most vulnerable, most resilient: migrant and refugee children

Running Head: Most Vulnerable, Most Resilient 1

Most Vulnerable, Most Resilient: Migrant and Refugee Children

Final Paper

Comfort Agboola

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

Most Vulnerable, Most Resilient 2

Most of the country would have immigrated or be born of immigrant parent(s) making

them the new face of American society. Immigrants can be legal residents, refugees, and some

are undocumented (most immigrants are legal citizens). Immigrants, however, are constantly

bombarded with the inability to access a country's resources because they are seen as

“undeserving foreigners” (Ferguson et. al., 2005). Newcomers are seen as undeserving, or that

they must prove their entitlement in order to gain access to basic support necessities. It is clear

that individuals are exploited and marginalized within the country they have emigrated

(Ferguson et al., 2005). The most vulnerable population are migrant and refugee children who’s

rights, as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, are often ignored

and devalued.

This topic selection is focused on highlighting social institutions that inhibit and promote

the acculturation process for immigrant and refugee youth. The second portion of this topic is

developing ways that institutions that promote acculturation and positive settlement can be

strengthened and ways to eliminate norms that inhibit growth and stability among this very

vulnerable population. This topic must begin with the strengths and problems for immigrant and

refugee youth in settlement. The current political landscape in the United States is seeing

pressure for immigration reform from both sides of the debate. Meanwhile, in 2009, there were

74.5 million children under the age of 17 in the United States, constituting nearly 24% of the

population (Hernandez 2004). Nearly 24% of that population (about 16.9 million) had at least

one immigrant parent (Hernandez 2004). These 16.9 million children need reform and resources

that meet their socialization and acculturation needs.

Three of the most important concerns for immigrant and refugee youth are language

barriers, racism and discrimination, and poverty (Sheilds & Behrman 2004). With lack of


supports these three barriers make acculturation a difficult process and many do not become fully

accepted into society, as born United States citizens would. Sheilds & Behrman (2004) research

suggests that children are resilient to one risk factor but multiple risk factors can undermine a

child's development.

Immigrant and refugee youth face multiple challenges in their adaption to a new country

and culture making them vulnerable. Pre-migration stressors (trauma, family, extreme poverty,

etc.) to post-migration issues (culture shock, finding employment, language, changing in family

dynamics, etc.) can cause acculturation to be difficult (Chung, Bemak, & Grabosky, 2010).

Immigrant and refugee youth desire a need to feel safe in their new environment which is often

met with emotions of a life “on hold” (Brinegar 2010). Certain social institutions can exacerbate

this emotion of being in socioeconomic purgatory.

After research on this topic, it is apparent that there is a need for structural changes.

However, it is also clear that public opinion on immigration reform is based on social, historical

and political shifts as found in Espenshad and Calhoun (1993). Espenshad and Calhoun explain

how the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was a response to public opinion

that wanted to reduce the flow of undocumented immigration. However, the flow of

undocumented migrants did not decrease and was not deterred by IRCA. Various historic events

help shape public opinion and public opinion shaped legislature about immigration. In order to

change legislature one must have public opinion and this can only be achieved by providing an

accurate portrayal of immigrants and refugees.

There are many studies addressing the difficulties of marginalized natural born citizens

but few addressing how to lessen the strain on the immigrant adolescent. Immigrants entering


the country at adolescence can be increasingly more complicated because of the major social

changes occurring at this stage. Adolescents are already facing the developmental issue of

identity versus role confusion. Immigrant parents have strong work ethic and value hard work

even for low wages; they expect their children to value hard work and achieve a better life

(Sheilds & Behrman 2004).

Immigrants possess a number of strengths that can be surprising to therapist who use

traditional modes of treatment. For instance, on average, children born to immigrant mothers are

healthier than those born to U.S. mothers. This includes infant mortality rates and fewer health

conditions, such as injuries, physical impairments, infectious disease and asthma (Sheilds &

Behrman 2004). Children are also more likely to come from intact families (two parents in the

home); commonly the father would be employed and the mother is a stay-at-home mother.

