1

2

3

Moringa (Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.)Cufod)

Guide to Use andProcessing Practices

Contributors:Getachew Addis Dechasa Jiru Yalemtsehay MekonnenErmias Dagne

Editors:Wondwossen GirmayAlmaz Tadesse

May, 2014

Addis Ababa

6

Published and distributed by:Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Network (HoA-REC&N), Addis Ababa University P. O. Box: 80773, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Telephone: +251- (0) 11-655-0226, +251- (0) 11-810-6713; Fax: +251-(0) 11-123-9469 E-mail: info@hoarec.org Editors: Wondwossen Girmay Almaz Tadesse Layout and Graphic design: Climax Technologies PLCPrinted by: Climax Technologies PLC DISCLAIMERCopyright © 2014 by Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Net-work (HoA-REC&N), Addis Ababa University This information booklet has been prepared by a team of researchers in the area of agroforestry, botany, nutrition, and chemistry under the coordination of HoA-REC&N.

The opinion and information contained are solely those of the contributor(s) and do not necessarily represent that of HoA-REC&N.

This information booklet shall not be reproduced for any other purpose with-out prior written permission from the publisher. For queries please contact: info@hoarec.orgFront / Back cover: Photo Moringa stenopetala tree by Wondwossen Girmay

7I

FORWARDIn recent years, the plant Moringa has gained global recognition in terms of its potential to address current issues of hunger, malnutrition, pover-ty alleviation, water and sanitation, wealth creation, and environmental concerns. Some African countries have shown significant progress to-wards combating malnutrition among rural dwellers through promoting and supplying Moringa as a food supplement. The seed has also been applied for water treatment, oil production, and other uses. The Moringa tree has well-documented nutritional and medicinal prop-erties. Recently, its potential to provide environmental benefits and so-cioeconomic opportunities for producers, processors, and traders is be-ing increasingly recognized. However, its potential has not yet been fully harnessed although the tree thrives in home gardens and in the wild. As consumers have become increasingly informed of the medicinal value of the tree, there has been a rise in demand especially in major urban cen-tres. This has created ample opportunities for innovative market based initiatives.

However, there is a growing concern over the consequences of promot-ing Moringa tree products with inadequate information. For instance, some of the promotional materials used by business persons in the Mor-inga market chain convey fragmented information with little or no scien-tific basis. This approach may lead to the spread of misinformation and health consequences for the consumers. Therefore, the need for under-taking responsible promotion, research, along with the development of competitive value chain become evident. Cognizant of the existing information gap, priority has been given to the dissemination of scientific information, compatible with the local con-text and accessible to the target groups. With such concerted efforts, it is anticipated that the supply and demand of Moringa produce are likely to grow and the emerging small-scale Moringa business will be strengthened. It is with this vision that this booklet has been designed

8

and produced. The booklet is expected to inform agricultural and rural development practitioners, the local community and the public at large with factual information regarding Moringa.

We also hope that the information in this booklet will stimulate inter-ested groups to further explore the hidden resources of our forests and woodlands in order to lead to sustainable and green livelihood, resil-ience to the impacts of climate change.

Araya Asfaw (Ph.D)Executive Director, Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre & Network, AAU

II

9

Contents1. INTRODUCTION2. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND OCCURRENCE3. PROPAGATION, MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTION

