and
within tourism and hospitality.
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For management in Fiji, empowerment requires a paradigm shift in both
management and leadership style, and removal of the existing autocratic directive
management, in favour of leadership that is more participatory and democratic
(Lashley, 2001). Lack of a supportive work environment could negatively impact
service delivery and quality, as Fiji employees may be reluctant to accept the
responsibility and accountability that comes with empowerment due to high levels of
Uncertainty/Avoidance (See Chapter 3).
The last dimension of Hofstede’s (1984), Theory of national cultures, is Time
and in a country where time is valued differently to the West (Reddy, 2001), this has
significant repercussions for maintaining service quality and consistency, especially
within tourism and hospitality (See Chapter 3).
5. Literature on employee empowerment (Chapter 2), and models of
Empowerment (Chapter 4), agree to difficulties with definition, and organisations who
are considering its use, must make a long-term commitment to its implementation,
based on the development of a company culture of empowerment (Erstad, 1997;
Honold, 1999; Lashley, 2001). Furthermore empowerment is multi-dimensional,
with different models covering dimensions that include: leadership, clearly
understood vision and values, careful employee selection, training and skill provision,
all levels of communication, teamwork, supportive work environments – including
managerial support, innovative processes, autonomy and latitude to meet customer
needs, clear organisational limits and boundaries, clear expectations of employees,
recognition and rewards, periodic measurement of customer satisfaction, and
monitoring and reviewing of internal processes.
The results of the case study on Wakaya (See Chapter 6 & 7) show that
although top management at the resort, i.e. the Millers, and the Gilmours, have close
relationships with their employees that are reminiscent of the benevolent/benefactor
managerial style of a bygone colonial era (Nabalarua, 1999). This is an approach that
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is culturally acceptable within the context of Fiji, and employees admire and respect
them. RM is a firm believer in management by example. His leadership, strong
work ethic, and passion for his job as General Manager and the services TWC
provides, make him an excellent role model for his employees. Furthermore,
the role his wife Linda plays in managing the landscaping of the resort, organic
gardens and conservatories are complementary to his own business and Food and
Beverage skills.
Through the development and communication of a clear vision (See Chapter
6), careful planning, role playing, training and skill provision, anticipation of critical
incidents, attention to detail, a profound understanding of the tourism and hospitality
industry and their specific elite travel market, and finally a deep understanding of the
traditional cultural backgrounds of their predominantly indigenous Fijian, and their
smaller Indo-Fijian workforce; TWC has developed an organisational work culture,
that covers all dimensions required by the different empowerment models in Chapter
4. RM, however, states, that their creation of an environment that is conducive to
employee empowerment is inadvertent. Their intention was always to develop ways
in which they could deliver consistent high luxury services to their guests, whilst
maintaining their commitment to employing a 100% local workforce. Empowerment,
to him, is a necessary element of delivering the levels of service quality that they
expect of their employees, and their guests expect of the resort. It is highly unlikely
that they could maintain as high a level of customer satisfaction and service quality,
especially in departments like activities and F & B, if employees were not empowered
to meet guest’s immediate needs.
6. However, in my interview with TWC’s HRM consultant, it was her expert
opinion given her vast experience and knowledge of tourism and hospitality both in
Fiji and internationally, that it is Robert’s leadership, individual personality, local
knowledge, cross-cultural management skills and unrelenting passion for his work and
the maintenance of high quality services at TWC that makes the difference. Whilst the
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systems and procedures at the resort would provide a quality service without his
leadership, the ability of TWC to consistently exceed guest expectations and maintain
its place as one of the top boutique resorts in the worlds, is a reflection of Robert’s
(and to a lesser extent Linda’s) leadership and management approach. She rates him
as the top Chef and Food & Beverage expert in Fiji, and stated that for both expatriate
and local managers to be successful in leading and coaching their employees to
provide consistent quality services, they need to have the knowledge that RM has.
Expatriate managers, without knowledge or consideration of the local cultural contexts
that exist in Fiji, are unlikely to engage their employees to perform the consistent
quality services that are necessary in international tourism today.
7. The results show that TWC has, first and foremost, provided their employees
with a supportive work environment (covering every option). They have made a
strong commitment to providing them with not only the training and skills to perform
their individual roles at the resorts, but also given them the knowledge that enables
them to also fully understand the expectations of their luxury elite guests, thus further
directing the type of decisions they must engage in to fulfil their guest expectations.
A key problem, as stated by the HRM expert, in other tourism or hospitality related
organisations in Fiji, is that the employees are given insufficient training in basic skill
provision, and there is a complete disregard on the part of management to impart
significant knowledge with regard to their customers’ expectations, and needs. This
could also be because managers do not understand customer expectations themselves.
Consistent service quality cannot be maintained if there is no understanding of what
the guest expects, or needs, and structures are not put into place that are culture
specific, and anticipate local cultural factors e.g. time, uncertainty avoidance, attention
to detail, business knowledge and skills etc. that may detrimentally affect service
quality through and impede delivery. It is only after, employees have been given the
skills and relevant knowledge to perform their service consistently, that a concept like
employee empowerment can be successfully implemented within Fiji. Because TWC
has dealt with both the work and personal requirements of their employees so well,
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employee empowerment has evolved naturally as an inherent part of their service
process and works well.
8. Indigenous Fijian culture has all the prerequisites for providing their people
with the abilities to work well within an empowered organisation. Its collectivist
nature, and complex social relationships (See Chapter 6 & 7) give employees a deep
innate understanding of working in groups, which has the potential to translate
positively to teamwork in the workplace. Their peoples possess excellent
interpersonal skills and have the friendly personalities that can be encouraged and are
easily transferable to tourism and hospitality related work. Increasingly, employee
selection approaches are emphasising interpersonal skills, personalities, empathy, etc.,
over more traditional management skills that can be trained.
Therefore, if the basic human resource characteristics are inborn in the native peoples,
one might conclude that it is the lack of training and transfer of skills and knowledge,
both to employees and middle and lower level management, that prevents the solution
to the problem of maintaining consistent service quality in the tourism and hospitality
sectors in Fiji. Wakaya is a prime example that it can be done with a 100% local
workforce, so if similar policies and procedures, are implemented throughout local
organisations, this may go a long way to finding a solution to this problem.
9. Training and knowledge transfer in cross-cultural management of services
need to be given to managers, and supervisors (Banutu-Gomez, 2002; Harris et al.,
2002; McGuire et al., 2002; Ogbor et al., 2003). Furthermore, both managers and
supervisors must be encouraged to play the role of leaders and coaches, so that they
too have the skills to create supportive environments for their employees (Lashley,
2001). Taking into consideration the cultural backgrounds of their multi-ethnic
workforce, will also give them a better understanding of potential approaches they can
use to increase employee satisfaction, loyalty and commitment to organisational goals.
