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Page 1: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

MotivationMotivation

Page 2: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,
Page 3: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Why did you choose St. FX?Why did you choose St. FX?

Page 4: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Context and Sources of Motivation

Context Source of Motivation

Primarily Biological

Primarily Social

Alonehunger, thirst, defense, sleep

desire for possessions, desire for learning, need for relief of boredom, need for achievement

With Others

sexneed for reassurance, need for prestige, need for approval

What distinguishes biological motives from social motives?

Page 5: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Functions of MotivationFunctions of Motivation

Activates or energizes behaviour.Activates or energizes behaviour. Directs behaviour.Directs behaviour. Creates persistence in behaviour.Creates persistence in behaviour. Strength determines activation and Strength determines activation and

direction in face of competing motives.direction in face of competing motives.

Page 6: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Two Major PerspectivesTwo Major Perspectives Regulatory perspectiveRegulatory perspective

Motivation involves biological, internal statesMotivation involves biological, internal states Focused on underlying biologyFocused on underlying biology Motivation is driven by homeostasisMotivation is driven by homeostasis Negative feedback modelNegative feedback model

System variable—room temperatureSystem variable—room temperature Set point—20 C degrees Set point—20 C degrees Detector—thermometer Detector—thermometer System regulator—thermostatSystem regulator—thermostat

Biological negative feedback modelBiological negative feedback model System variable—pulse, respiration, weightSystem variable—pulse, respiration, weight Set point—normal pulse, respiration, weight Set point—normal pulse, respiration, weight Detector—hypothalamusDetector—hypothalamus System regulator—autonomic nervous system.System regulator—autonomic nervous system.

Page 7: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Two Major PerspectivesTwo Major Perspectives

Purposive perspectivePurposive perspective Behaviour has a purpose.Behaviour has a purpose. Social aspects of motivationSocial aspects of motivation Based on goals (directed behaviour)Based on goals (directed behaviour)

Page 8: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

TerminologyTerminology

Terms frequently used in discussion of Terms frequently used in discussion of motivated behaviour:motivated behaviour: NeedsNeeds—indicates a lack of something, now used for —indicates a lack of something, now used for

both biological and social motives.both biological and social motives. DrivesDrives—the body state that is activated to meet a —the body state that is activated to meet a

need.need. InstinctsInstincts—unlearned and automatic behaviour —unlearned and automatic behaviour

triggered by an external stimulus. Now talk of triggered by an external stimulus. Now talk of arousal.arousal.

RewardsRewards—things that provide pleasure and thereby —things that provide pleasure and thereby motivate us to earn them.motivate us to earn them.

Page 9: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Regulatory Theories of MotivationRegulatory Theories of Motivation Instinct TheoriesInstinct Theories

These argued that instincts are the basis for These argued that instincts are the basis for all behaviour.all behaviour.

Many, many instincts were identified (e.g., Many, many instincts were identified (e.g., pleasure, curiosity, achievement, friendly, pleasure, curiosity, achievement, friendly, aggression) that could be combined to explain aggression) that could be combined to explain our motives for anything.our motives for anything.

ProblemsProblems Don’t account for behavioural differences across Don’t account for behavioural differences across

cultures.cultures. Do they really explain anything?Do they really explain anything?

Page 10: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Regulatory Theories of MotivationRegulatory Theories of Motivation Drive Reduction TheoriesDrive Reduction Theories

Hunger, thirst, and sex were once considered Hunger, thirst, and sex were once considered drives, or activators of behaviour.drives, or activators of behaviour.

The organism is led to reduce that drive by The organism is led to reduce that drive by behaviour that is reinforcing. behaviour that is reinforcing.

The drive produces discomfort that energizes The drive produces discomfort that energizes the organism to action to reduce the drive the organism to action to reduce the drive and achieve equilibrium (homeostasis).and achieve equilibrium (homeostasis).

The reduction of the tension is reinforcing so The reduction of the tension is reinforcing so we tend repeat the behaviour in a similar we tend repeat the behaviour in a similar situation.situation.

Page 11: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Regulatory Theories of MotivationRegulatory Theories of Motivation Drive Reduction TheoriesDrive Reduction Theories (cont’d) (cont’d)

Physiology of ReinforcementPhysiology of Reinforcement More modern approach to understanding “drive reduction.”More modern approach to understanding “drive reduction.” Dopamine circuits in the brain are activated when we engage Dopamine circuits in the brain are activated when we engage

in reinforcing behaviour like eating or drinking, or in in reinforcing behaviour like eating or drinking, or in behaviour the permits these, such as barpressing or key behaviour the permits these, such as barpressing or key pecking in research animals.pecking in research animals.

Seems to strengthen the link between the perceptual system Seems to strengthen the link between the perceptual system that detects the stimulus and the motor system that directs that detects the stimulus and the motor system that directs the response.the response.

ProblemsProblems Implies that all human behaviour is motivated to reduce Implies that all human behaviour is motivated to reduce

tension, and we sometimes seek it out. Many reinforcing tension, and we sometimes seek it out. Many reinforcing activities do not reduce the drive; instead we want more! activities do not reduce the drive; instead we want more!

How do we measure drives, especially those like curiosity or How do we measure drives, especially those like curiosity or excitement?excitement?

