MotivationMotivation

November 5, 2008November 5, 2008

Psych 448CPsych 448C

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Good slides and examplesGood slides and examples– Post slides earlier?Post slides earlier?

Less reading, more in-depth Less reading, more in-depth analysisanalysis

State objectives for each chapter, State objectives for each chapter, distinguish between multiple distinguish between multiple conceptsconcepts

Objectives: Objectives: What motivates What motivates behavior?behavior? Positive self-viewsPositive self-views

– Self-esteem versus saving faceSelf-esteem versus saving face Morality: Protestant Work EthicMorality: Protestant Work Ethic Control & choice: Control & choice:

– Primary versus Secondary ControlPrimary versus Secondary Control– Primary control and choicePrimary control and choice

Fitting in versus sticking out:Fitting in versus sticking out:– Harmony versus distinction from Harmony versus distinction from

othersothers

Morality and Morality and Achievement MotivationAchievement Motivation Max Weber (1864-1920): capitalist Max Weber (1864-1920): capitalist

achievement tied to the Protestant achievement tied to the Protestant Reformation:Reformation:– People have an individualized relation with People have an individualized relation with

God (no longer need church as God (no longer need church as intermediary).intermediary).

– Each person has a “calling,” a unique God-Each person has a “calling,” a unique God-given purpose to fulfill on earth. Working given purpose to fulfill on earth. Working on your calling was a way to serve God.on your calling was a way to serve God.

– People are “predestined” to go to heaven People are “predestined” to go to heaven or hell.or hell.

The Protestant Ethic and The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalismthe Spirit of Capitalism Under ascetic Protestantism, it became a Under ascetic Protestantism, it became a

moral duty to work to achieve.moral duty to work to achieve.– People needed to find their calling – work became a People needed to find their calling – work became a

path towards spirituality, like prayer and ritual.path towards spirituality, like prayer and ritual. No one knew whether they were among the No one knew whether they were among the

“elect,” so they needed worked hard to show “elect,” so they needed worked hard to show that they were going to heaven.that they were going to heaven.– Material success was perceived as evidence of Material success was perceived as evidence of

being one of the elect. being one of the elect. People believed it was sinful to enjoy the fruits People believed it was sinful to enjoy the fruits

of one’s labor of one’s labor – Accumulate and reinvest capital to further serve Accumulate and reinvest capital to further serve

God and evidence “elect” status. God and evidence “elect” status.

Predestination’s Predestination’s legacylegacy Belief in predestination did not last Belief in predestination did not last

more than a couple of generationsmore than a couple of generations Established an enduring behavioral Established an enduring behavioral

code:code:– HonestyHonesty– Hard workHard work– SeriousnessSeriousness– ThriftThrift– EfficiencyEfficiency

Evidence in Support of Evidence in Support of WeberWeber McClelland (1961) demonstrated that German McClelland (1961) demonstrated that German

Protestants had stronger achievement Protestants had stronger achievement motivations than German Catholics using self-motivations than German Catholics using self-report surveys. report surveys. – Protestant parents encouraged their children to Protestant parents encouraged their children to

become self-reliant earlier than Catholic parents.become self-reliant earlier than Catholic parents.– The stories of Protestant boys had more evidence of The stories of Protestant boys had more evidence of

achievement motivations than the stories of achievement motivations than the stories of Catholic boys.Catholic boys.

Until recently, Protestant nations in Europe Until recently, Protestant nations in Europe were more industrialized than Catholic ones. were more industrialized than Catholic ones. The recent shift is only after Europe has The recent shift is only after Europe has become more secularized.become more secularized.

Evidence Inconsistent Evidence Inconsistent with Weberwith Weber

Self-report surveys show that Self-report surveys show that the countries with the highest the countries with the highest Protestant Work Ethic, are Protestant Work Ethic, are countries which are not countries which are not Protestant (e.g., Mexico, Sri Protestant (e.g., Mexico, Sri Lanka, Uganda).Lanka, Uganda).