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10. Finally, the customer orientation/focus displayed by TWC in all aspects of its
Service design, is recommended to tourism and hospitality service providers in Fiji.
Service providers need to stop being predominantly product-led, and focus on
understanding customers and delivering services that are developed using in-depth
research, based on fulfilling the needs of each organisations selected target markets.
Information collected in this process, as shown by TWC, is then what should be used
to plan organisational operating policies and procedures, adapted to suit the cultural
contexts of a Fiji workforce. It should also be used to plan the training and skills
required, to give employees the confidence and knowledge to deliver the consistent
quality services that our tourism and hospitality industries need, to remain competitive
in a global marketplace. Furthermore, when developing customer service training
programmes, management, should research their employee’s needs and expectations
as internal customers, to the same degree they accord their guests, or external
customers (Lings, 2000).
The ultimate success of tourism and hospitality organisations, due to the prominent
role that frontline employees play in service delivery, and ultimate guest satisfaction,
is predicated on its people or employees. Service providers in Fiji need to recognise
that, for their customers to be satisfied, they need satisfied employees (Hesket et al.,
1997), and satisfied employees, empowered or otherwise, will certainly be achieved, if
the dimensions that are suggested for providing a supportive environment for
empowering organisations are applied to organisations within Fiji, in general.
Cultural considerations, within the local context are very important; however, if local
organisations do not develop the knowledge based cultures, of many of their
international competitors, they will not have the basic service management
foundations on which to build a sustainable culture of cross-cultural management,
empowerment and quality consistent services. Without a strong customer-oriented
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service foundation, creating an environment that would foster employee empowerment
is highly unlikely.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY
In undertaking this research study, I have gained a clear understanding of the
lack of academic literature that exists in relation to both employee empowerment, and
cross-cultural management within tourism and hospitality services in general. In the
context of Fiji, literature resulting from academic research is virtually non-existent.
This has also increased the overall length of this thesis, as in order to provide the local
Fiji context for this research to be understood and analysed, I have had to provide
more detailed information as the theoretical basis within to ground this research study.
Internationally, however, this is surprising, given the maturity of tourism and
hospitality sectors in the Western world and the increasing focus management research
is now placing on services, even within traditional manufacturing sectors (Zeithaml,
2001). In the case of Fiji and the South Pacific, one hopes that this gap will be slowly
remedied given the importance that regional governments are placing on using tourism
as an alternative development tool for many island nation states, whose only resources
are their people, cultures and the natural environments they inhabit.
My recommendations for future research, are direct outcomes of the
Conclusion section of this Chapter.
1. Research firstly should be conducted into the needs and expectations of the
individual target markets of tourism and hospitality service providers in Fiji
(Mattila, 1999). This will enable them to design products and services that are
customer focused, and thus create the foundations for delivering customer
satisfaction. Such research should also consider demographic, psychographic and
national cultural factors that can form the basis of customer expectations and the
benefits and value that each segment accrues to the complex bundle of services
that make up the tourism and hospitality product that Fiji offers. Furthermore,
More than smiles 203
research should not only address broad national goals for Fiji as a destination, but
the goals of different types of tourism being promoted within Fiji e.g. Mass
tourism – Sun, Sea, Sand, Family tourism, Ecotourism, Adventure Tourism,
Cultural/Indigenous Tourism, Backpacker, GAP/Volunteer tourism,
MICE/Convention tourism, Heritage Tourism, Yachting, Cruise, Dive, etc.
2. Research also needs to address Management and Leadership within tourism
organisations in Fiji, and the extent to which both expatriate and local
management, including supervisors (Hartog & Verburg, 2002), are effective in
creating the supportive environments, that foster a culture of quality service, and
consistent delivery. Within this cross-cultural management, and culture specific
factors that consider individual local situations should be addressed. A potential
strategy for maintaining competitive advantage could be that we learn to
competently manage and promote our diversity. This applies to not only the
different products that are offered and our diverse natural attractions, but also most
importantly our multi-ethnic peoples. Ultimately, it is our people, who will
provide many of the tangible and intangible experiences of tourism and hospitality
encounters, that can lead to enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty (Gremler et
al., 1999).
3. Following on from the above, another area that needs further research is Human
Resource Management. This should firstly address the basic level of training and
skill levels that exist at all levels, to include both management and employees, to
identify gaps and provide potential solutions to these problems. This research
should then form the foundation for research into more complex management
concepts like employee empowerment and the benefits it may provide the tourism
and hospitality sectors, if adapted to suit the context of individual local service
providers in Fiji. This type of research also has significant applications for
organisations in Fiji, in general, given the top-down management styles of most of
our organisations, whether local or expatriate owned.
More than smiles 204
4. Specific research should be conducted into service quality, and the extent to which
different strategies influence the maintenance of consistent service quality. For
example: where job tasks are routine and do not engage high levels of guest
discretion, roles may need to be carefully planned and scripted using checklists to
ensure job performance and accountability. However, in frontline services where
interaction between guests and employees plays a prominent role in service
quality, and guest and employee discretion are important factors, then latitude and
autonomy might be encouraged within clear limits and boundaries, and within a
supportive environment. Such strategies however, must have the full support of
management and employees, at all levels, and consider the individual and cultural
perspectives of employees.
5. Finally, another alternative area of research that focuses on this problem of service
quality is International Accreditation and Certification programmes based on
maintaining global standards of accepted quality service. This research should
also address the extent to which these programmes are suitable to the Fiji context,
or whether new culture specific standards should be developed that are more
relevant to our products and services and the people who deliver them. Another
factor that prevents most small-scale service providers from adopting these
programmes is the high cost of membership. Therefore, research should
investigate these individual organisations to discover not only what they can afford
to pay, if they were to join a quality award programme, but also realistically how
much they would be prepared to pay. Another consideration for these
standardised quality programmes is the extent to which such membership may be
enforced by law, to encourage a basic quality benchmark for different types of
tourism organisations, and promote a culture of best practice within our tourism
and hospitality industries.
In conclusion, it is only through the gradual accumulation of academic
research over time that we will be able to establish specific reasons why, within the
tourism and hospitality industries in Fiji and the South Pacific, we have difficulty
More than smiles 205
delivering consistent high quality services to our international tourists. However,
service organisations within Fiji would greatly benefit if they followed the example of
More than smiles 206
Wakaya, by developing services that not only have a customer orientation, but provide
supportive work environments that take into consideration the cultural and personal
lifestyles of their most valuable resources – their people. Through an internal
customer focus on their employees organisations have the potential to increase staff
loyalty and commitment, reduce turnover, and thus justify some of the financial costs
that developing a knowledge based organisation will entail.