3.1 Propagation 3.2 Production

3.2.1 Basic Crop Management 3.2.2 Yields

4. AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES 5. USES AND BENEFITS 5.1 FOOD AND NUTRITION

5.2 Traditional Moringa preparation 5.3 Nutritional contents5.4 Medicinal uses 5.5 Other benefits

6. HARVESTING OF LEAFLETS, POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING

6.1 General considerations6.2 Collection6.3 Processing

6.3.1. Cleaning/washing 6.3.2. Drying 6.3.3. Milling

6.4. Packaging and labeling6.5. Storage and transport

7. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES AND TECHNIQUES 8. MYTHS AND FACTS 9. KEY MILESTONES

BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTRIBUTORS BIOGRAPHY

1 34466678899101112

1213151515161617171920

2224

10

1

1. INTRODUCTION The multipurpose plant, Moringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cufod is indige-nous to East Africa and will hereafter be referred to as Moringa. It is widely cultivated and is part of the agroforestry system in South Ethiopia, mainly in Konso, Derashie, Arbaminch Zuria and Mirab Abaya Woreda. The leaflet of the plant is used as food while the pods are seldom used as its availability is limited with similar scale of preference. Within the past few years, there has been a growing need to expand the plant as an agroforestry candidate in different parts of the country and efforts are underway to maximize its potential contribution to food security and cli-mate change adaptation and mitigation. Moreover, there is an emerging business associated with the use of the pulverized leaflet as a food and drink supplement, which is now becoming popular in some of the major towns in the country. However, lack of well-developed and organized market chain and inappropriate promotion, among others, are believed to have held back the emerging Moringa business. The Horn of Africa Regional Environment Centre and Network (HoA-REC&N), Addis Ababa University, has made a preliminary assessment on the current status of the Moringa business and the potential for value chain development in Konso and the surrounding areas. The assess-ment revealed the existing opportunities, major challenges and poten-tial threats associated with the Moringa value chain development. It was evident that, the majority of local people consume fresh Moringa leaf as a food supplement and recently, there has been a growing demand for the pulverized Moringa leaf powder both in the local market and major towns, including Addis Ababa. However, the production, processing and marketing of Moringa is in its early development stage and proper value

2

chain has not yet been developed. The pulverized Moringa leaf powder has not been standardized amd as a result the supply and delivery chain become highly exposed to malpractices.

In addition, proper and responsible promotion has not been done and it is unclear whether the public has been informed about Moringa from credible sources. The information used to be published on flyers and posters mainly emphasize and promotes the medicinal value of the plant against many different chronic health problems. However, relevant sci-entific information on production, post-harvest, processing, packaging, handling, transporting, and marketing of Moringa powder is not suffi-ciently available for the local community and the public at large. There-fore, there is a need to create awareness and minimize potential risks while strengthening the flourishing Moringa business through research, responsible promotion and value chain development.

Based on this, HoA-REC&N found it imperative to establish a task force to jointly standardize crude information on Moringa and produce this information booklet. It is hoped that the booklet will help increase pub-lic awareness and compliment the on-going initiative of developing a competitive value chain that will enhance Moringa’s contribution to lo-cal economy, food security and environmental benefits. The booklet is expected to assist development workers, producers, and individuals and organizations involved in the Moringa business. It is also intended to provide an overview on the botany of Moringa, its use, good manufac-turing practices and potential for scaling up.

3

2. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND OCCURRENCEMoringa stenopetala (Bak.f.) Cufod, family Moringaceae, is indigenous to Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. The genus Moringa consists of 14 spe-cies which are distributed worldwide, six of which are recorded in Ethio-pia. Among these, M. stenopetala is a multipurpose plant mainly used as source of leafy vegetable in drought prone areas. It is commonly known by different vernacular names including Shelaqta (Konso), Kalanke (Hamar), Haleko (Wolayita and Gamo-Gofa), and Shiferaw (Amharic). Moringa stenopetala is naturally distributed and/or widely cultivated in Borana, and Guji Zones of the Oromia National Regional State, Ye-segen Akababi Hizboch, South Omo, Gamo-Gofa, and Wolayita Zones of the Southern Nations Nationalities, and Peoples Regional States (SN-NPRS) at altitudes ranging from 350 m.a.s.l to 1,850 m.a.s.l. Recently, M. stenopetala has been introduced to different regions of the country, mainly in low and mid highland (Weyna dega) agroecologies of Amhara and Tigray National Regional State. In some reports, the scientific name of the indigenous species (M. stenopetala) sometimes confused with, M. oleifera, which is of Indian origin. This has become one of the main causes in linking information related to the exotic species with that of M. stenopetala.

It should be pointed out that the two species have distinctive morpho-logical differences. M. stenopetala has light green, ovate and acute leaf-lets with 3.3 to 6.5 cm length. The flowers have sweet-scent with petals up to 10 mm length. The seed is creamy-greyish and its length (including the wing) is 6 to 9 cm. On the other hand, the leaflet of M. oleifera is obovate and is 1 to 2 cm in length. The flowers are strongly scented and the petals are greater than 10 mm in length. The seed is deep brown to black in colour and has a length of less than 5.5 cm.

4

3. PROPAGATION, MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTION

3.1 PROPAGATION

Moringa naturally grows in riverine and Acacia-Commiphora woodland and on rocky ground. It can also be propagated by seeds and occasion-ally by using cuttings. It is a fast growing and drought resistant plant. It prefers well drained soil for both seed bed and planting sites. In water logged sites, its leaves become discoloured (yellow) and defoliated. Di-rect seeding of both intact and bare seed is recommended. If the seed is intact, it is recommended to be soaked in water. The planting can be in a pot or directly to the field. In the direct field planting, there is variability in vigour. For a steady growth, the seed has to be planted with higher density to increase the survival rate. Plantation can also be established from stem cutting and uprooting small size sapling or even bigger trees of any size. The latter can be replanted by retaining only about 30 cm of the lateral and tap roots.