Immigrant families living in single parent homes is 16% compared to U.S. born families with

26% living in single parent homes (Sheilds & Behrman 2004). In the home environment, there is

more stability and a larger extended family, sometimes with non-blood relatives. There are both

social and economic benefits to this that immigrant families have unique access to this.

As previous mentioned immigrant families may have a strong work ethic because many

come to the United States with the intention of improving their livelihood. Parents value hard

work and expect their children to as well, including in school. Immigrant children are more

likely to have working parents even if the wages are lower despite achievement of higher

education. Immigrant parents despite their educational background expect their children to

achieve high levels of education. In many immigrant communities, educational completion is a

major achievement and is celebrated. On average, despite language barriers, 8th grade children


of immigrants have higher grades and math scores than their counterparts of the same ethnicity

in U.S. born families (Sheilds & Behrman 2004).

Another aspect of immigrant success is community cohesion. When immigrants arrive,

they try to locate to areas of familiarity. People from similar countries of origin tend to live in the

same areas. Fellow immigrants help “facilitate a new family’s adjustment, helping them learn to

navigate new systems and institutions (such as schools) and to find jobs” (Sheilds & Behrman

2004, p. 6). These communities also help in a child's adjustment by providing emotional support

and reinforcement of tradition and parental authority. All of these strengths help in the

newcomers feeling welcomed and supported; however, there are still areas of weakness that can

appear insurmountable forcing immigrant families into deeper poverty.

Three of the most important concerns for immigrant youth are language barriers, racism

and discrimination, and poverty (Sheilds & Behrman 2004). With lack of supports these three

barriers make acculturation a difficult process and many do not become fully accepted into

society, as born United States citizens would. Sheilds & Behrman (2004) research suggests that

children are resilient to one risk factor but multiple risk factors can undermine a child's

development. Language barriers are often tackled in academic institutions. Referential strategies,

used often in education of immigrants and refugees, are how “individuals are grouped together

using specific characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, culture, religion, education)” (The Policies and

Politics of Educating Refugee Adolescents 2010). There is an assumption that if one is an

immigrant or refugee they have a shared experience so therefore they have a universal needs and

challenges. Bilingualism is beneficial in society however many immigrant youth have little

mastery of the English language because they live in linguistically isolated communities. This

drawback in development leads to lower waged jobs and continued poverty.


Another concern for immigrants and their families is discrimination and racism.

Discrimination is defined as the unequal treatment of different people based on the groups or

categories to which they belong (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Social standing, racism and

segregation marginalizes children of color and children of immigrants from the mainstream of

America (Sheilds & Behrman 2004). Discrimination has been common place in society, but in

both personal and institutional forms. Immigrants face personal discrimination from others who

feel that immigrants “steal” jobs from Americans or even how they perpetrate more criminal

acts. Neither of these statements exist in the realm of reality but are very popular prejudices

faced by immigrants. Xenophobia causes people to want their culture and theirs alone. The

institutional injustices may be far more difficult to overcome.

Immigrants are unaware of many government assistance programs available to them.

Institutional discrimination is when an institution or dominant group promotes discrimination

(Sue & Capodilupo, 2008). Institutional discrimination there are laws created to insure the

dominance of majority. Arizona's Immigration laws for example target Latino immigrants and

profile them for proof of citizenship. In addition, other legislature have isolated and

disproportionately affected immigrant populations. The most influential in health and mental

health care is the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (PRWORA) which

changed the method and goal of federal assistant to the poor. It effectively stated that immigrant

children are not created equal under the law and decreased their access to care.

In October 2008, the Obama Administration started Secure Communities (SComm)

which is a federal deportation program, under Immigration Customs and Enforcement. The

purpose of this program is to for local law enforcement to share information for anyone they take

in for any reason to Immigration Customs and Enforcement. Information that can be shared are


fingerprints and immigration status. There are three stages prior to being deported: identification,

release into ICE custody, and removal from the United States. After information is shared, ICE

can initiate deportation proceedings against any undocumented immigrant. American nativist

press for tougher immigration laws and border control mainly the United States-Mexico border.