More than smiles 207
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Appendix 1. Graphical analysis and discussion of Employee Questionnaire
Data collected from the survey of employees at TWC is summarised in
Chapter 6, and discussed in Chapter 7, using results of literature reviews in Chapters 2
& 3, and Employee Empowerment models in Chapter 4.
Set out below is the graphical interpretation of the Employee questionnaire that
was administered to the employees of the Wakaya Club. A 5 point Likert scale was
used for both the Importance and Agreement ratings. The ratings scales are as
follows:
Importance Rating:
1 – Very important 2 – Important3 – Fairly important 4 – Not very important5 – Not important
Agreement Rating:
1 – Strongly agree 2 – Agree 3 – Neutral 4 – Disagree 5 – Strongly disagree
Differences in percentages between the pie graphs and the bar graphs are due
to the fact that the Pie Graph Wizard on Microsoft Excel rounds percentages up to a
single figure, and the Bar Graphs are shown as one decimal point e.g. 42% Pie graph
and 41.7% Bar Graph.
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Question 1 – Importance rating
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As displayed above, employees recognise that having clear plans are important
to the effective performance of different teams. The teams at Wakaya are based on
functional departments of the resort e.g. Food and Beverage, Reception, Reservations,
Activities, Housekeeping, Landscaping, Engineering, Repair and Maintenance etc.
All respondents recognised some level of importance to this question. 41%
considered the existence of clear plans and how these affected their productivity or
performance Very Important, 45% Important, and 14% Fairly Important.
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Question 1. – Agreement rating
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As displayed in the pie graph above 45% of respondents Strongly Agreed that
their teams were productive because they had clear plans, 31% Agreed 21% were
Neutral, and 3% Strongly Disagreed.
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Question 2 – Importance rating
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As shown in the Pie Graph above, all respondents acknowledged some level of
importance in having clear responsibilities and priorities and knowing what they were.
Specifically, 31% rated the statement in Question 2 as being Very Important, 66%
Important, and 3% Fairly Important.
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Question 2 – Agreement rating
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Data from the agreement rating for the above statement showed that in reality:
45% of respondents Strongly Agreed that their responsibilities at work were clear and
known by them; and 45% Agreed, 7% Neutral and 3% Disagreed with the statement.
The respondents who disagreed and strongly disagreed work in either housekeeping or
the dive/fishing departments of the resort. As all departments of Wakaya especially
Housekeeping and Dive/Fishing/Activities departments have very explicit check lists
that employees have to use for every task it is difficult to explain these ratings.
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Question 3 – Importance rating
The Pie Graph above shows that the majority of employees at Wakaya felt that
it was important to know what their team expected of them. 56% of respondents
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thought that it was Very Important to know what their team members expected of
them, 38% Important, 3% Fairly Important, and 3% Not Important.
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Question 3 – Agreement rating
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The Pie Graph above shows that most of the respondents agreed or strongly
agreed that they knew what their team members expected of them. 63% Strongly
Agreed, 24% Agreed, 7% Neutral, 3% Disagreed and 3% Strongly Disagreed.
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Question 4 – Importance rating
Employees at TWC place some degree of importance on the statement that
everyone should understand Operating Procedures and Policies. 49% considered that
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understanding operating procedures and policies was Very Important, 34% Important
and 17% Important.
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Question 4 – Agreement rating
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Employees at TWC differed in their agreement rating of whether or not, in
reality, the statement that all employees knew policies and operating procedures was
true. 38% Strongly Agreed, 24% Agreed, 14% were Neutral, 10% Disagreed and
14% Strongly Disagreed.
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Question 5 – Importance rating
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As shown above the vast majority of employees (97%) thought that rewards
and recognition for work done were important. 52% rated the statement Very
Important, 38% Important, and 7% Fairly Important.
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Question 5 – Agreement rating
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62% of employees agreed that good work was recognised and rewarded at
TWC, with 31% selecting Strongly Agree and 31% Agree. 21% were Neutral and
17% expressed some form of disagreement that good work was recognised and
rewarded (3% Disagreed and 14% Strongly Disagreed).
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Question 6 – Importance rating
Employees all felt that it was important that they offer each constructive
feedback. 48% thought it was Very Important, 31% Important and 21% Fairly
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Important. Those employees who only rated the statement to be Fairly Important,
either worked in departments where job roles and tasks were heavily scripted, and
there was little room for them to contribute to decision-making e.g. Food and
Beverage and Landscaping, or were new and young employees, who may not feel
qualified to make any real contribution at present.
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Question 6 – Agreement rating
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Over half the employees (52%) agreed that employees provided each other
with constructive feedback at TWC. However, a large percentage (38%) had no real
opinion either way, with 10% disagreeing that this existed at all. Those who disagreed
or were neutral, as with the results of the importance rating, were in the main from
mainly backstage departments like Housekeeping, Landscaping, where their tasks are
specifically defined, scripted and monitored by checklists.
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Question 7 – Importance rating
All employees felt that it was important that their employees valued and
respected them. 42% thought this was Very Important, 41% Important, and 17% felt
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it was Fairly Important. This is an important finding, and could be related to cultural
factors and the logistics of living and working in a small closed and close-knit
community setting like the staff village at Wakaya. This will be discussed further in
Chapter 7.
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Question 7 – Agreement rating
55% of employees expressed some form of agreement that they were respected
and valued by their fellow workers, 34% Strongly Agreed and 21% Agreed.
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However, 45% were either neutral or disagreed with the fact that they experienced this
in reality.
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Question 8 – Importance rating
As shown above, 93% of employees thought it was important that they were
considerate to each other and co-operated when trying to solve problems.
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Question 8 – Agreement rating
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Just over half the employees (51%) agreed that they cared about each other and
worked together to solve problems at work, with 31% Strongly Agreeing and 21%
Agreeing. However a large percentage i.e. 31% were Neutral, and 17% disagreed
that employees cared or worked together to solve problems.
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Question 9 – Importance rating
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All employees felt that it was important that they were free to express their
feelings and opinions at work. 25% thought it was Very Important, 62% Important
and 13% Important.
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Question 9 – Agreement rating
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In reality only 46% of employees agreed that felt comfortable expressing their
feelings and opinions at work. 21% Strongly Agreed and 25% Agreed with this
statement. In these cases employees were either in more senior positions, older, had
worked at TWC for a long period of time, or combinations of these factors. Those
who disagreed with this statement either worked in backstage departments or were
younger new employees.