The leaves of the tree can be harvested in different ways depending on the size of the plant. In areas where the tree is very tall, a tool can be used for cutting the leaves from the branches. If the plant is of moderate height or less than 1.5 m, the leaves can be collected easily by hand or with knives, scissors or similar cutting tools.

To obtain optimal results and benefits, the following four steps are gen-erally fundamental in Moringa cultivation: site selection, land prepara-

5

tion, planting/sowing, and maintenance of the plantation. In addition, the following requirements should be maintained:

i. Climatic and edaphic requirements: Generally, Moringa can grow well in areas with an altitude ranging from 350 m.a.s.l. to 1850 m.a.s.l. Arid and semiarid areas that are free from termite and in-tensive grazing are suitable for Moringa tree. Almost all soil types except very acidic are suitable. Alkaline and salt prone sites can also support the growth of Moringa. The plant has the potential to re-claim salinity affected sites.

ii. Moisture requirements: Under the natural rain-fed condition, areas that receive rainfall ranging from 250 mm/year to 1600 mm/year are favourable Moringa growing areas. In a much drier or drought prone sites, efficient use of water need to be practiced. The other environmental constraint is frost. Even within the appropriate cli-matic zone, cultivating Moringa has to be avoided in areas affected by frost.

iii. Pest and Disease: The most common detrimental pest of Moringa is the Moth (Noorda blitealis (Walker.)) larvae (caterpillar). It can wipe out the leaflets of an entire village within a week. Thus, producers have to select seeds of better moth resistance. Other pests such as termites attack the plant during its early age.

In general, sites such as industrial waste and refuse dump sites, water logged sites, termite infested soils and animal grazing fields are undesir-able for Moringa cultivation.

6

3.2 PRODUCTION3.2.1 Basic Crop Management*

In small-scale leaf production with plots of land up to 0.5 ha, spacing should be 0.75 m within rows and 1 m between rows. For pod produc-tion, the recommended spacing is 2.5 m x 2.5 m. Fertilizer and irriga-tion are recommended for maximum productivity. Seedlings should be pinched at 1 m tall or 2 months after planting to stimulate side branch-ing.

Moringa leaf may also be produced intensively in beds with seeds spaced 10 cm x 10 cm. When harvesting leaves from mature trees, it is recom-mended to cut the branches frequently to stimulate new leaf growth. Spacing of at least 2 m x 3 m are recommended for perennial intercrop-ping species, depending on pruning frequency of the trees, shed toler-ance and other requirements of the companion crops, as well as space required for equipment access. Generally, spacing of 5 m x 5 m may be considered appropriate for most situations.

3.2.2 Yields*

Leaf fresh weight yield ranges 1 to 5 kg per tree/year or approximately 10,000 to 50,000 kg/ha /year at 1 m x 1 m spacing. Average pod yields per tree per year may range up to 230 pods or 15-20kg. This is equiva-lent of 31,000 Kg/ha/year at 2.5 m x 2.5 m spacing. However, actual yields vary widely, depending on season, variety, fertilization, and irriga-tion regimes. Moringa yields best under warm and dry conditions with some supplemental fertilizer and irrigation.

* Note: The data indicated under basic crop management and yields refers to M. oleifera. which is believed to be similar to M.stenoptela

7

4. AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES In small subsistence holdings, Moringa trees are often intercropped with cassava, pumpkin and other vegetables. Local farmers in Southern Ethiopia, especially in Konso, use Moringa as one component of a multi-storey agro-forestry system. Perennial tree intercropping is a common practice in Konso farming system. The most dominant multipurpose tree on farm, terraced farm and home garden is Moringa followed by Termi-nalia brownii, Juniperus procera and different Acacia species. Moringa is drought resistant and stores water in its pulpy roots to endure water stress. The amount of water content in M. stenopetala tree is 18 fold of T. brownii and 23 fold of Melia azedarach. Such huge amount of water stored in the pulpy roots of Moringa tree will discharge to the surround-ing soil environment. Crops, like coffee grown at the immediate vicinity of Moringa tree will receive prolonged moisture from the slow release of moisture from the Moringa roots and because of the additional shade provided by the tree that reduces evaporation. In Konso, Moringa trees are allowed to grow relatively tall and leaf har-vest is performed using a pruning sickle with a very long handle. In the Lower Valley of Darashie, Moringa trees are pollarded so that the leaves are more accessible for harvest.

On farm, Moringa trees are widely spaced to allow the growth of other perennial crops such as coffee, cassava, pulses, cereals and other herbs. The Konso community mixes all these plant species in one plot to enable nutrient mining and absorption of water at all levels in the soil profile. Such best practices could be replicated in parts of the dry lowland farm-ing areas. Mixed agroforestry system of diverse plant production mini-

8

mizes production and marketing risks compared with mono-cropping system.