This discrimination pushes for fewer resources for immigrant families and their children while

continuing this practice of isolation and criminalization.

Immigration is also changing the social structure of the nation. No longer is it a white

country with several minority groups but now it is turning into multicultural nation. This social

transformation is important to US interests and growth in a global society. This includes funding

organizations that support and assist refugees. This is a fact that many organizations in

immigrant and refugee issues face. The lack of funding and the overall unpopularity of helping

migrants, as they are viewed as “undeserving”. This is an area of research that psychologist and

community organizers seek to examine how to increase popularity and understanding of helping

those that have migrated and are most vulnerable in society.

Psychologist can also perform the work of lobbyist and create more active organizations

in the protection and support of immigrant and refugee rights. Nothing is more disheartening

than a refugee or immigrant coming to the United States fleeing persecution and hoping for

freedom, only to be handcuffed and imprisoned. Isolationism and dehumanization is not the path

for psychology and certainly not the United States. Psychologist should strive to be socially

responsible and promote social justice. The issue of immigration is not going to disappear as

millions of people are migrating around the world. This world is no longer a small place that we

can seek refuge in corners but it is interconnected. This is a result of globalization and the United


States reaps many rewards including money and power. However, in the words of Voltaire,

“with great power comes great responsibility” (Voltaire 1756).


Annotated Bibliography

The Policies and Politics of Educating Refugee Adolescents. (2010). Language Learning,

60(Suppl 1), 119-145.

The Policies and Politics of Educating Refugee Adolescents’ is aimed at addressing the

educational needs of refugee adolescents since "Everyone has the right to education" as

proclaimed in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Education is referred to as a

"multiplier right" because it enhances or leads to other human rights that affect an individual's

civil, economic, social, cultural and linguistic rights. Learners have different needs making them

require different supports. This article covers the story of 13 East African adolescents who filed a

civil rights lawsuit against their alternative school, owning organization and school district. The

lawsuit focused on federal and state violations concerning their educational well-being, including

the Equal Education Opportunity Act of 1974 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

The article explains the discriminatory practices as referential and predicational

strategies. Referential strategies are how “individuals are grouped together using specific

characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, culture, religion, education)”(The Policies and Politics of

Educating Refugee Adolescents 2010). There is an assumption that if one is an immigrant or

refugee they have a shared experience so therefore they have a universal needs and challenges.

This assumption is incorrect. Immigrant and refugee youth are diverse: coming from many

different countries, for many different reasons, with varying amounts of resources. Predicational

strategies go further by assigning qualities to individuals verbally. This as a form of bias would

be displayed when someone says “immigrants and refugees take jobs, are uneducated and

dependent on welfare”. By understanding the discriminatory practices, one can reform systems to

eliminate this and open up social channels to immigrants and refugees. The distress of


immigrants and refugees threatens us all because social inequities can last for generations

creating societal stress.

Brinegar, K. (2010). "I Feel Like I'm Safe Again:" A Discussion of Middle Grades

Organizational Structures from the Perspective of Immigrant Youth and Their Teachers.

Research In Middle Level Education Online, 33(9), 1-14.

This article is a case study examining immigrant children and how the quality of their

schools will ease or complicate their transition. The case study uses a population of immigrant

youth to test a larger belief about middle grade organizational structures. The study group is

comprised of the 14 students, 9 were males and 5 were females. In terms of country of origin,

three were from Somalia, one from the Congo, six were Bosnian, and four were Vietnamese. The

length of time they had been in the United States varied, with one year being the shortest amount

of time and 10 years the longest. The one characteristic they all shared was their eligibility for

English Language Learner (ELL) services. There variation in countries of origin, language,

length of arrival, genders, and ages were meant to show that immigrants and refugees arrive

under varied circumstances and require varied services that English Language Learner services is

supposed to provide universally. This is another case of universal programming attempting to

reach a variety of needs, yet Brinegar (2010) seeks to illustrate how services can be adapted to

treat youth within their organizational structures taking place over 3 years.