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Question 10 – Importance rating
97% of employees at TWC thought it was important that ideas were freely
expressed between team members and other employees at the resort. 34% thought
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this was Very Important and 42% Important. This shows a clear understanding of the
importance of communication between their own teams and other employees.
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Question 10 – Agreement rating
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Unlike the important rating for this statement, in reality the free flow of ideas
and communication between team members and other employees decreases to 45%,
with a large number i.e. 31% Neutral, and 24% disagreeing with the statement.
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Question 11 – Importance rating
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The majority of the employees (97%) felt it was important the decision-making
was put in the hands of the relevant employee. 28% thought it Very Important, 48%
Important and 21% Fairly Important.
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Question 11 – Agreement rating
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In reality only 51% of employees agreed that responsibility for decision-
making was delegated to the correct person. 27% Strongly Agreed, 24% Agreed,
28% Neutral, 14% Disagreed and 7% Strongly Disagreed.
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Question 12 – Importance rating
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All employees at TWC considered it important that they have challenging
goals at work. 45% though it was Very Important, 41% Important and 14% Fairly
Important.
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Question 12 – Agreement rating
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At TWC 73% of employees agreed that their goals at work were challenging,
52% Strongly Agreed, and 21% Agreed. 24% were Neutral and 3% Disagreed.
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Question 13 – Importance rating
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TWC employees all consider that they should always perform their best at
work. 62% thought the statement was very important and 38% Important. This
outlook will ultimately have a positive effect on the quality of service they deliver
(See Chapter 7).
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Question 13 – Agreement rating
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The agreement rating for this statement also reinforces the understanding that
employees have an excellent work ethic and most agree that they all strive to do their
best work. 59% Strongly Agreed, 31% Agreed and 10% were Neutral. A possible
explanation for the 10% Neutral rating may be that these employees have worked at
Wakaya for a long period of time, and have an excellent understanding of what is
expected of them, so perform well as a matter of course rather than any special effort
on their part.
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Question 14 – Importance rating
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All employees at TWC thought that it was important that they have a
supportive work environment, that encouraged them to perform well. 45% thought it
Very Important, 45% Important and 10% Fairly Important.
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Question 14 – Agreement rating
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86% of employees at TWC agreed that their work environment encouraged
them to work well. This supportive environment is important for delivering high
quality services and will be discussed in detail in (Chapter 7).
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Question 15 – Importance rating
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97% of TWC employees felt that it was important that they were provided with
the training and skills to perform their roles well. 42% rated the statement Very
Important, 38% Important and 17% Fairly Important. The 3% that rated the statement
unimportant was from Housekeeping, where their jobs are very scripted and
performed using extensive manuals, photos for displays and checklists. In her
understanding training involved going on a ‘course’ and she did not consider cleaning
to be a ‘skill’. Basically a case of semantics, but also highly influenced by cultural
understandings of the meanings ascribed to words like ‘training’ and ‘skills’. In their
opinion, these are not necessarily words that are applied to menial tasks like cleaning.
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Question 15 – Agreement rating
The majority of the employees (70%) at TWC agreed that they were provided
with the relevant training and skills to perform their jobs well. 49% Strongly Agreed
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and 21% Agreed. For the 30% that included 17% Neutral, 10% Disagreed and 3%
Disagreed. The employee who strongly disagreed was hired specifically for his skills
as an engineer, so did not feel that he had received any further training. The
remaining 27% is yet again a reflection of cultural understandings of the meanings of
the words ‘training’ or ‘skills’.
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Question 16 – Importance rating
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As shown 94% of employees felt that it was important that TWC had a training
and development plan for them. 46% rated this statement Very Important, 31%
Important, and 17% Fairly Important. 3% rated the statement Not very important, and
3% Not important. These employees have been at Wakaya either since it opened in
1992, or even longer than that, are trusted experienced employees, who feel secure in
their jobs, and clearly understand the role the play at the resort and that they have a job
for life.
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Question 16 – Agreement rating
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55% of the employees agreed that TWC had a training and development plan
for employees – 38% Strongly Agreed, and 17% Agreed, 24% were Neutral, with 7%
Disagreeing and 14% Strongly Disagreeing.
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Question 17 – Importance rating
The majority of employees (97%) considered it important that TWC had a
customer service training programme, with 45% rating this Very Important, 38%
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Important and 14% Fairly Important. The employee who rated this statement Not
Very Important, has been at TWC for over 17 years, and is a very senior and
experienced employee in the Landscaping Department.
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Question 17 – Agreement rating
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66% of TWC employees agreed that there was a customer service training
programme at Wakaya – 28% Strongly Agreed and 38% Agreed. 17% were Neutral
and 17% disagreed. (See Chapter 7 for detailed discussion).
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Question 18 – Importance rating
All employees at TWC considered it important they had clear customer service
goals and that they understood them. This reflects the understanding all employees
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have of the type of personalised service TWC gives its guests. 55% considered the
statement Very Important, 38% Important and 7% Fairly Important.
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Question 18 – Agreement rating
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79% of TWC employees agreed that they had clear customer service goals and
understood them – 46% Strongly Agreed and 34% Agreed. The 17% who were
Neutral and 3% who Strongly Disagreed, given the type of service standards that
exists at the resort, would seem to be yet again the result of semantics, and a lack of
understanding of the statement.
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Question 19 – Importance rating
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These ratings show that all employees feel it is extremely important for service
quality and customer satisfaction to be highly valued at TWC. 72% thought the
statement was Very Important, and 28% Important. (See Chapter 7).
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Question 19 – Agreement rating
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A large number of employees at TWC (93%) agreed that service quality and
customer satisfaction was highly valued at Wakaya. 72% Strongly Agreed and 21%
Agreed.
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Question 20 – Importance rating
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All employees felt that it was important that they care about fulfilling guests’
needs, and any decisions they made should be focused on ensuring that this was
possible. 56% thought this Very Important, 41% Important, and 3% Important. (See
Chapter 7).
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Question 20 – Agreement rating
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97% of TWC employees agreed that they genuinely cared about the needs of
their guests, and decisions they made were centred on fulfilling them. 66% Strongly
Agreed and 31% Agreed with this statement.
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Question 21 – Importance rating
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All employees place some level of importance on exceeding guests’
expectations. 63% though this statement Very Important, 34% Important, and 3%
Fairly Important.
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Question 21 – Agreement rating
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Nearly all employees agreed that at TWC they were encouraged to go beyond
their guests’ expectations. 73% Strongly Agreed, 24% Agreed and 3% were Neutral..
These data strongly supports other data collected from management interviews and
guest comments. (See Chapter 7).