5. USES AND BENEFITS

Moringa is a multipurpose vegetable used by thousands of people in Southern parts of Ethiopia. The advantage of this plant is that it can be continuously harvested throughout the year. The roots and leaves are good sources of traditional herbal medicinal preparations. Some studies have been conducted on the use of Moringa seed cake for its water puri-fication potential. However, practically it has been observed that, unless the cake residue is removed, foul odour may develop after a couple of days indicating contamination of the water. Thus, in rural and remote areas where the water is usually kept in clay pot for 2-3 days, care has to be taken in using Moringa seed cake for water purification. 5.1 FOOD AND NUTRITION

The Moringa leaflet has significant food value similar to other green leafy vegetables. It is used by more than 12 ethnic communities in rural areas of south Ethiopia. Especially, it is a favourite main component in the dai-ly diet of the Konso and surrounding communities. Its English common name “Cabbage Tree’’ has been derived from the role of its leaflets as food. Apart from daily use for food, it is also marketed as source of cash income in local markets.

9

5.2 TRADITIONAL MORINGA PREPARATION

The food preparation starts by collecting the fresh twigs from the plant, removing the leaflets from the twigs and making them ready for cook-ing. In the Konso culture, to prepare a complete menu or dish, maize or sorghum flour is made into thick dough and small pieces of the dough are rolled into small portions called Kurkufa in Konso language. Kurkufa will boil in a big pot and then Moringa leaflets are added into the pot. To improve taste and give it spicy flavour, salt, onions, oil and sometimes meat are added. All the ingredients are thoroughly mixed and allowed to cook for about one hour. When the cooking is done, it is served on wood or plastic dishes. Traditionally, all family members, invited guests or visitors gather around the served Kurkufa and enjoy the meal. Most villagers prepare Kurkufa on daily basis.

5.3 NUTRITIONAL CONTENTS

Leafy vegetables including Moringa are sources of minerals, vitamins, fibre, quality protein, and flavour. An increase in the consumption of vegetables is commonly recommended for their micronutrients and management of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hyper-tension, diabetes, cancer, and age related degenerative health prob-lems. However, they are not preferred sources of protein, carbohydrate and fat due to their higher moisture content (usually more than 70%). It is not realistic to take bulky fresh vegetable (raw or boiled) to meet the demand. If leafy vegetables are dried, their nutritional content will increase and can help to alleviate both micronutrient and some macro-nutrient (like plant-derived proteins) deficiency.

10

In terms of nutritional composition, M. stenopetala leaflets are similar to other green leafy vegetables such as Brassica carinata (Ye’habesha gomen or Ethiopian kale). While very nutritious, Moringa does not con-tain all of the nutrients needed in a healthy diet. That is why consump-tion of assorted foods including different vegetables is the best approach to tackle malnutrition and prevent chronic diseases.

Table 1. Comparative nutritional composition of three leafy vegetables (% dry mater basis/excluding moisture)Nutrients Brassica

carinata*Moringa stenopetala**

Moringa oleifera**

Protein 25.5 26.6 28.9Fat 6.7 3.36 6.73Total mineral 15.8 14.8 13.2Crude fiber 12.5 10.2 8.51Total carbohydrate 51.8 45.0 42.7

Source: * Abuye et al. (2003); ** Melesse (2011)

5.4. MEDICINAL USES

Traditionally, Moringa leaflets and roots are commonly prepared as de-coctions for medicinal use. Fresh leaflets or roots are cut into fine small pieces and are prepared with either cold or hot water. The decoction is thoroughly mixed and is taken orally for the particular health com-plaint. One remarkable practice that is followed by the community living around Arbaminch is that they take decoction of leaflets or roots early in the morning before they eat any food, especially to treat severe malar-ia. Some investigations on efficacy of different parts of Moringa against different health problems are summarized in Table 2. However, further investigations including clinical trial and proper regulatory procedures

11

must be followed before any part of the plant is promoted or used by the user as a medicine for any kind of disease.

Table 2. Table 2. Effect of crude extracts of Moringa stenopetala against different health problems Parts used & extract Test done Result/EffectSeed methanol and n-hexane extract

Antimicrobial (Salmo-nella typhii, Vibro chol-era & Escherchia coli)

Bacterial growth inhi-bitiona

Fresh root ethanol extract

Antiparasite (Trypano-soma brucei)

Parasite growth inhi-bitionb

Dried leaflet acetone extractFresh leaflet ethanol extract

Oxytocic (facilitating delivery) on Gunea pig & mouse model

Limited effectc

Dried leaflet water extract

Blood pressure Reduction in pressured

Dried leaflet water extract

Glucose & cholesterol Reduction in glucose and cholesterole

Source: a-Walter et al., 2011 b-Mekonnen et al., 1999 c=-Mekonnen, 1999 d-Mengistu et al., 2012 e- Ghebreselassie et al., 2011