Throughout the 3 years, students and teachers shared numerous thoughts on the benefits

of collaboration in accessing and accommodating the necessities for immigrant and refugee

students. One major result showed that migrant youth need a safe space where they can have a

voice and learn to advocate for themselves comfortably. This research revealed that the practice

of organizing middle schools into smaller units helped provide a positive environment.

Traditionally, schools are where most immigrant youth are socialized into U.S. culture. The


article gives a strong example of how to implement an acculturation program for middle school

migrant student in a school setting. In turn, reducing their vulnerability and increasing their

resilience.

Espenshade, T. J., & Calhoun, C. A. (1993). An analysis of public opinion toward undocumented

immigration. Population Research and Policy Review, 12(3), 189-224.

Public attitudes towards immigration are important in understanding the direction of

policy and laws passed concerning immigration. Espenshad & Calhoun (1993) explain how the

1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was a response to public opinion that wanted

to reduce the flow of undocumented immigration. However, the flow of undocumented migrants

did not decrease and was not deterred by IRCA. One thing that is affected by legal and social

history is public opinion. Various historic events help shape public opinion.

The authors propose five attitudes towards undocumented immigrants using a public

opinion poll in Southern California, which has the largest concentration of undocumented

migrants. Social events showed to affect public opinion including events such as "Zoe Baird, the

World Trade Center bombing, and the arrival of numerous ships from China carrying illegal

human cargo"(Espenshad & Calhoun 1993). The article also reviews the history of immigration

sentiment and how negative attitudes have a deep history extending past contemporary events.

Restrictionist immigration laws first appeared in 1875. This period expressed negative

beliefs about the effects of immigration specifically immigrant groups from southern and eastern

Europe. The economic recession helped fuel these negative sentiments which spread into the

1920's when immigrants from northern and western Europe were more favored. Post World War

II adopted liberal viewpoints to immigration. By amending the 1952 Immigration and

Nationality Act, The United States promoted principals of family reunification; moreover,


America accepted its new role as a world power. This meant accepting responsibilities to

refugees, economic prosperity, and reducing religious and racial prejudice. This was reserved for

better educated populations however.

This new acceptance of immigrants did not last long as more media coverage on the

arrival of undocumented immigrants. This created fears of economic insecurity and introduction

of undesirable cultural traits. Undocumented immigrants became the scapegoats for economic

distress, cultural turmoil and other societal ills. Undocumented immigration also shows up in

issues of United States national sovereignty, integrity of US borders (especially the US-Mexico

border), and American dislike of law breaking generally associated with immigrants and ethnic

minorities. Undocumented Immigration continues to be an issue in all realms of society.

Fong, R. (2007). Immigrant and Refugee Youth: Migration Journeys and Cultural Values.

Prevention Researcher, 14(4), 3-5.

Fong begins this article emphasizing that immigrant youth have challenges both pre and

post migration. Common problems of identity crisis, peer pressure, parental conflict and self-

worth are felt by migrant youth. Others also suffer with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

from witnessing or experiencing violence, torture (physical and mental), rape, or extreme

harassment. Migrant youth are split into immigrants and refugees. Their experiences as migrants

differ within their groups and between one another. The conditions in which immigrant youth

and refugee youth leave their countries of origin differ. Refugees have more “psycho-political

baggage” because they did not leave voluntarily, prepared nor do they have the option of

returning home. They have to make a life for themselves in a new country as there is no real

possibility of them resuming their life prior to migration. Understanding the differences in


adjustment between immigrants is often overlooked and for some populations resources for

acculturation are more accessible.

Fong (2007) states when working with immigrant youth, the professional must provide

"culturally appropriate intervention and prevention strategies that take in mind client's migration

journeys and legal status" (Fong 2007). There are 5 common migration statuses: documented

immigrant youth, undocumented immigrant youth, refugee youth, unaccompanied refugee

minors, and victims of human trafficking. Each category has specific implications for prevention

as they are all at-risk youth. This article highlights the needs of each group and prevention

strategies. Fong (2007) provides a much needed overview of specific vulnerabilities and failings

in understanding that not all immigrants are equally immigrants.