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Question 22 – Importance rating
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All employees at TWC placed a high level of importance on guest satisfaction
with the quality of service they perform. 72% thought the statement Very Important
and 28% Important.
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Question 22 – Agreement rating
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The majority of employees agreed that guests were satisfied with the service
quality at TWC. 73% Strongly Agreed, and 24% Agreed. The 3% Neutral rating
was from the Purchasing Department, and although a vital element of the final service,
does not have any real contact with guests.
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Question 23 – Importance rating
Most employees (90%) at TWC understand that it is important that they are
given the latitude to make on-the-spot decisions, when engaging in frontline service
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encounters. 31% felt this was Very Important, 42% Important, and 17% Fairly
Important. The employees who did not consider latitude in decision-making and
empowerment important worked in backstage departments like Housekeeping and
Landscaping.
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Question 23 – Agreement rating
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Many employees (68%) agreed that they had the freedom to make decisions in
frontline service encounters. 34% Strongly Agreed and 24% Agreed. These
employees are all from the departments that have the greatest contact with guests e.g.
Food & Beverage and Marina/Activities. The remaining 32% who were either
Neutral (28%) or disagreed (14%), were from departments that rarely have contact
with guests.
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Question 24 – Importance rating
All employees at TWC recognise the importance of communication between
employees and supervisors or management. They also understand the importance of
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taking responsibility for any decisions they make with regard to guests, and that these
should be reported to the relevant supervisor or manager. 62% thought this was Very
Important, 24% Important and 14% Fairly Important.
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Question 24 – Agreement rating
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The vast majority of employees agreed that in practice any decisions they
made with regard to guests were reported to the relevant supervisor or manager. 49%
Strongly Agreed and 41% Agreed that they provided feedback to supervisors or
management with regard to any out of the ordinary actions they may have performed.
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Appendix 2: Wakaya Guest Comments. February – August, 2003
11 February Audrey & Bruce Shelton, Phoenix, ArizonaWhat hasn’t been said that hasn’t already been said! We’ve hada perfect, relaxing, amazing visit. The staff and people we’vemet, were wonderful, so friendly and giving….We won’t forgetthis trip. It’s one to remember for as lifetime.
18 February Pamela Worobec, Wayzata, MinnesotaThis is truly amazing. I will never forget it. Thank you all toeveryone. You were all very nice!
18 February Dave Lyons, Minneapolis, MinnesotaI just love all the people of Wakaya. The resort is just beautiful.
18 February Tom & Lyons, Palm Springs, CaliforniaMy third time back was just like the first. Wonderful. You wereall so wonderful to my whole family. It is the people that makethis truly a special place. We will be back!
18 February Greg & Lori Reynolds, Chicago, IllinoisAll of our expectation were exceeded! Vinaka. We will miss allour new friends!
18 February MollyLyons & Brad Sween, San Francisco, CAIt was an experience like no other. The place is so wonderfuland the people the best. Vinaka! I enjoyed meeting everyone somuch. A trip I will never forget.
18 February Keshara Parker, Los Angeles, CAWords cannot describe how I feel about this island, and thepeople, and how sad that I am leaving. I will count the daysuntil I return. Vinaka!
19 February Barbara Kraft,Burbank, CASo much beauty, so much happiness, perfect people, so manyphotos to take, so many left behind – I hope for another time.Wakaya will be with me always as images and in my heart.Vinaka
19 February Randy Galligan, Pasadena, CaliforniaThe resort and the people of Wakaya are the best in the world.Vinaka!
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19 February Michael SorrellI will miss everyone more than I’ll miss the island and that’ssaying a lot. Perfect people and perfect place. Vinaka!
19 February Hans & Ute Isler, Hong KongExceeding all expectations! Beauty where everyone looks.People with grace and dignity.
22 February Martha & Toni Egger, AustriaWonderful like in the past three times. We will come again!
26 February Pepper Woods & Ira GourvitzWe promise to return for a longer sojourn to Fiji.
26 February Todd & Alex, Pacific Harbor, FijiLovely!!!
27 February Kip & Maryann HagopianOutstanding in every way, setting, rooms service, food. Most ofall wonderful staff.
06 March Lisa & John Gutkoski. Boston, MassachusettsThe perfect place for our honeymoon – Paradise! Thank you.
17 March Arlin & Marilyn Albrecht. Redwing, Minnesota.The friendliest people in a most beautiful place. Thank you.
20 March Dr. George Schrenk & Brandy Haas. Naples, Florida.Wakaya will always hold a special place in our hearts!Friendliness, serenity and beauty in all we saw! The tops forboth of us! Vinaka, moce. This is as close to heaven as heavengets!
27 March Carolyn & Mayo Livingstone. Bainbridge, GA, USA.The sun & stars have shined down and created the pristineparadise – Thanks for sharing & a wonderful staff.
27 March Larry & Connie Sartain. Las Vegas, Nevada.PERFECT!!
27 March Howard & Joni Mann. Las Vegas, Nevada.
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No place like this on Earth!
29 March Craig & Linda Seaborn Crisman. SF, California.I’m so glad we were married here at Wakaya – It was beautiful!We will come back to celebrate our anniversary!
29 March Greg & Mila Vaysman. Northbrook Illinois.What a wonderful place! Love it!
02 April Laurie Werner - New York, NYIt’s rare that a place lives up and then exceeds its reputation.Thanks for a lovely stay.
03 April AJ & Valerie Rice - Montecito, CAThe best place ever! We can’t wait to return.
10 April Nobu & Yoko Matsuhisa – Beverly Hills, CAWe really enjoyed “Wakaya”. We feel our house here. We wishcome back again.
11 April Junko Matsuhisa – Tokyo, JapanParadise!!
12 April Yoshiko Matsuhisa – Hyde Park, LondonA heavenly place, and amazing people. I fantasize of comingback already!!!
14 April Milan, Gianna & Urosh - Hong KongWe are in love with Wakaya so we had to come back to a placeunder the sun. Paradise for sure!
17 April Shane MitchellVinaka vakalevu!
21 April Bill & Chris Lytton – Connecticut, USAThe on-shore activities, food and hospitality are surpassed onlyby the fantastic diving. Vinaka.
22 April Clinton & Cindy Garza Farmer
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Best trip ever! Fishing and diving are the best – what a Paradise.
25 April Ms Elaine Seiler, New York, NYFantastic week! Rested and refreshed. Thank you so much!
26 April Charles & Patty Petrick – San Jose, CAVinaka to all of Wakaya……Each one of you made our holidayfun and very special. We will return! This is truly fantasyisland!
26 April Pete & Diane Lusich – Zephyr Cove, NVVinaka to everyone – the best resort we have ever stayed at our32nd anniversary was special!