5.5. OTHER BENEFITS

Beside the use of the plant as source of food and traditional medicine, different parts of Moringa are also used for different purposes including as fodder, ornamental tree, live fence, boundary markers, intercropping in mixed multi-story stands with food crops, and other economically im-portant plants, bee forage, soil conservation, shade and windbreak as well as fuel wood. The defatted seed cake may potentially be used in biofuel production, poultry and cattle feed, brewery effluent treatment,

12

and as organic fertilizer. The cake may also be used in muddy water pu-rification (due to its coagulation property). However, further research and standard regulatory measures are required to verify its effect and recommend for public use.

6. HARVESTING OF LEAFLETS, POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING

To obtain optimum quantity and quality of plant materials and their products which are to be used for food and medicine, meeting good manufacturing practices is fundamental. The following points are there-fore, highly recommended to be implemented before Moringa leaflets are marketed or made available to the consumer.

6.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Personnel involved in collection, processing, and packaging of Mor-inga should maintain high degree of personal hygiene while on duty and be free from infectious diseases.

• There is a need to authenticate and standardize source of leaflets (Moringa) mainly based on macroscopic characters of the plant. It is therefore imperative to identify admixtures from the true type;

• Collected plant materials and processing rooms should be protect-ed from dust, insects, birds, rodents, pets, and domestic animals. Every shipment constitutes a batch. It should be packed with extra care to avoid any possible fraud/adulteration, labelled and signed by the responsible person and documented. In order to confirm to the rules of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), a manufacturer/responsible person of the leaflet should have records of important

13

production information including origin (eg. habitat, climate, soil type and other specifics), season, harvesting date, important steps for its processing and handling for each batch of collected mate-rial.

Training of the collectors, handlers and processors is equally important to provide quality produce to the consumer. Full accountability will be taken by responsible persons at different stages in the market chain for any deliberate contamination and misinformation, which could be highly detrimental to human health.

6.2. COLLECTION

During collection, the following points need to be noted.• Leaflets can be harvested from freely growing trees as soon as the

lower earlier leaf attain a maturity stage; the leaf blade is striped and used as human food. The over matured leaflet which is bitter for human are palatable by farm animals and thus can be used as feed. Pods harvesting follows similar trend in that the edible stage should not exceed a 15 to 20 cm size. If it grows beyond the speci-fied size it will be separately collected as a feed for farm animals;

• In modern high density intensive production, leaflets and twigs are harvested about every two months before the leaves over mature at 80 cm to 1.5 m high for human food.

• The bundles of twigs are repeatedly washed. One kilogram leafy biomass is spread under well ventilated shade in a 1 m x 1 m space to protect from decaying;

• Moth larvae (Noorda blitealis Walker) Caterpillar is a common pest which is mainly observed at the end of the main rainy season (May

14

and June) in Konso and surrounding areas. There is a need to avoid collection for human food at times of pest and pathogen infesta-tion;

• Collectors should be able to identify the plant, collected part, time of harvest and technique for harvesting;

• Collection should take place at a time when the edible portion (twig) is found at its optimum yield and quality;

• All equipment used for collection should be clean and free from remnants of previously harvested plants and any other material;

• Mechanical damage that results in undesirable quality changes to the leaflet and the mother plant must be avoided. Damaged and dead leaflets must be discarded, and harvested leaflets should not be in direct contact with soil. Leaflets must be collected under dry and clean conditions;

• Leaflets immediately turn brown when they lack ventilation, and are exposed to higher temperature and humidity. Therefore, the period between collection and arriving to the drying facility should be minimized to avoid undesirable changes in external appearance, quality and microbial status;

• Sisal sacks should be used for transport and storage. Use of plastic sacks hampers aeration of the plant material and encourages fungal growth.

• Harvesting twigs should be done with a clean pair of shears, sickle or other traditional tool(s) and the leaflets should be stripped care-fully. Collection of the leaflets directly off the tree has negative im-pact on pruning efficiency (regeneration of mother plant).

15

6.3. PROCESSING

6.3.1. Cleaning/washing Collected leaflets contain extraneous substances such as dust, soil, sand, etc. The leaflets must be separated from the twigs and cleaned. Leaflets must be ready for drying after washing three times in troughs (draining waste water after each wash) and rinsed with potable water.

6.3.2. Drying This step is an important aspect of maintaining the quality of plant ma-terial. Among the different drying methods, room/air drying is feasible under Ethiopian condition and but the following points must be consid-ered.

