Motivation & anxiety in SLA

Dr Gabriela Meier

Objectives Review language learner strategies (LLS) in

peer groups

Critically engage with learning contexts presented by peers

Gain an initial understanding of L2 motivational theories and theories related to anxiety

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Motivation

What motivates you? 

Think about your main motivation to learn an L2?

Talk to others and form groups according to your main motivation.

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What motivates your students?

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Integrative motivation: Affinity with the TL communityThe learner’s desire to identify with the TL culture

Two dimensions of motivation

Instrumental motivation:L2 is learnt as a means to an end, not for its own sakeFor utilitarian purposes: e.g. To get a better job, to pass an exam, to enter university.

(Gardner & Lambert, 1972)

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Intrinsic motivation:Deriving from the personal needs and interests of the learnere.g. Curiosity; enjoyment at learning L2

Extrinsic motivationProvided by the learning situation / teacher / course book / tasks / exercises / influence of parents / etc.

(Brown 2000)

Another important dichotomy:

Notes:a) These types of motivation are not mutually exclusive.b) Motivation can be influenced by many other factors.

A.H. Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96. (See also: Straubhaar & LaRose, 2000)

Krashen’s input hypothesis 1980s

(Based on UG)

What is motivation?

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                                                                                                                                are drawn to

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• Wants to achieve a certain goal;

• Experiences satisfaction when engaged in activities associated with achieving that goal;

• Gains satisfaction from the achievement of the goal.

(Gardner, 1985)

A motivated student is one who…

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(Williams & Burden, 2000:120)

Motivation expressed as formula

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Effort + Desire to Achieve a Goal + Attitudes = motivation

Skehan (1989:54)

attitudes are defined as:

‘An evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent.’

(Gardner, 1985:9)

attitudes are defined as:

‘An evaluative reaction to some referent or attitude object, inferred on the basis of the individual’s beliefs or opinions about the referent.’

(Gardner, 1985:9)

The definition researchers agree on:

Motivation concerns direction and magnitude of human behaviour

Based on Dörnyei (2011)

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Observed behaviourMotivation is responsible for

Choice of a particular action

why people decide to do something

The persistence with it how long the are willing to sustain the activity

The effort expended on it

how hard they are going to pursue it.

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(Brown, 2000:162)

History of L2 motivation theory

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Social psychological period

Cognitive situated period

Process-oriented period

Socio-dynamic system

1959-1990 During 1990s

Turn of the century

Around 2004 to present

Robert Gardner (Canada)

Based on cognitive theories

Interest in motivational change (temporal/ stages)

motivation-cognition-affect combinations, based on complexity theory and dynamic systems theory

Social psychological period

Gardner (1985: Motivational intensity or effort Desire to learn the language Attitudes towards learning the language

Based on bilingual situation in Canada

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Conceptualisation of integrative motive

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Cognitive situated period

Trends:

Bring language motivation research in line with cognitive revolution in mainstream motivational psychology

Move from integrative views and attitudinal explanations to more situated analysis of motivation in specific learning contexts.

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Tremblay and Gardner 1995

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Goal salience specificity of learner’s goals and the frequency of goal-setting strategies

Valence desire to learn the L2 and attitudes towards L2 = L2-learning-related value component

Self-efficacy anxiety and performance expectancy

Dörnyei’s framework of L2 motivation 1994

Level of motivation Types of motivation

Language level Integrative and instrumental

Learner level Need for achievementSelf-confidence-Language use anxiety-Perceived L2 competence-Causal attributions-Self-efficacy

Learning situation level

-Course specific

-Teacher specific

-Group specific

Interest, relevance, expetancy, satisfaction

Please the teacher, authority (controlling vs. autnonomy supporting), socialisation

Goal-orientation, norm and reward, group cohesiveness, classroom goal (cooperative, competitive, individualistic)

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(Williams & Burden, 2000:140)

Process-oriented period

Increasing interest in:

Changing motivation over time Successive stages of motivational process

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A temporal view of L2 motivation

From process-oriented to socio-dynamic perspectives

Based on view that L2 motivation is not a linear process

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Linear models seek to explain cause and effect, and make predictions (based on positivist ontology)

Socio-dynamic system models

Relational view(Sealy and Carter 2004)

Not concerned with variables but on dynamic system of relations among relevant features, phenomena and processes (complex, unpredictable, non-linear and unique)

Person-in-context view(Ushioda 2009)

Organically evolving interactions among motivation, self and context. complex individuality or real persons.

The L2 Motivational self system(Dörnyei 2009)(Macintyre et al. 2009)

“natural progression from Gardner’s theory”.-Possible selves and future self-guides-Ideal and ought selves

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Complexity is not new!

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(cited in Dörnyei, 2001:13)

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• Dichotomous models of motivation (e.g. instrumental vs. integrative, intrinsic vs. extrinsic) are too simplistic.

• Our view of motivation must take into account multiple factors.

• Demotivating factors (e.g. high affective filter, poor or negative attitudes, feelings of inferiority) vs. motivators (e.g. fear of ridicule, need to provide for a family)

‘An investment in the target language is also an investment in a learner’s own identity, an identity which is constantly changing across time and space.’