28 April Christine & Kevin Considine - San Francisco, CAA very special thanks to the amazing staff at Wakaya! We had afabulous time in Paradise! Vinaka!
05 July Shari & Naom Cohen - New York, NYPerfect! An absolutely incredible, magical, romantichoneymoon. Everything was amazing, the staff, the room, thebeaches, and food. We can’t wait to return.
05 July Warren & Ann Brighouse – Auckland, NZAnother wonderful holiday at an island Paradise. Thank you toRob & Linda and all the staff at Wakaya. Sota tale ena dua nasiga! Vinaka vakalevu!
05 July Jennifer & Derek Dillon – NY, NYOur best time yet. Thank you for a terrific holiday and we’ll beback soon.
06 July Omar & Sian Brown – NY, NYBest of the best!!! Thank you all so very much for making ourhoneymoon a fantasy come true. We could not ask forMORE!!!!
08 July Serena Fairchild & Tyler SheldonVinaka vakalevu
09 May Peter & Marianne Zavecz – Melbourne, AustraliaWarm friendly people, warm friendly place! Vinaka! Vinaka!
09 May Craig Osment & Pat Ingram – Sydney, Australia
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Seamless service, serene, stylish, sophisticated. Beautiful!Vinaka. Heaven. We will return.
09 May Jill & Mark Tucker – Victoria, AustraliaThe on-shore activities, food and hospitality are surpassed onlyby the fantastic diving. Vinaka.
10 May David Corkins & Karen Reidy – Denver, COWe melted off layers of stress instantly. Thank you for meetingevery single need; desire with such grace; fine hospitality. Wewill be back as soon as possible.
11 May Daid and Jacquiline Westall – Auckland, NZWhat a romantic and beautiful island. We have so enjoyedourselves and the people here are beautiful. Thank you onceagain for sharing your hospitality and beauty with us. We shallreturn. Look forward to seeing you again.
15 May James & Nora Barry T – WI, USAThank you for making our honeymoon a dream come true. Thepeople are the most hospitable that we’ve ever met! Each andevery member of The Wakaya Club is superb, excellent in whatthey do and a delight. The island is the closest on earth toParadise. We look forward to returning!
18 May Pam Ryan & Bill Wood – TX, USAWhat a great place to rendezvous in the middle of the Pacific.We feel privileged to able to share your piece of Paradise –Thank you!
20 May Steve & Pam Thorne – CA, USAIncredible week of romance! See you soon.
22 May Gary & Jackie Coakely - CA, USAWe had a great time - Staff is fantastic – Paradise found!
27 May Barbara & John Simonian – LA, USAWOW!!!!!!
27 May Clarisse & Francois Bennahmias - New York, USAWe thought that the song was…. LOVE IS ALL YOU NEEDbut after our stay we have to call the Beatles back to make achange: WAKAYA IS ALL YOU NEED!!
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27 May Bobby Yampolsky & Kelly Sebrechts – FL, USAWakaya is a dream. TRUE perfection. This place and all thepeople are magical. Vinaka. See you soon!!
05 July Shari & Naom Cohen - New York, NYPerfect! An absolutely incredible, magical, romantichoneymoon. Everything was amazing, the staff, the room, thebeaches, and food. We can’t wait to return.
05 July Warren & Ann Brighouse – Auckland, NZAnother wonderful holiday at an island Paradise. Thank you toRob & Linda and all the staff at Wakaya. Sota tale ena dua nasiga! (See you again someday) Vinaka vakalevu!
05 July Jennifer & Derek Dillon – NY, NYOur best time yet. Thank you for a terrific holiday and we’ll beback soon.
06 July Omar & Sian Brown – NY, NYBest of the best!!! Thank you all so very much for making ourhoneymoon a fantasy come true. We could not ask forMORE!!!!
08 July Serena Fairchild & Tyler SheldonVinaka vakalevu! We love heaven on earth! Thank you forwelcoming us to Paradise!, this is the best honeymoon wecould have imagined!
11 July David & Jacqueline Westall – Auckland, NZAnother absolutely amazing time!! Best massage in the world.Looking forward to coming back to see your smiling facesagain. With love and a sad goodbye. See you soon.
11 July Kristin & Jeff Carleton – Tribeca, NYFiji Baby!!!
12 July Lindsay & Parish Snyder – Chicago, ILThank you for making our honeymoon so special! We hope tobe back again soon! Vinaka vakalevu.
15 July Jennifer & Tony Smorgan - AusThank you for a wonderful time.
15 July Lucy & Nick Koukopoulos – San Francisco,CA
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Wonderful scuba, wonderful food especially wonderful people– Thank you!
17 July Thierry & Claire Henry – Surrey, UKThank you for everything!
17 July Julie Gilbert & Aaron SonesThe island is spectacular. Every detail of the Club is beautifullydone. Best of all, the friendly, gracious staff who genuinelywant to make sure every guest is treated extremely well. Welook forward to coming back. Thank you for everything.
24 July Stephanie & Kimberley Foley – NY, NYThis island is so awesome. It’s so nice here. I can’t believe wecame here. That is so cool. Thank you for everything.
24 July Joe & Kim Foley - NY, NYWell what can you do to top this place? The Garden of Eden,everyone was great! Vinaka vakalevu!
26 July Tomasi Vueilovoni – Minister of Commerce, Only 20 minutes from the Mainland lies this idyllic paradise.We have been fortunate to experience such beauty! Excellent.
26 July Michael & Pamela Goldfein – Northland, ILWords cannot describe our experience here. Wakaya is trulyheaven on earth. Our thanks to all. Vinaka vakalevu.
01 August Fred & Bridgit Fried – MD, USASa tara na yaloqu….. Thanks for the best vacation of our lives.What a perfect honeymoon!!
05 August Kevin & Teresa Jaffe - Florida, USAOur fifth trip…. Simply extraordinary. Sota tale
07 August Mike Martin – CA, USAAgape to The Wakaya Club.
07 August Robin Sommers – Texas, USAWe certainly like to return to the finest resort in the world. Eightnight seems like three.
08 August Satoshi & Yasuko Inoue – Tokyo, JapanWe really enjoyed this paradise! See you when we’ll be back.
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09 August Leigh Maloney – Cammeray, AustraliaA magical paradise! Thank you all for such wonderfulhospitality.
11 August Shawn & Keri Baldwin – Laguna Beach, CAWe had a fantastic honeymoon. We we’ll be back soon! Tankyou for your kindness.
12 August Bill, Megan Cammie & Tyler Phelps – San Marino, Thank you for a very special vacation. It was incredible. Wecan’t wait to come back!.