• Washed leaflets must be spread on sieve for at least 15 minutes to drain, and then spread leaflets thinly on mesh tied on racks. To im-prove uniformity in drying, leaflets must be turned twice with clean hands and drying frames must be located at a sufficient distance from the ground. Caution must be taken to avoid alterations of the desired ingredient spectrum by direct sunlight, high humidity, re-stricted ventilation and moisture;

• Processing and storage premises used for drying/processing must be clean, well aerated and never be used for animal keeping;

• The facility must provide protection of the plant material against fire, moisture, pests, rodents, insects, birds, and domestic animals;

• The walls and roofs should be waterproof for washing at regular time interval. Equipment such as drying frames must be very clean and regularly serviced. Dried leaflets should be screened in order

16

to eliminate discoloured, mouldy or damaged pieces and foreign admixture and contaminants;

• Artificial drying can be conducted in temperature ranging from 200C to 400C, and over drying of leaflets should be avoided (90-95% dry matter is optimum). Fairly rapid drying helps leaflets to retain their colour, aroma, nutrients and other phytochemicals of biomedical importance.

6.3.3. Milling Pulverizing dried leaflets may be required for different reasons. Stain-less steel hammer can be used for milling large quantity. Mortar, kitchen blender or other traditional tools may also be used to pound leaflets to be used at household/small scale level. Powder can be sieved using different mesh sizes such as 1.0 – 1.5 mm for coarse, 0.5 – 1.0 mm for fine and 0.2 - 0.5 mm for very fine powder. Since Moringa leaf powder attracts moisture during or after milling, it should be dried at 45 0C for 30 minutes to reduce moisture to 7.5% or lower.

6.4. PACKAGING AND LABELING • Packaging materials should be stored in a clean and dry place that is

free of pests and inaccessible for domestic animals;• Dried leaflets should be packed immediately in bags or containers

permitting air flow in order to reduce the risk of pest attacks and mould. Overfilling of sacks must be avoided to maintain the quality of the leaflets;

• Powder forms are mostly hygroscopic and delays in packaging in-creases moisture content, which leads to mould contamination. Ex-posure of the powder to oxygen may also be destructive. Hence,

17

pulverized material should be immediately packed in air tight and possibly filled containers or sachets. New sacks should be used for packaging. If sacks are reused, it should be well cleaned and dried prior to their usage;

• Each batch must be legibly labelled. The label should have informa-tion which includes the name and address of the producer, net con-tent, batch number, instruction for use, production and if possible the expiration date;

• If the product is approved by Food, Medicine and Health Care Ad-ministration and Control Authority (FMHACA) to be used for a spe-cific health problem, that information can be included. Otherwise, the label should not indicate use of the product to treat any health problem.

6.5. STORAGE AND TRANSPORT• Storage rooms should be built to prevent dust, pests and other

animals from entering. Packed leaflets should be stored in easy to clean ground, on pallets, sufficient distance to the wall and sepa-rated from other crops;

• In the case of bulk transport (dried leaflet), it is crucial to maintain dry conditions, and use aerated containers and/or transport ve-hicles to reduce risk of pest attack;

• Containers containing powder must be properly labelled with the required information and kept on shelves,

• It is recommended to use opaque materials for packaging. 7. PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES AND TECHNIQUES Possible health concerns must be considered when introducing any new

18

consumable product to the market. In this regard, different communi-ties in Southern Ethiopia have been using Moringa leaflets as vegetable for many years but did not report any side effects (serious health prob-lems). This could be due to its lower level of antinutritional factors and/or the common traditional processing method (boiling) which may have reduced the antinutritional factors to tolerable safe level. How much of the leaflets or roots are effective to reduce blood glucose level or blood pressure level is a question that has yet to be answered. Scientific stud-ies still need to be conducted on the potential benefits and side effects of Moringa. Drug development is a long process. First one has to identify active compounds and then test them in controlled clinical trials. There-fore, the application of Moringa leaf as food supplement is relatively an easy recommendation than to prescribe or suggest the application of Moringa against certain diseases. The medicinal value of Moringa is be-ing studied by many motivated researchers. Consumption of fresh Moringa leaflets is preferred over the dried forms. If used as vegetable, it is advisable to avoid boiling for long duration. Boiling for long duration reduces heat labile nutrients such as Vitamin C, pro-vitamin A and other phytochemicals of biomedical importance. It is also recommended to prepare and use green leafy vegetables with oil or foods that are rich in fat. Decoction of the pulverized Moringa leaflets is expected to contain water soluble and some escaped ingredients, which may have nutritional or medicinal value. An expert group lead by the HoA-REC&N has conducted a pilot scale study on postharvest handling and processing, and the potential for val-ue chain development for the Moringa leaflets in Southern Ethiopia. It was observed that the fresh leaflets are widely used for food in Konso,