(Norton, 2000:7)Next topic

Csizér and Dörnyei (2005:30)

Redefinition of L2 motivation: “as the desire to achieve one’s ideal language

self by reducing the discrepancy between one’s actual and ideal selves. “

This is dependent on: “the learner’s ability to develop a salient

vision of the self as an agreeable, competent, and successful L2 user. “

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What demotivates students?

What demotivates you to learn an L2?

What demotivates your students?

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Demotivation/demotivational factors ‘teacher’s personal relationship with the students

(i.e. lack of caring, general belligerence, hypercriticism and patronage/favoritism);

the teacher’s attitude towards the course or the material

(i.e. lack of enthusiasm, sloppy management and close-mindedness);

style conflicts between teacher and students (i.e. conflicts about the structure or detail, conflicts

about the power distance of the class);

the nature of the classroom activities (i.e. irrelevance, overload, and repetitiveness).

Oxford 1998

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Demotivation

1. Teachers’ personalities, commitments, competence, teaching methods2. Inadequate school facilities (large class sizes, unsuitable level of classes or frequent change of teachers)3. Reduced self-confidence due to their experience of failure or lack of success4. Negative attitude toward the foreign language studied5. Compulsory nature of the foreign language study6. Interference of another foreign language that pupils are studying7. Negative attitude toward the community of the foreign language spoken8. Attitudes of group members9. Course books used in class

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Motivation and significant others

ParentsContext (policy/environment)PeersTeachers

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(Izzo, 1982:8)

Parental attitude

Policy

Education = function of government (Torres 1998)

- language acquisition (and status) planning

Which languages are given status in society/school? India – trilingual language policy Kazakhstan – trilingual language policy Luxembourg – trilingual language policy EU – 1+2 (mother tongue + 2 other languages) UK? Your country?

2002 MFL dropped at 14-16

Debbie Andalo Education Guardian, Monday 12 March 2007 13.00

GMT

Modern languages [in England] were dropped as a compulsory subject for 14 to 16-year-olds in 2002, despite protests from teachers and other organisations with an interest in promoting language.

This year's GCSE results reflected a fall in the number of teenagers choosing to study a modern language. The number of candidates studying French fell by 13.2% compared with last year, while those teenagers opting for German fell by 14.2%. There was also a small fall in students choosing GCSE Spanish.

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(Tsui, 1996a)

Peer pressure

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(cited in Izzo, 1982:9)

Peers as reference group

“Maintaining face is a central concern for most school children: for them school is the most important social arena and their peers are the main reference group.”

(Dörnyei 2011:121)

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Teacher attitudes

Attitudes held by the teacher have considerable influence on a student’s achievement.

Izzo 1982:9

Teacher attitudes towards …are closely related to achievement

Language per se The language taught The students Their language learning

Savignion 1976, Burstall 1975

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(Dörnyei, 1998)

What can teachers do to motivate students?

Some suggestions:

Motivational strategies

Creating the basic motivational conditions Generating initial motivation Maintaining and protecting motivation Encouraging positive self-evaluation

“Some of the most motivating teachers often rely on a few basic techniques!”

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Motivational strategiesDörnyei, Z. (2007) Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom (8th ed.). Cambridge: CUP.

“What we need is quality rather than quantity. A few well chosen strategies that suit both you and your learners might … creat[e] an overall positive motivational climate in the classroom. “

Invitation to try it out (Dörnyei 2007:136-145)See hand-out

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Recap

Main points about motivation??

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Anxiety

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Q: What aspects of SLA are likely to cause anxiety?

Some possible sources of language anxiety:

• public performance• peer comparison• competitiveness • desire to gain teacher’s approval• tests• importance of task• learner’s own targets (perfectionism?)• particular L2 contexts

Krashen’s input hypothesis 1980s

(Based on UG)

Aspects of language anxiety

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1.‘Communication apprehension’: related to the real or anticipated act of speaking

2.‘Test anxiety’: fear of failure in tests, quizzes, exams (common in many formal learning environments)

3.‘Social evaluation apprehension’: how one’s actions are viewed in the social setting of the classroom

(Horwitz at al, 1986)

At all stages Language anxiety can occur at each stage of

the language acquisition process

Stage: Anxiety related to: Input : to process external

stimuli Central processing: store and organise

input Output: retrieve previously

learned materialMcIntyre and Gardner (1994)

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Effects of anxiety on learning and performance

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• Inhibits the efficient pre-processing of new information: student has difficulty in attending to or organising the material presented.

• Interferes with processing: student cannot apply problem-solving strategies; student may understand new material but is unable to remember it.

• Interferes with output: the student has grasped the correct answer, but then loses it before being able to verbalise it.

Learner characteristics and anxiety low self-esteem, self-perceived low level of ability, communication apprehension, competitiveness, lack of group membership with peers, beliefs about language learning.”

Tallon (2009:115)

“anxious students are desperately trying to avoid humiliation, embarrassment, and criticism, and to preserve their self-esteem”

(Tsui, 1996: 159). 55

Teacher factors

“The teachers’ intolerance of silence, also creates a great deal of anxiety.”