16 August Amy & Bill Gurley – Portola Valley, CAOur second trip…. And just as wonderful as our first. Beautifulisland and fabulous staff!!! Thanks!
18 August Shirley & Jackie Dunesky – Sydney, AustraliaThank you from our hearts. We will always remember thiswonderful island.
18 August Joan & Maria Pi - BarcelonaVinaka!! We never say goodbye to this paradise. (12th visit)
22 August Kerry Myer & Andrew Gardner - AustraliaFabulous memories: “Private Picnic”, my first scuba dive, the“Honeymoon Special,” and all the beautiful meals!
23 August Balagurov Oleg & Svetlana – Moscow, RussiaExcellent, apart from the weather. We’ll come back!
23 August Tim & Kavita Lesser – Los Angeles, CAThis place is amazing!! Vinaka! Everyone is so nice, the foodwas terrific and the diving top-notch. We’ll come back!
25 August Tony & Sue McIness – Auckland, New Zealand Vinaka! Superb hospitality. Fantastic birthday treat, such aspecial night. Delightful staff.
28 August Chef Charlie Trotter & Rochelle Smith, Chicago, USAAbsolutely stunning resort! The staff, cuisine, and culture are allmagical! We’ll be back!
28 August Ken Nolan & Corrie Safris – Los Angeles, USARidiculously amazing. How dare you pamper us like this! We’llleave piles of human wish and B16 smiles!
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28 August Maria & Dov Seidman – Los Angeles, CAWhat a wonderful way to start our married life. The views wereamazing but the staff even more spectacular. Many thanks!
30 August Neal & Debbie Sroka – New York City, USAThe only thing more beautiful than the physical beauty ofWakaya is the inner beauty of the Fijian people. The best resortin the world.
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Appendix 3. The Wakaya Club Employee Questionnaire
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Appendix 4. The Wakaya Club In-depth management interview outline
questions.
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Appendix 5. Outline questions for in-depth frontline employee interviews.
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Figure 1. Questions associated with the Cycle of Capability
(Source: Heskett et al., 1997, p.130).
Careful Employee and Customer Selection
(and Self-selection)
Employeereferrals ofpotential job
candidates
High-quality training
Satisfied employees
Appropriate rewardsand frequent
recognition
Clear limits on, and
expectations of employees
Well-designed supportsystems e.g.information andfacilities
StaffExpectations andDelivery
Is attitude emphasised?
Are job previews utilised?
Are customers screened?
Are employees encouragedto refer friends?
Are referrals from the ‘best’
employees given priority?
Is training for job andlife?
Is it an importantelement of quality of
work life?
Is satisfactionmeasuredperiodically?
Are measurementslinked to otherfunctions on the
cycle?
Are satisfactionmeasurements linked toservice objectives?
Are they balanced betweenmonetary and non-monetary?
Do they limit the ‘right’risks?
Do theyreflect theneeds of theserviceencounter?
Are theydesigned tofosterrelationships?
Does it reflect toStaffExpectations and Delivery
which allow delivery of results tocustomers?
More than smiles 331
Figure 2: The Satisfaction Mirror
(Source: Heskett et al., 1997, p.101.)
More familiarity withcustomer needs and ways ofmeeting them.
More repeatpurchases
Stronger tendency tocomplain about service
Greater opportunity forrecovery from errors
Higher employee satisfactionHigher customer satisfaction
Higher productivityLower costs
Better results Improved servicequality
More than smiles 332
Figure 3: Factors affecting relationships with the Service Triangle
(Source: Adapted from Heskett et al., 1997, p. 108).
Service Organisation
Front-line
service providerCustomer
Brand strength
Transaction supportingsystems
Working environment
Organisation policiesand practices
Compensation
Reputation of firm
Company technology & services
Accessibility
Reliability of billing &support services
Overall value received
Need for high levels of trust
High perception of risk by customer
Need for judgement and flexibility in service delivery
Strong ‘satisfaction mirror’ effect
More than smiles 333
Figure 4: The empowerment process - Sarah Cook
(Source: Cook, 1994, p.11)
Create a vision
Agree communication values
Devolve responsibility Create teams Train Improve processes
Monitor and review
More than smiles 334
Figure 5. The Three Dimensional Model for Enhanced Customer Service
(3DMECS).
(Source: Frodey, C., 2002).
More than smiles 335
Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews
(Source: Adapted from Hancock, 1998, p.11).
Advantages of Interviews Disadvantages of Interviews
No items are overlookedQuestions and answers can be clarifiedby both interviewer and respondentResearcher can achieve depth of responseCan be used to probe sensitive or difficultareasGood response ratesRespondents do not need to be literate toparticipateRespondents’ replies are not influencedby reading ahead (can happen in the caseof questionnaires)Responses are enriched by observing non-verbal cues (Important in cross-culturalresearch)Can be used as an exploratory stage in alarger study
Takes time to arrangeTime consuming for researcher as it takeslonger to collect dataTravel can be costlyExcellent interviewing skills are neededRisk of interviewer biasData analysis can be time consuming
More than smiles 336
Table 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
(Source: Adapted from Hancock, 1998, p.12).
Advantages of Questionnaires Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Relatively simple method of datacollection. Rapid and efficient method of datacollectionData can be collected from a widelyscattered sampleRelatively inexpensiveOne of the easiest tools to test forreliability and validityRespondents have time to consider eachquestionData analysis can be done quicklyCan be used to collect data on a widerange of topics and attributes
Cannot probe a topic in-depth withoutbeing lengthyRespondent can omit items withoutexplanation leaving data incompleteSelection of forced choice items may beinsufficient to reflect respondent’s choiceAmount of information is limited byrespondent’s interest and attentionQuestionnaires can go astrayProduction and distribution can becomeexpensiveSample is limited to those with literacyskillsMost people express themselves betterthrough the spoken wordNo opportunity for the researcher tointeract with respondentsIf respondents are anonymous they cannotbe followed up
More than smiles 337
Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Observation
(Source: Adapted from Hancock, 1998, p.12).
