Motivation And Leadership

• Barsha Sharma

• Kamal Subedi

• Nisha Chalise

• Radhika Kandel

• Srijana Sharma

• Sujan Poudel

Group Members

Organizational Behavior

Motivation

Motivation

• Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to engage in

one behavior rather than some alternative behavior.

• But their goals are different.

• Managers strive to motivate people in the organization to

perform at high levels.

• But job performance depends on ability and environment as

well as motivation.

P = M+ A + EWhere,

P = Performance, M = Motivation,

A = Ability, and E = Environment:

Nature of Motivation

• Motivation is an internal feeling. It is basically a psychological

process.

• Motivation produces goal directed behavior.

• Motivation contains systems orientation.

• Motivation can be either negative or positive.

Motivation Process

Fig: Motivation Process, Source: Cengage Learning

• This framework provides

a useful way to see how

motivational processes

occur.

• When people experience

a need deficiency, they

seek ways to satisfy it,

which results in a choice

of goal-directed

behaviors.

• After performing the

behavior, the individual

experiences rewards or

punishments that affect

the original need

deficiency.

Types Of Motivation

• Positive or Incentive motivation

• Negative or fear motivation

• Extrinsic motivation

• Intrinsic motivation

• Self motivation or attitude motivation

Theories of Motivation

• Content Theories

– The theories of the motivation which explains the dynamics of

human needs, such as why people have different needs at

different times.

• Process Theories

– These theories do not directly explains how needs emerge.

Instead they describe the process through which the needs are

translated into behavior.

Content/Need Theories

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory)

• McClelland’s Theory of learned needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• The hierarchy of needs, developed by psychologist Abraham

Maslow in the 1940s, is the best-known need theory.

• Maslow argued that human beings are “wanting” animals

• They have innate desires to satisfy a given set of needs.

• Furthermore, Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in

a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the

foundation of the hierarchy.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

ERG Theory

• The ERG theory, developed by Yale psychologist Clayton

Alderfer, is another historically important need theory of

motivation.

• In many respects, ERG theory extends and refines Maslow’s

needs hierarchy concept, although there are also several

important differences between the two.

• The E, R, and G stand for three basic need categories:

existence, relatedness, and growth.

• Existence needs—those necessary for basic human survival—

roughly correspond to the physiological and security needs of

Maslow’s hierarchy.

ERG Theory

• Relatedness needs—those involving the need to relate to

others—are similar to Maslow’s belongingness and esteem

needs.

• Finally, growth needs are analogous to Maslow’s needs for

self-esteem and self-actualization.

• In contrast to Maslow’s approach, ERG theory suggests that

more than one kind of need

• for example, both relatedness and growth needs may motivate

a person at the same time.

Dual-Structure Theory

• This theory was originally called the “two-factor theory”

• This theory has played a major role in managerial thinking

about motivation, and though few researchers today accept the

theory, it is nevertheless widely known and accepted among

practicing managers.

• The dual-structure theory identifies motivation factors, which

affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine

dissatisfaction.

Dual-Structure Theory

• The traditional view of satisfaction suggested that satisfaction

and dissatisfaction were opposite ends of a single dimension.

• Herzberg’s dual structure theory found evidence of a more

complex view.

• In this theory, motivation factors affect one dimension, ranging

from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

• Other workplace characteristics, called “hygiene factors,” are

assumed to affect another dimension, ranging from

dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

Dual-Structure Theory

McClelland's Theory

• Need for Affiliation

– Similar to the Maslow's social needs and Aldfer’s relatedness

needs. It is the desire to establish and maintain the friendly

relations with other people

• Need for Power

– This is the need to dominate, influence and control people

• Need for Achievement

– This is the need for challenge, personal accomplishment and

success in the competitive situations.

Process Theories of Motivation

• Equity Theory of Motivation

• Expectancy Theory of Motivation

• Reinforcement Theory

Equity Theory

• The equity theory of motivation is based on the relatively simple

premise that people in organizations want to be treated fairly.

• The theory defines equity as the belief that we are being treated

fairly in relation to others and inequity as the belief that we are

being treated unfairly compared with others.

• Equity theory is just one of several theoretical formulations derived

from social comparison processes. Social comparisons involve

evaluating our own situation in terms of others’ situations.

• It is the most highly developed of the social comparison approaches

and the one that applies most directly to the work motivation of

people in organizations.

Equity Model

Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratios of their inputs (efforts)

to their outcomes (rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other similar

employees. Inequity exists when these ratios aren’t equivalent: An individual’s

own ratio of inputs to outcomes could be greater or less than that of others.

Fig: Equity Model, Source: Cengage Learning

Expectancy Theory

• Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated by how

much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of

getting it.

– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

• Effort-to-performance expectancy is a person’s perception of the

probability that effort will lead to performance.

– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy

• Performance to- outcome expectancy is the individual’s perception

of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes.

Expectancy Theory

– Outcomes and Valences

• An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular

behavior.

• Valence is the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a

particular outcome has for a person

Fig: Expectancy Framework, Source: Cengage Learning

Reinforcement Theory

• In its simplest form, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is afunction of its consequences.