Experimental EvidenceExperimental Evidence

Are Protestants’ relational styles different in Are Protestants’ relational styles different in work than in social settings? (Sanchez-work than in social settings? (Sanchez-Burks, 2002) Burks, 2002)

Participants: Protestants and non-Participants: Protestants and non-ProtestantsProtestants

IV: Solve a business case or create a Top 10 IV: Solve a business case or create a Top 10 vacation listvacation list

Throughout the interaction with a Throughout the interaction with a confederate, the confederate shook his foot.confederate, the confederate shook his foot.

DV: how much the participant also shook DV: how much the participant also shook his/her feet to mimic the confederate his/her feet to mimic the confederate (unconscious mimicry) (unconscious mimicry)

Women did not differ Women did not differ across conditions or across conditions or religions!religions!

Male Protestants Male Protestants were more were more relationally-engaged relationally-engaged in casual than work in casual than work settings.settings.

Male non-Protestants Male non-Protestants were equally were equally relationally-engaged relationally-engaged in both casual and in both casual and work settings.work settings.

Male Foot-Tapping by ConditionMale Foot-Tapping by Condition

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Protestants Non-Protestants

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ControlControl

People from different cultures vary in People from different cultures vary in terms of how they get control over terms of how they get control over their lives.their lives.

How you seek control depends on the How you seek control depends on the theories that you have about both theories that you have about both yourself and the social world.yourself and the social world.

Two key ways to seek control are Two key ways to seek control are evident in how people might build a evident in how people might build a stone wall.stone wall.

Building a Stone WallBuilding a Stone Wall

Primary and Secondary Primary and Secondary ControlControl

People with independent views of People with independent views of self tend to strive to change self tend to strive to change circumstances to fit their desires. circumstances to fit their desires. This is known as “Primary Control.”This is known as “Primary Control.”

People with interdependent views of People with interdependent views of self tend to strive to adjust self tend to strive to adjust themselves to accept circumstances themselves to accept circumstances as they are. This is known as as they are. This is known as “Secondary Control.” “Secondary Control.”

Aerobics Survey Aerobics Survey (Morling, (Morling, 2000)2000)

People in Japan and the US People in Japan and the US completed a questionnaire about completed a questionnaire about why they chose an aerobics why they chose an aerobics class, and what they do when class, and what they do when the instructor initiated a difficult the instructor initiated a difficult move.move.

Americans : chose Americans : chose classes on times that classes on times that were convenient to were convenient to themthem

Japanese: more willing Japanese: more willing to choose classes based to choose classes based on the level of difficultyon the level of difficulty

Why did you choose this class?Why did you choose this class?

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Japanese are more likely Japanese are more likely to try harder when the to try harder when the move is difficult than are move is difficult than are Americans.Americans.

Americans are more likely Americans are more likely to do their own thing to do their own thing when the move is difficult when the move is difficult than are Japanese.than are Japanese.

That is, Japanese adjust That is, Japanese adjust themselves to the themselves to the requirements of the class, requirements of the class, whereas Americans whereas Americans continue to do what they continue to do what they would rather do.would rather do.

What do you do when a move What do you do when a move is too difficult?is too difficult?

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Control Control

Secondary control strategies are Secondary control strategies are more common in non-Western more common in non-Western contexts than in Western ones.contexts than in Western ones.

Primary control strategies are Primary control strategies are more common in the West than more common in the West than elsewhere.elsewhere.

Is secondary control really a kind Is secondary control really a kind of control?of control?

Control and ChoiceControl and Choice

A way that primary control is perhaps most A way that primary control is perhaps most directly evident is when people make choices.directly evident is when people make choices.

Making choices, the freedom to choose, is Making choices, the freedom to choose, is emphasized more in North American contexts emphasized more in North American contexts than it is elsewhere.than it is elsewhere.

Some key decisions in life, such as who one Some key decisions in life, such as who one will marry, what career one will have, where will marry, what career one will have, where one will live, are not made by individuals in one will live, are not made by individuals in many cultural contexts.many cultural contexts.