Advantages of Observation Disadvantages of Observation
Best way of recording human behaviour Observations are recorded as they occureliminating biased recallAllows researcher to view a situation intotal and in contextObservation schedules can be simple todesign and useResearchers may need little trainingOpen to the use of recording devices
Time and duration of an event may not bepredictable; involves watching andwaitingPresence of researcher adds a newdimension to the situationPresence of researcher can affect peoplesbehaviourObservations may be subject to researcherbiasResearchers may find themselves drawninto the situationEvents may occur so rapidly it is notpossible to record everythingLittle control over number of times anevent will occurThose not wishing to be involved mayobject to the presence of the researcher
More than smiles 338
Table 5. Research on creating an empowerment culture & management strategy
Authors Focus Sub-theme
Beach (1996) Relates the experience of one organisationin establishing an empowerment culturethrough non-traditional management
Practical examples of changes throughfocusing on employee performanceand commitment are given
Collins
(1996a)
Links the concept of empowerment toparticipation and democracy to show thecomplexity of theory and debate in thisfield
The lack of more frequent debate onempowerment in managementliterature is also reflected in theabsence of discussion onempowerment within businesses
Collins
(1996b)
Views empowerment as a part of a greaterwhole, that is a part of management controlsystems
Management control and governanceare reviewed by using the examples ofNissan and Mazda
Cook (1994) Reflects on the impact of empowerment onorganisational culture when employees areable to influence their work
Training and teamwork support ateimportant components of anempowered culture
Gore,
Toledano &
Wills (1994)
Looks at an empowered leadership strategyfor MCB publishing to includemanagement action learning; systemsdevelopment; mentoring and coaching;and structured change
How use of action learning as amanagement strategy can facilitatechange
Hopfi (1994) Considers the relationship betweenmanagement development and self-development for empowered management
Gaps may often spring up betweenmanagement objectives and everydaypractices
Logan et al.
(1996)
Reflects on the subject of empowerment asmembers of the Editorial advisory board ofEmpowerment in Organisations
Empowerment seen not only from aprofessional role but also from apersonal one
Long (1996) Follows a case study over four yearsprimarily in health care companies
Empowerment requires top to bottominvolvement with employee appraisalsan intricate part of the process
Newton &
Wilkinson
(1994)
Examines an empowerment project for 80first-line middle managers at a hospital inthe UK to enable them to take ownership oftheir jobs and ultimately improve thehospital’s performance
Organisational change is only possiblewith the firm commitment anddedication of management
Nixon (1994) Sees empowerment as a function ofleadership and organisational culture andtries to apply practical strategies forachieving this stage
Difficulties associated withempowerment and learning arediscussed in order to revise existingprogrammes and processes
Simmons
(1995)
Calls for a partnership between workers andmanagement as a means of encouragingworkers to give their energy andcommitment
Employee motivation is not only amaterialistic but non-materialstrategies can be effective motivationaltools
(Source: Adapted from Erstad, 1997, p.328).
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Table 6. Empowerment in training and development and employee
participation
Authors Focus Sub-theme
Davis &
Stocking
(1996)
Empowerment used as a tool totransform the culture of a typical localauthority bureaucracy
The learning organisation and staffdevelopment
Echiejule
(1994)
Gives examples of empowermentprogrammes where the needs ofdisadvantaged employees areconsidered
Special programmes viewed not asa burden for organisations but awin-win opportunity
Jones et al.
(1996)
Looks at how to get the most out ofpeople and see people as the key toorganisational change and success
Information technology is not asubstitute for human qualities andcapabilities
Kappelman
& Richards
(1996)
Examines how a small degree ofempowerment in a change programmepositively affected the success of theprogramme
Empowerment becomes a wayindividuals can exert control in achange situation
Lloyd (1996) The flatter organisational structure atBritish Gas required new suggestionsystems in order for employees toparticipate and influence change
Organisational culture and aparticipative environment
Nicholls
(1995)
Interprets empowerment as a state offrame of mind requiring training andnot something merely passed on fromone person to the next
The broadening on an individual’swork challenges employees andenhances personal development
Nykodym et
al. (1994)
Employee participation throughempowerment can take many forms andemploy many management techniques
Some of the potential negativeswith empowerment strategies areillustrated
Potter (1994) Describes how empowerment haschanged the role and activities ofmanagers and defines a ten point actionplan
Empowerment and employeeparticipation linked to the missionstatement
Rodrigues
(1994)
Raises the difficulties involved inempowerment programmes in order tobring about organisational effectiveness
Empowerment requires ongoingtraining and development
(Source: Erstad, 1997, p.329).
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Table 7. Empowerment implementation techniques and empowering teams
Authors Focus Sub-theme
Born and
Molleman
(1996)
Rewarding employees for empoweredbehaviour is complex in traditional paysystems thus requiring more flexiblesystems of reward
The character of the job oftendetermines the degree ofempowerment possible
Brower (1995) Delves into the issue of empowerment inteams and develops a model ofempowerment
In order to achieve empowerment,basic development tools are required
De Burgundy
(1996)
Critiques the use of managementconsultancies and advocates organisationsuse their own workers to understand howthe organisation functions
Management techniques used byconsultants are reviewed
Cleary (1995) Exposes empowerment as a way toimprove quality by using the plan-do-study-act theory of Deming
The process of empowerment bringsabout unknown and unknowablebenefits for the organisation
Dickmeyer &
Williams
(1995)
Discuss the term catalytic empowermentand human issues for empowerment anddescribes eight key principles toaccomplish this
Performance measurement isnecessary to test the success ofempowerment.
Harley (1995) Cites the need for balancing operationaland human issues for empowerment anddescribes eight key principles toaccomplish this
Organisational authority, if usedproperly, can unleash hidden humanpotential
Logan (1995) Includes empowerment in the largerframework of actions driving quality withinan organisation
Human quality is often neglected inthe drive for superior technologicalquality
Marguilies &
Kleiner (1995)
Describes empowerment in terms of howgroups are designed and highlights theconcept of self management for thesegroups
Empowerment seen as a package ofbehavioural and support attributes
Miller (1996) Advocates the use of humour as a way tostimulate empowered cultures
Positive feedback and stroking can domuch to raise employees’ self esteem
Pearson &
Chatterjee
(1996)
Assess the implementation ofempowerment in a study of its introductionin an organisation and presents a model forimplementation
Empowerment viewed as it iscascaded throughout the organisation
Pence &
Lunderman
(1995)
Gives a practical example of anempowerment programme with impactingemployee participation at lowermanagement levels
Article is concluded with a shortreview and critique of the programmethat was implemented
Pence (1996) Uses a technique of self-assessment tomeasure an organisation’s commitment toempowered teams
Support systems are fundamental tothe success of empowered teams
(Source: Erstad, 1997, p.330).
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Table 8. Managerial meanings of empowerment
(Source: Lashley, 1997, p. 33)
Managerial meaning Initiatives used
Empowerment through participation Autonomous work groups‘Whatever it takes’ trainingJob enrichmentWork Councils
Empowerment through involvement Quality circlesTeam briefingsSuggestion schemes
Empowerment through commitment Employee share ownershipProfit-sharing and bonus schemesQuality of working life programmes(job rotation, job enlargement)
Empowerment through delayering Job redesignRe-trainingAutonomous work groupsJob enrichmentProfit-sharing and bonus schemes