Fuligni, A.J. & Hardway, C. (2004). Preparing Diverse Adolescents for the Transition to

Adulthood. Future of Children, 14(2), 100-117.

Fuligni and Hardway (2004) focus on immigrant and ethnic minority youth and aspects

will allow them to make a successful transition into adulthood. Their success is fostered by their

educational attainment, acquisition of employable skills, and physical and mental health. The

article finds that “adolescents from Latino and African American backgrounds appear to be less

prepared to become healthy, productive, and successful adults than their peers”(Fuligni &

Hardway 2004). A major influence in immigrant and minority youth achievement is access to

high quality educational institutions and programs; after school enrichment; health care

resources; and access to college or universities. In order to improve their chances, there must be

improvement in school quality, financial support and health insurance, reducing information and


language barriers, and building on cultural traditions. The authors call for true acculturation

practices that occur at the levels of social policy reform.

Furthermore, the authors’ state “Schools with higher enrollments of minority and limited

English proficient students...are less likely to... [have] social climates that are conducive to

learning and achievement” (Fuligni & Hardway 2004). Immigrants possess a number of

strengths that can be surprising to therapist who use traditional modes of treatment. Immigrant

families from Latin and Central America, Africa, and Asia possess values and beliefs that are

distinct from those held by American society. These cultural traditions should be used to create

cohesion and smooth transition into American and youth cultures. Understanding their unique

strengths can help further their resilience and social adjustment.

Isbister, J. (1996). Are Immigration Controls Ethical. Social Justice, 23(3), 54-67. Retrieved

from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29766952

Isbister (1996) also addresses the idea of public opinion but under an ethical stance. He

asks the reader to consider if immigration controls are ethical. The author sets up this question

but displaying the mindset behind both sides of the argument. The United States is built on the

premise that all men are created equal. This is an idea is conflicted by immigration policy meant

to "perpetuate a privileged lifestyle at the expense of foreigners". The United States is not

willing to abandon either ideals but in turn we react with outrage at undocumented immigration.

Isbister (1996) refers to this as a "moral muddle" because of propensities to confuse "our

interests with ethics". Setting the false belief that "what is best for us is best, period"(Isbister

1996). However, this is false.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/29766952


Immigration from an economic standpoint shows that some Americans are hurt by it but a

greater number are helped. As more immigrants arrive the number hurt by immigration has

shrunk. The most stated argument is that "immigrants take jobs" but the jobs they work many

American would not perform. In many ways, immigrants help keep our economy alive.

Immigration is also changing the social structure of the nation. No longer is it a white country

with several minority groups but now it is turning into multicultural nation. This social

transformation is important to US interests. The author is careful to emphasize that interests do

not equal morality. Isbister (1996) continues to state the arguments against immigration and

provide reasons why these concerns are inaccurate. The article goes further in stating that

“Freedom of movement is a facet of the "Liberty" that the Declaration of Independence takes to

be an inherent right of equal human beings. Countries that systematically restrict the movement

of their people are rightly criticized” (Isbister 1996). By this argument, immigration policies are

since 1875 are in conflict with the Constitution.

Meissner, D., Meyers, D. W., Papademetriou, D. G., & Fix, M. (2006). Report of the

Independent Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future. Immigration and

America’s Future: A New Chapter.

Meissner, et.al. states that international migration is changing the social landscape of not

only the United States but also other countries. Despite America priding itself on being a nation

of immigrants and welcoming newcomers, policy and opinion show a division on immigration.

The author's pose not a question on what side of the debate is correct but rather what forms of

immigration policy and system would advance US national interests and the interests of


immigrant populations. The authors take the stance that immigration is not preventable therefore

restriction policies are a losing battle and a waste fiscally.

The authors outline three benefits to the nation in the global society: productivity,

competitive, and success. As far as productivity, the US will not be able to sustain the growth

and prosperity that has been a custom for some time now. The working age population is

shrinking but immigrants not only provide a working population but also a taxpaying population.