North Americans are more used to making North Americans are more used to making choices than are people in some other choices than are people in some other cultures.cultures.

Are there costs to Are there costs to choice?choice?

For example, Americans who are given the For example, Americans who are given the opportunity to have free samples from 24 opportunity to have free samples from 24 kinds of jam or 6 kinds of jam, end up kinds of jam or 6 kinds of jam, end up buying more jam when they only have 6 buying more jam when they only have 6 kinds to choose from (Iyengar & Lepper, kinds to choose from (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000).2000).

Making choices depletes self-regulatory Making choices depletes self-regulatory resources. Americans persist less, and resources. Americans persist less, and make more errors on a test if they have make more errors on a test if they have made a series of choices than if they have made a series of choices than if they have just considered the options (Vohs et al., just considered the options (Vohs et al., 2008).2008).

It also matters who makes the It also matters who makes the choices that we accept.choices that we accept.

In some domains, people with In some domains, people with interdependent selves prefer interdependent selves prefer choices that are made by trusted choices that are made by trusted others, whereas those with others, whereas those with independent selves prefer choices independent selves prefer choices that they make themselves.that they make themselves.

Experimental evidence Experimental evidence (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999)(Iyengar & Lepper, 1999)

Participants: Fifth grade students, either Participants: Fifth grade students, either Asian-American or Euro-American Asian-American or Euro-American backgroundsbackgrounds

Task: play a computer game.Task: play a computer game. IV: Color and name assignment of IV: Color and name assignment of

spaceshipspaceship DV: Number of games playedDV: Number of games played

Conditions:Conditions:

““Personal Choice” condition: make Personal Choice” condition: make own choices about their space-ship.own choices about their space-ship.

““Ingroup Choice” condition: choices Ingroup Choice” condition: choices were made for them by other were made for them by other students in their class.students in their class.

““Outgroup Choice” condition: Outgroup Choice” condition: choices were made for them by 3rd choices were made for them by 3rd grade students from another school.grade students from another school.

Results:Results:

Euro-American kids were more motivated if Euro-American kids were more motivated if they got to make some choices than if any they got to make some choices than if any one else made those choices for them.one else made those choices for them.

Asian-American kids, in contrast, were Asian-American kids, in contrast, were most motivated when either an ingroup most motivated when either an ingroup made their choices, or they made their made their choices, or they made their own choices. They were least motivated own choices. They were least motivated when an outgroup made choices for them.when an outgroup made choices for them.

Asian-Americans appear to be quite Asian-Americans appear to be quite content when choices are made for them content when choices are made for them by others, as long as those others are by others, as long as those others are close and trusted others.close and trusted others.

Social class and choiceSocial class and choice

Upper middle class Westerners are Upper middle class Westerners are particularly motivated by making choices.particularly motivated by making choices.

Study by Snibbe and Markus (2005) Study by Snibbe and Markus (2005) contrasted upper middle class Americans contrasted upper middle class Americans with working class Americans with with working class Americans with regards to their evaluations of a pen they regards to their evaluations of a pen they received as compensation in a study.received as compensation in a study.

In one condition participants were able to In one condition participants were able to keep a pen that they chose. In another keep a pen that they chose. In another condition the experimenter replaced condition the experimenter replaced (usurped) their chosen pen with another (usurped) their chosen pen with another pen.pen.

Social Class and Social Class and ChoiceChoice Upper middle class Americans take choice Upper middle class Americans take choice

seriously - they like a pen considerably less if seriously - they like a pen considerably less if their choice was usurped.their choice was usurped.

Working class Americans liked the pen the same Working class Americans liked the pen the same degree regardless of whether they chose it or if degree regardless of whether they chose it or if somebody else chose it for them. somebody else chose it for them.

The working class American pattern has also The working class American pattern has also been found in non-Western samples, suggesting been found in non-Western samples, suggesting that the unusual pattern is that of upper middle that the unusual pattern is that of upper middle class Americans.class Americans.