19

Derashe and Arba Minch Zuria Woredas and South Omo zone of SNNPR. The fresh leaves are also made available in the local markets. Furthermore, leaflets are dried, pulverized, packed, and stored until re-quired at the local market. Packed powder of unauthenticated source was also marketed in different parts of the country as “Moringa pow-der” to be used mainly for medicine against different health problems. The processing, packaging and storage methods as well as marketing practices are far behind acceptable standards. The market chain is highly exposed to fraud. This may lead to unpredictable health problems such as liver damage, which may lead to death in worst cases. No responsi-bility is shouldered by any individual or organization on the unwanted outcomes of using the so called “Moringa powder” being sold in many supermarkets and shops.

8. MYTHS AND FACTS Facts about the biology of M. stenopetala and how the indigenous com-munities exploit the different plant parts have been reported in different literature sources. Based on the traditional knowledge, the people and the communities in Southern Ethiopia make good use of the plant. They are owners of the traditional knowledge and practice regarding Moringa and that knowledge should be highly valued and appreciated. In the recent years, however, there is a growing interest to make use of the different parts of the plant for medicinal use. However, the un-authenticated information about the nutritional content and medicinal use of Moringa is often exaggerated and may provide an opportunity for some dealers to sell dried leaves of an unknown plant by the name of Moringa powder.

20

Under these undefined and unregulated conditions, Moringa has be-come a plant to be used against different health complaints without much scientific backings. Some say they feel better from their particular disease following use of Moringa. There is anecdotal evidence from peo-ple claiming that consuming Moringa has helped their ailments, but this lacks scientific evidence. What remains to be done is to properly justify the effects of Moringa for medicinal use with scientific evidence. Research to verify traditional medicinal use of the plant species against the different health problems is underway in research institutions. Once found effective and safe, products will be made available to the public after compelling and fulfilling the regulation of FMHACA of Ethiopia.

9. KEY MILESTONES • Multiple traditional uses and potential benefits of Moringa for food

security, climate change adaptation and mitigation may encour-age plantation not only in south Ethiopia but also in other parts of the country where the agro-climatic condition is favourable for its growth;

• If Moringa leaflets are to be brought to the market in pulverized form, there is a need to establish responsible organization(s) which can appoint at the local level a person responsible to ensure the correct identity of the material and the compliance of collectors with good manufacturing practices. The appointed body should sign the accompanying documentation and accept responsibility for the specifics. There is also a need for close monitoring of the process.

• An appropriate market chain should be established and implement-ed to conform to the rules of good manufacturing practices. Fur-thermore, it helps to avoid falsification of the source of plant mate-

21

rial. Falsification can have adverse effects on the consumer, which may range from failure of the plant material to meet the intended use to causing adverse health problems which may lead to death;

• Close relative of M. stenopetala, M. oleifera is known to accumulate heavy metals, which are toxic to human and other animals. It can cautiously be assumed that cultivation of M. stenopetala may have similar effect. It is, therefore, recommended to avoid consuming Moringa collected from areas where there is high potential for con-tamination by heavy metals (eg. road sides and areas contaminated by pesticide and/or herbicide residues);

• As indicated above, Moringa is a multipurpose plant. It is there-fore appropriate to collect germplasm from different corners of the country, conduct selection for the different important parameters/attributes including higher production, quality (food value, medici-nal and other importance) and agronomic benefits for promotion;

• Concerned government and non-government organizations as well as community based organizations need to identify pathogens of Moringa, and develop and implement controlling measures;

• Integrated crop management can be a useful strategy to tackle dam-age of the plant by pests and pathogens. Use of toxic (to human, other animals and environment) pesticides and herbicides should also be avoided as much as possible; and

• Awareness creation/raising activities should be conducted on pos-sible drawbacks of consuming food or drink from pulverized pow-der (prepared in any form) purchased from the market by the name of “Moringa” without confirming the source of the powder.

22

Bibliography

1. Abuye, C., Urga, K., Knapp, H., Selmar, D., Omwega, A.M.., Imungi, J.K. and Winterhalter, P. A Compositional study of Moringa steno-petala leaves. East African Medical Journal 80(5): 247-252.

2. Ghebreselassie, D., Mekonnen, Y., Gebru, G., Ergete, W. and Hu-ruy, K. 2011. The effects of Moringa stenopetala on blood param-eters and histopathology of liver and kidney in mice. The Ethio-pian Journal of Health Development 25(1): 51-57.

3. Mekonnen, Y., Yardley, V., Rock, P. and Croft, S. 1999. In vitro anti-trypanosomal activity of M. stenopetala leaves and roots. Phyto-therapy Research 13(6): 538-539.