Immigrant populations also make America competitive in fields of science and engineering.

Foreign-born populations do value education and especially higher education. Immigrants are

also more likely to be entrepreneurs compared to native born Americans. One quarter of Silicon

Valley start-ups were established, at least partially, by immigrants. Thus, they are creating jobs,

revitalizing neighborhoods and helping the economy adjust to global market conditions.

The final benefit is dynamism which is in reference to the fact that immigration affects

our everyday activities- the food we consume, the people who watch our children, the

entertainment we watch are all a product of immigration. Immigrants have an influence in

foreign policy. America's openness to immigrants affects how countries view the US, including

our values and rule of law.

Morland, L. (2007). Promising Practices in Positive Youth Development with Immigrants and

Refugees. Prevention Researcher, 14(4), 18-20.

Children of immigrants are an important and growing part of society. By the year 2015

more than one-third of the children in United States schools will be children of immigrants or

migrants themselves. Morland (2007) emphasizes a strong sense of ethnic heritage with

bicultural identity into American society. Cohesion is crucial to their success. Cohesive ethnic

communities provide emotional and practical support to parents, and helping them maintain a


close relationship with their children, thus addressing the acculturation gap. Morland (2007)

suggest that programs that are more constructive rather than focusing on negative behaviors are

more affective because they acknowledge strengths to build on to like "strong sense of family

obligation and ethnic pride, and with the importance of education" (Morland 2004).

The author goes further than previously mentioned authors by introducing specific

practices that will help immigrant and refugee youth adjust to a new society. Promising practices

that the author discusses are: partnering with immigrant communities; engage the entire family

(addressing acculturation gaps that are common); support and develop bicultural or bilingual

staff; strengthen positive ethnic and bicultural identities; encourage youth leadership and

community involvement; academic and career development support services; and build bridges

with mainstream organizations.

National Immigration Forum. (2011, May 11). DREAM Act Reintroduced in Senate. National

Immigration Forum.

National Immigration Forum is an organization that advocates and increase public

support for policies that assist immigrants and refugees in the United States. Along with this they

also publish numerous articles and research about legislation concerning migrant rights. Two

issues at the forefront are Secure Communities and deportations, and The DREAM act. This

organization’s article helps explore these two issues currently in the public and political forum.

Both legislative policies directly affect an immigrant’s ability to be successful in American

society which is the undertone of many of the articles discussed.

In October 2008 the Obama Administration started Secure Communities (SComm) which

is a federal deportation program, under Immigration Customs and Enforcement. The purpose of


this program is to for local law enforcement to share information for anyone they take in for any

reason to Immigration Customs and Enforcement. Information that can be shared are fingerprints

and immigration status. There are three stages prior to being deported: identification, release into

ICE custody, and removal from the United States. After information is shared, ICE can initiate

deportation proceedings against any undocumented immigrant.

Since May 2011, more than 260,000 people have been arrested by ICE due to Secure

Communities, but over 100,000 have been deported (National Immigration Forum, 2011).

Approximately, 25 percent of people caught through Secure Communities were not convicted of

a crime and this percentage is higher in various states. In Illinois, 78 percent of the people caught

through SComm are non-criminals or had only minor offenses (like minor traffic violations)

(National Immigration Forum, 2011). States with higher immigrant populations see larger

deportation numbers of non-criminals. This program causes families to be separated and

instability for children.

Education is another area where there is tenuous debate about whether undocumented

adolescents can receive higher education. In 2011, Senator Dick Durbin (D-IL) and 32 bipartisan

cosponsors re-introduced the Development, Relief and Education for Alien Minors Act

(DREAM Act). This legislation would benefit talented immigrant youth who attend college or

serve their country. For many, the United States is the only country they are familiar with. The

argument for the DREAM Act is that denial of access to higher education does not force them to

leave our country but forces them to remain in the underground workforce. Effectively this limits

the increased economic productivity and the tax revenues achieve through educated and

competitive workforce. For many immigrants, education means a future and safety from the lives

they left in their country of origin.