Tsui (1996:158)

A judgmental teaching attitude and a harsh manner of teaching are also connected to students’ fear in class

(Tallon, 2009)

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An important distinction:

• Debilitating anxiety: if excessive, this can prevent learning

• Facilitative anxiety: keeps the student alert, focused, poised

(Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993)

Sometimes, being a little bit anxious can help sometimes.

BUT…

Q: Is anxiety always a bad thing?

Achievement anxiety

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(Stipek, 1988)

Trait and situational anxiety

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1)Trait (global) self-esteem (trait anxiety)• Is a stable personality characteristic; a permanent

disposition.• Does not vary according to situation.• Is based on self-perceptions of competence in areas such

as: academic achievement, athletic ability, social interaction, physical appearance, etc.

• Is associated with the learner’s personal assessment of the relative importance of these areas.

2) State self-esteem (situational anxiety)• Is a temporary emotional state.• Relates to a specific situation, event or activity at a

specific point in time.• May explain some elements of learner variability; e.g.

varying levels of • proficiency in different tasks.

Self-esteem

(Oxford & Ehrman, 1993)

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61 (Oxford, 1990:141)

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Q: What can teachers do to alleviate anxiety?

Reduce stress in learning environments

“building a supportive and friendly classroom environment is just as important to the success of the class as developing the curriculum.”

Elkhafaifi 2005

“some practices perceived as comfortable by one group of learners may prove stressful for a group from a different background”.

Horwitz (2001) discussed in Elkhafaifi 2005)

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Classroom norms and rules

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Research has shown that institutional norms mandated by the teacher are unlikely to be effective group norms.

Related concepts

L2 identity L2 socialisation

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Main points

Anxiety hinders achievement Different types of anxiety Facilitating or debilitating Can occur at all stages (input, processing,

output) Less stressful environments help to reduce

anxiety What reduces anxiety in one context may not

work in another

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Objectives Review language learner strategies (LLS) in

peer groups

Critically engage with learning contexts presented by peers

Gain an initial understanding of L2 motivational theories and theories related to anxiety

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Reading: Cziser and Dörnyei 2005 The article is about motivation. It is reporting findings of a

questionnaire survey, based on a complex quantitative (statistical) design. Don't worry if you don't understand this part of the article, concentrate on the parts listed below, and try to answer the questions (also below) when you read the text:

 

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Parts:•Introduction •Background •Participants •Discussion (especially 'a closer look at integrativeness with L2 motivation' •Conclusion•Limitations of the study

Questions•What are the dimensions of motivation according to Csizer and Dörnyei? (Background)• Who are the participants in the study? (What and where do they study?) (Participants)• What is the most important dimension and what are its antecedents? (Discussion)• Do these findings resonate with your experiences of L2/bilingual learners?

Csizér, K. Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The Internal Structure of Language Learning Motivation and Its Relationship with Language Choice and Learning Effort. In the Modern Language Journal (19-36)

Dörnyei, Z. , Ushioda, E. (2009) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (Second Language Acquisition). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Dörnyei, Z. , Ushioda, E. (2011) Teaching and Researching: Motivation (Applied Linguistics in Action). Edinburgh: Pearson Education Ltd.

Gao, Fang (2010) Learning Korean language in China: motivations and strategies of non-Koreans. In International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13.3: 273-284

Matzuzaki Carreira, Junko (2005) New Framework of Intrinsic/Extrinsic and Integrative/Instrumental Motivation in Second Language acquisition. In Keiai Journal of International Studies, 16.Dec:39-64. Available from http://www.u-keiai.ac.jp/issn/menu/ronbun/no16/039.pdf

Murray, G., Gao, X., Lamb, T. (2011) Identity, Motivation and Autonomy in Language Learning (Second Language Acquisition). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Yihong, G., Yuan, Ying, C. , Yan, Z. (2007) Relationship between English Learning Motivation Types and Self-Identity: Changes among Chinese Students. In TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Mar., 2007), pp. 133-155

Motivation:

AnxietyAtay, D., & Kurt, G. (2006). Prospective teachers and L2 writing anxiety. Asian

EFL Journal, 8(4).

Batumlu, D. Z. & Erden, M. (2007). The relationship between foreign language anxiety and English achievement of Yıldız Technical University School of foreign languages preparatory students, Theory and Practice in Education, 3(1), 24 – 38.

Gregersen, T. S. (2003). To err is human: A reminder to teachers of language- anxious students. Foreign Language Annals, 36(1), 25-32.

Horwitz, Elaine (2010) Foreign and second language anxiety. In Language Teaching, 43.2:154-167

MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44, 283-305.

Marcos-Llinas, M & Garau, M. J. (2009). Effects of Language Anxiety on Three Proficiency-Level Courses of Spanish as a Foreign Language. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 94-111.

Spielman, G. & Radnofsky, M. (2001) ‘Learning language under tension: New directions from a qualitative Study’. The Modern Language Journal 85/ii: 259–278.

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