• Behavior that results in pleasant consequences is more likely to berepeated (the employee will be motivated to repeat the currentbehavior),

• and behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is less likely tobe repeated (the employee will be motivated to engage in differentbehaviors).

• Reinforcement theory also suggests that in any given situation,people explore a variety of possible behaviors.

• Future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences ofearlier behaviors. Cognitions, as already noted, also play animportant role.

Note: Reinforcement can be Positive and Negative

Issues In Motivation

Motivating Professionals

Motivating contingent

workers

Motivating diversified workforce

Motivating low-skilled service

workers

Motivating people doing

highly repetitive tasks

Issues In Motivation

• Motivating Professionals

– Managers cannot make organization competitive withoutprofessionals

– So manager should provide the intrinsic (job challenge, support,opportunity, recognition, autonomy, growth etc.) satisfaction toprofessionals

• Motivating contingent workers

– Organizations are going through downsizing; merger andacquisition and so on.

– As compared to permanent worker their job are not stable andsecure; so they are less committed to their work

– So, offering training opportunities

– Use internal source of recruitment at the time of vacancies

– Skill pay plan

Issues In Motivation

• Motivating the diversified workforce

– It refers to the heterogeneity of work force and demand for

special attention to special group of people

– Manager should keep in mind everyone are not motivated by

money and everyone does not want the challenging tasks

– For ex. The Technician of the company may prefers the

challenging tasks but the lower level employee may not.

– So, while giving rewards the payment may not be the choice to

the technician while the payment may be the choice of the lower

level employee so it is essential to identify the needs and

preferences of the diversified workforce.

Issues In Motivation

• Motivating low skilled service workers

– There is high turnover of the low skilled workers so,

– Manager should design the flexible work schedule; recruit theteenagers and retires whose financial needs are less

– Creating the good working environment, making job moreinteresting etc. can be beneficial.

• Motivating people doing highly repetitive tasks

– Generally the highly repetitive tasks are boring and monotonousso the problem can be solved by,

– High pay as far as possible

– Attractive work surroundings

– Careful selection of the employee to prevent from high turnover.

Leadership

Leadership

• “Leadership is the ability to influencing a group toward the

achievement of goals.”

• Natures of Leadership

– it is the relationship between two or more people for some

common objective

– The essence of leadership if followership. There cannot be leader

without followers

– It is the something the leader does, not something s/he has

– It is an ability or art

– It is important part of management but not all of it.

Management Vs Leadership

Activity Management LeadershipCreating an

agenda

Planning and budgeting.

Establishing detailed steps and timetables for

achieving needed results; allocating the

resources necessary to make those needed

results happen

Establishing direction.

Developing a vision of the future, often the distant

future, and strategies for producing the changes needed

to achieve that vision

Developing a

human network

for achieving the

agenda

Organizing and staffing.

Establishing some structure for accomplishing

plan requirements, staffing that structure with

individuals, delegating responsibility and

authority for carrying out the plan, providing

policies and procedures to help guide people,

and creating methods or systems to monitor

implementation

Aligning people.

Communicating the direction by words and deeds to all

those whose cooperation may be needed to influence the

creation of teams and coalitions that understand the

vision and strategies and accept their validity

Executing plans Controlling and problem solving.

Monitoring results vs. plan in some detail,

identifying deviations, and then planning and

organizing to solve these problems

Motivating and inspiring.

Energizing people to overcome major political,

bureaucratic, and resource barriers to change by

satisfying very basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs

Outcomes Produces a degree of predictability and order

and has the potential to consistently produce

major results expected by various stakeholders

(e.g., for customers, always being on time; for

stockholders, being on budget)

Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the

potential to produce extremely useful change (e.g., new

products that customers want, new approaches to labor

relations that help make a firm more competitive)

Sou

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w Lead

ership

Differs fro

m M

anagem

ent, b

y Joh

n P. K

otter.

Leadership Style

• The behavior shown by a leader during supervision of

subordinates is known as leadership style.

• The different types of leadership styles are:

– Autocratic style

• A leader who is self centered is called autocratic style.

• He centralizes the power and decision making in him and exercises

the power.

• High frustrations, low morale and high conflicts are quite natural

• Subordinate try to avoid responsibility and they feel insecurity and

thereat.

Contd. Leadership Style

• Democratic Style

– This style gives equal focus to both work and people

– Subordinates are included in the decision making process

– high job satisfaction and job morale

– Feedback to coach employees

• Laissez-faire

– Just opposite to the autocratic style

– The leader does not lead but leaves the group entirely to itself

– Leader gives complete freedom to make decision on workmethods

– This style is also called paternalistic leadership; just like maturefather in family.

Leadership Theories

• Trait Theory

• Behavioral Theory

• Fielder’s Contingency Theory

• Path Goal Theory

Trait Theory

• The trait approach to leadership attempted to identify stableand enduring character traits that differentiated effectiveleaders from non leaders.

• “Leaders are born, not made” and leadership qualities are thefunction of heredity

• Trait theories of leadership thus focus on personal qualitiesand characteristics.