4. Mekonnen, Y. 1999. Effects of ethanol extract of M. stenopetala leaves on guinea pig and mouse smooth muscle. Phytotherapy Research 13(5): 442-444.

5. Mekonnen, Y. and Draeger, B. 2003. Glucosinolates from Moringa stenopetala. Planta Medica 69: 380-382.

6. Mekonnen, Y. and Gessesse A. 1998. Documentation on the uses of M. stenopetala and its possible antileishamnial and antifertility effects. SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science 21(2): 287-295.

7. Mekonnen, Y., Jiur, D. and Sonder, K. 2007. Screening of Mor-inga accessions for nutritive value and palatability. Agricultural Research Fund. Proceedings, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp.383-89.

23

8. Melesse, A. 2011. Comparative assessment on chemical compo-sitions and feeding values of leaves of Moringa stenopetala and Moringa oleifera using in vitro gas production method. Ethiopian Journal of Applied Science and Technology 2(2): 31-41.

9. Mengistu, M., Abebe, Y., Mekonnen, Y.and Tolessa, T. 2012. In vivo and in vitro antihypertensive effect of aqueous extract of Moringa stenopetala. African Health Sciences 12 (4): 545-551.

10. Tsakins, J., Lalas, S., Gergis, V., et al. 1999. Characterization of M. oleifera variety Mbololo seed oil of Kenya. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 4495-4499.

11. Walter, A., Samuel, W., Peter, A. and Joseph, O. 2011. Antibacteri-al activity of Moringa oleifera and Moringa stenopetala methanol and n-hexane seed extracts on bacteria implicated in water borne diseases. African Journal of Microbiology Research 5(2): 153-157.

12. Radovich, T.2011 (revised). Farm and Forestry Production and marketing Profile for Moringa (Moringa oleifera). In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawai’i. http://agrofor-estry.net/scps

24

Contributors Biography

BRIEF ACADEMIC CAREER

1. Getachew Addis (Ph.D)Ethiopian Public Health Institute

Getachew Addis got his BSc and Ph.D degrees in Biology and Botany, respectively, from Addis Ababa University and his MSc degree in Plant Breeding from University of Wales, Aberystwyth, Great Britain. He con-ducted advanced research on Food Science and Technology at the Cen-tral Food Technological Research Institute of India through a senior re-search fellowship awarded to him from the United Nations University. He has many years of experience conducting research on medicinal and underutilized edible plants and has published numerous articles in repu-table journals.

2. Ato Dechasa JiruForestry Research Centre

Dechasa Jiru received a Diploma in General Agriculture and a BSc in Plant Science from the Alemaya College of Agriculture. He received his MSc in Agroforestry and postgraduate diplomas in Agroforestry and Food Sci-ence from Melbourne University, Australia. He was awarded the Na-tional Gold Medal for his scientific findings about the Acacia albida tree intercropping. Currently, he is undertaking research on multipurpose trees for agroforestry including Moringa.

3. Yalemtsehay Mekonnen, Professor Addis Ababa University

Yalemtsehay Mekonnen is a professor of Cell and Human Physiology and the Director of the Gender Office of the College of Natural Sciences, Ad-dis Ababa University. She obtained her BSc and MSc degrees in Biology from Addis Ababa University in 1977 and 1980, respectively. She also

25

received her PhD in Human Physiology from Ruprecht-Karls University of Heidelberg, Germany in 1992. She has extensive publications in differ-ent scientific journals on topics of respiratory physiology and medicinal plants.

She has also been awarded the Gold Medal and Certificate of Recogni-tion by Addis Ababa University in 2009 - an outstanding achievement awarded by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. She also was awarded the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Award (2001-2002). Lastly, she has been a coordinating lead author of Sub-Sahara Africa Region for the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (2005-2007)

4. Ermias Dagne, Professor Addis Ababa University

Ermias Dagne is Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at Addis Ababa Uni-versity. He got his BSc in Chemistry from Addis Ababa University in 1968 and his PhD from the University of California, United States in1972.

Ermias is the Director of the African Laboratory for Natural Products (AL-NAP), a network of laboratories in five neighbouring countries, namely Uganda, Rwanda, Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Bu-rundi. His main research area is natural products, with extensive pub-lications dealing mainly with the isolation and structure elucidation of natural compounds. He has developed the Natural Database for Africa (NDA), and he is a founding member of the Natural Products Research Network for Eastern and Central Africa (NAPRECA). He is a Fellow of the Academy of Sciences for the Developing World (TWAS) and is also re-cipient of both the IFS/DANIDA (1997) and IOCD Pierre Crabbé (2003) international awards.

26

27Photo Credit: Andinet Ejigu and Eyasu mekete

28

29

30