Shields, M. K., & Behrman, R. E. (2004). Children of Immigrant Families: Analysis and

Recommendations. Children of Immigrant Families, 14(2), 4-15.

This article is a meta-analysis because the article summarizes data from individual studies

that concern the specific research question of what are the areas of strength and weakness for

immigrant families. The focus is on the necessity of a support system targeting immigrant

children and their families. Sheilds and Behrman (2004) pinpoint 3 strengths and 6 challenges,

both areas validated by other studies. This article is an analysis of the strengths and challenges

of children growing up in immigrant families, and the types of resources and supports they need

in order to become productive and engaged citizens. Sheilds and Behrman are cited in several

resources about immigrant youth making them an expert resource. The authors’ main argument

is that current support systems do not fully support the needs of immigrant populations. This is

substantiated by an examination of challenges, focusing on 3 ethnic groups and childhood age

ranges. Sheilds and Behrman (2004) first providing a generalization of all immigrants and then

making the argument more focus gives a thoroughness to their research.

The article concludes by identifying a number of areas of strengths and challenges more

direct care can be provided for immigrants. The goal of the article is not for assimilation but

acculturation so that these families become pivotal parts of American society while maintain

their own cultural values. At the end of the article, Sheilds and Behrman (2004) state

recommendations for several programs however, they do not mention funding for these social

policy changes. This is a fact that many researchers in immigrant and refugee issues face. The

lack of funding and the overall unpopularity of helping migrants as they are viewed as

“undeserving”. This is an area of research that other researchers and authors seek to examine


how to increase popularity and understanding of helping those that have migrated and are most

vulnerable in society.


References

The Policies and Politics of Educating Refugee Adolescents. (2010). Language Learning,

60(Suppl 1), 119-145.

Brinegar, K. (2010). "I Feel Like I'm Safe Again:" A Discussion of Middle Grades

Organizational Structures from the Perspective of Immigrant Youth and Their Teachers.

Research In Middle Level Education Online, 33(9), 1-14.

Espenshade, T. J., & Calhoun, C. A. (1993). An analysis of public opinion toward undocumented

immigration. Population Research and Policy Review, 12(3), 189-224.

Ferguson, I., Lavalette, M., & Whitmore, E. (2005). Globalisation, global justice and social

work. Abingdon [England: Routledge.

Fong, R. (2007). Immigrant and Refugee Youth: Migration Journeys and Cultural Values.

Prevention Researcher, 14(4), 3-5.

Fuligni, A.J. & Hardway, C. (2004). Preparing Diverse Adolescents for the Transition to

Adulthood. Future of Children, 14(2), 100-117.

Hernandez, D. J. (2004). Demographic Change and the Life Circumstances of Immigrant

Families. Future of Children, 14(2), 17-47. Retrieved April 13, 2012, from http://

www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/ publications/docs/14_02_03.pdf

Isaacs, D. (2010). Man's inhumanity to children. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health, 46(11),

617-618.

Isbister, J. (1996). Are Immigration Controls Ethical. Social Justice, 23(3), 54-67. Retrieved

from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29766952

Meissner, D., Meyers, D. W., Papademetriou, D. G., & Fix, M. (2006). Report of the

Independent Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future. Immigration and

America’s Future: A New Chapter.

Morland, L. (2007). Promising Practices in Positive Youth Development with Immigrants and

Refugees. Prevention Researcher, 14(4), 18-20.

National Immigration Forum. (2011, May 11). DREAM Act Reintroduced in Senate. National

Immigration Forum.

Shields, M. K., & Behrman, R. E. (2004). Children of Immigrant Families: Analysis and

Recommendations. Children of Immigrant Families, 14(2), 4-15.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/29766952


Sue, D. W. & Capodilupo C. M. (2008). Racial, gender, and sexual orientation microaggressions:

Implications for counseling and psychotherapy. In D. W. Sue & D. Sue (Eds.),

Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed., pp.105-130). Hoboken,

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most vulnerable, most resilient: migrant and refugee children

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