• Assumptions of trait theory

– By birth they possess the leadership skills

– They differs greatly from their followers in terms of importantleadership traits included intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, energy, activity, and task-relevant knowledge.

– Trait remain unchanged across the time

Criticism of Trait Theory

• For example, one early argument was that effective leaders

such as Lincoln tended to be taller than ineffective leaders.

• But critics were quick to point out that Hitler and Napoleon,

both effective leaders in their own way, were not tall.

• Some writers have even tried to relate leadership to such traits

as body shape, astrological sign, or handwriting patterns.

• But, There is no universal list of traits to verify them

Behavioral Theories

• In the late 1940s, most researchers began to shift away fromthe trait approach and started to look at leadership as anobservable process or activity.

• The goal of the so-called behavioral approach was todetermine what behaviors are associated with effectiveleadership.

• The researchers assumed that the behaviors of effective leadersdiffered somehow from the behaviors of less effective leadersand that the behaviors of effective leaders would be the sameacross all situations.

• The behavioral approach to the study of leadership includedthe Michigan studies, the Ohio State studies, and theleadership grid.

Behavioral Theories

• The Ohio State Studies

– The Ohio State leadership studies were conducted at about thesame time as the Michigan studies (in the late 1940s and early1950s).

– Behavioral scientists at Ohio State University developed aquestionnaire, which they administered in both military andindustrial settings,

– The main aim of which is to assess subordinates’ perceptions oftheir leaders’ behavior.

– The Ohio State studies identified several forms of leaderbehavior but tended to focus on the two most significant ones:

• Consideration and

• Initiating-structure.

Behavioral Theories

• The Ohio State Studies

– When engaging in consideration behavior, the leader is

concerned with the subordinates’ feelings and respects

subordinates’ ideas.

– The leader-subordinate relationship is characterized by mutual

trust, respect, and two-way communication.

– When using initiating-structure behavior, on the other hand, the

leader clearly defines the leader subordinate roles so that

subordinates know what is expected of them.

– The leader also establishes channels of communication and

determines the methods for accomplishing the group’s task.

Behavioral Theories

• The Michigan Studies

– The Michigan leadership studies were a program of research

conducted at the University of Michigan.

– The goal of this work was to determine the pattern of leadership

behaviors that results in effective group performance.

– From interviews with supervisors and subordinates of high- and

low-productivity groups in several organizations, the researchers

collected and analyzed descriptions of supervisory behavior to

determine how effective supervisors differed from ineffective

ones.

– Two basic forms of leader behavior were identified

• Job-centered and

• Employee-centered

Behavioral Theories

• The Michigan Studies

– Job-centered leader behavior involves paying close attention to thework of subordinates, explaining work procedures, anddemonstrating a strong interest in performance.

– The leader who engages in employee-centered leader behaviorattempts to build effective work groups with high performancegoals.

– The leader’s main concern is with high performance, but that is tobe achieved by paying attention to the human aspects of the group.

– These two styles of leader behavior were presumed to be atopposite ends of a single dimension.

– Thus, the Michigan researchers suggested that any given leadercould exhibit either job-centered or employee-centered leaderbehavior, but not both at the same time.

Behavioral Theories

• The Leadership Grid

– The Leadership Grid is a method of evaluating leadership styles.The overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to trainits managers using organizational development techniques sothat they are simultaneously more concerned for both people andproduction.

– It is believed that leaders who exhibit high levels of bothbehaviors would be most effective.

– But employees of supervisors who ranked high on initiating-structure behavior were higher performers but also expressedlower levels of satisfaction.

– Conversely, employees of supervisors who ranked high onconsideration had lower performance ratings but also had fewerabsences from work.

Behavioral Theories

Fielder’s Contingency Theory

• The Fiedler contingency model proposes that effective group

performance depends on the proper match between the

leader’s style and the degree to which the situation gives the

leader control.

Assumptions:There is no one best style ofleadership universally applicableto all situations.

Fielder’s Contingency Theory

• Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire

– Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs

of contrasting adjectives.

• High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style

• Low score: a task-oriented leadership style

• Situational factors in matching leader to the situation:

– Leader-member relations

– Task structure

– Position power

Path Goal Theory

• The path-goal theory of leadership suggests that effective

leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to desired

rewards (goals).

• The path-goal theory of leadership specifies four kinds of

leader behavior: directive, supportive, participative, and

achievement oriented.

• Leaders are advised to vary their behaviors in response to such

situational factors as personal characteristics of subordinates

and environmental characteristics.

Path Goal Theory

Directive leadership, the leader lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks, schedules work to be done, and maintains definitive standards of performance for subordinates. Supportive leadership is friendly and shows concern for subordinates’ status, well-being, and needs.

Participative leadership, the leader consults with subordinatesabout issues and takes their suggestions into account beforemaking a decision.Achievement oriented leadership involves setting challenginggoals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level, andshowing strong confidence that subordinates will put fortheffort and accomplish the goals.

Emerging Issues in Leadership

• Male vs female leadership

• Team leadership

• Leading through empowerment

• Followership

• National culture

• Biological basis of leadership

• Moral dimension to leadership

• Leadership and Emotional intelligence

• Leadership and Trust

Thank You