Page 12: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Regulatory Theories of MotivationRegulatory Theories of Motivation Optimal Level TheoriesOptimal Level Theories

We seek an optimal level of arousal.We seek an optimal level of arousal. Sometimes seek to reduce stimulation, to Sometimes seek to reduce stimulation, to

avoid excitement and stimulation.avoid excitement and stimulation. Stimulation too low, indulge in positively Stimulation too low, indulge in positively

reinforced behaviour. Stimulation to high, reinforced behaviour. Stimulation to high, indulge in negatively reinforced behaviour.indulge in negatively reinforced behaviour.

Also acknowledges that we may be motivated Also acknowledges that we may be motivated by external incentives.by external incentives.

Has the same problems of measuring drives Has the same problems of measuring drives and level of arousal.and level of arousal.

Page 13: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Regulatory Theories of MotivationRegulatory Theories of Motivation

Perseverance Views of MotivationPerseverance Views of Motivation Clear indicator of motivationClear indicator of motivation Intermittent reinforcement?Intermittent reinforcement? Conditioned reinforcers?Conditioned reinforcers? Failure to persist—learned helplessness.Failure to persist—learned helplessness.

Studies with dogs.Studies with dogs. Perhaps this accounts for depression.Perhaps this accounts for depression.

Page 14: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Purposive Theories of MotivationPurposive Theories of Motivation

Need Based Theories (Humanistic Need Based Theories (Humanistic Theories)Theories) We are motivated to fill a deficiency, a need.We are motivated to fill a deficiency, a need. There clearly are biological deficiencies that There clearly are biological deficiencies that

we are motivated to fill, but it can also be we are motivated to fill, but it can also be argued there are psychological needs as well.argued there are psychological needs as well.

Psychological needs are social—need to be Psychological needs are social—need to be with other people, to have power, to achieve.with other people, to have power, to achieve.

These theories consider that humans are These theories consider that humans are motivated to fulfill themselves. motivated to fulfill themselves.

Page 15: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Purposive Theories of MotivationPurposive Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs We are motivated to achieve personal fulfillment.We are motivated to achieve personal fulfillment. The ultimate The ultimate goal isgoal is self-actualizationself-actualization, the , the

achievement of personal goals and aspirations.achievement of personal goals and aspirations. We have many classes of needs that can be ordered We have many classes of needs that can be ordered

in a hierarchy. in a hierarchy. We must achieve the lower order needs before we We must achieve the lower order needs before we

can move on to fulfill the later ones.can move on to fulfill the later ones. Maslow has been influential in education and Maslow has been influential in education and

business but difficult to test empirically.business but difficult to test empirically. For more about Maslow: For more about Maslow:

http://www.ping.be/jvwit/Maslovmotivation.htmlhttp://www.ping.be/jvwit/Maslovmotivation.html

Page 16: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Purposive Theories of MotivationPurposive Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Currently unsatisfied but felt needs are motivators.

Page 17: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Sources of MotivationSources of Motivation

These are the reinforcers that keep us striving These are the reinforcers that keep us striving toward our goals.toward our goals.

ExtrinsicExtrinsic—do it for the reward or to avoid —do it for the reward or to avoid punishmentpunishment External rewards: praise, good grades, tokens, External rewards: praise, good grades, tokens,

payment for services, etc.payment for services, etc.

IntrinsicIntrinsic—do it for its own sake—do it for its own sake Internal pleasures: play, creativity, learningInternal pleasures: play, creativity, learning May become less reinforcing if external rewards are May become less reinforcing if external rewards are

given.given.

Page 18: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating as Motivated BehaviourEating as Motivated Behaviour

Physiological mechanismsPhysiological mechanisms:: What happens at the physiological level to motivate What happens at the physiological level to motivate

eating?eating? What motivates stopping of eating?What motivates stopping of eating?

Psychological mechanismsPsychological mechanisms Social factorsSocial factors External cuesExternal cues

Why do we overeat?Why do we overeat? Obesity affects 1/3 of North AmericansObesity affects 1/3 of North Americans

Eating disordersEating disorders AnorexiaAnorexia BulimiaBulimia

Page 19: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating as Motivated BehaviourEating as Motivated Behaviour

Early TheoriesEarly Theories Link between hunger and stomach Link between hunger and stomach

contractions.contractions.

Physiological mechanismsPhysiological mechanisms:: Role of the hypothalamusRole of the hypothalamus

Dual Centre TheoryDual Centre Theory Set-Point TheorySet-Point Theory

Role of the orbitofrontal cortexRole of the orbitofrontal cortex

Page 20: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,
Page 21: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Lateral Hyp

Page 22: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Role of the HypothalamusRole of the Hypothalamus

Ventromedial hypothalamusVentromedial hypothalamus seems to be seems to be responsible for signaling when it is time to stop responsible for signaling when it is time to stop eating (satiety).eating (satiety).

Lateral hypothalamusLateral hypothalamus seems to signal when it seems to signal when it is time to eat.is time to eat.

Both areas contain cells (glucostats) that are Both areas contain cells (glucostats) that are sensitive to blood sugar levels but act in different sensitive to blood sugar levels but act in different ways:ways: In the VMH glucostats respond to rising blood sugar In the VMH glucostats respond to rising blood sugar

levelslevels In the LH glucostats respond to dropping blood sugar In the LH glucostats respond to dropping blood sugar

levels.levels.

Page 23: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Role of the HypothalamusRole of the HypothalamusDual Centre TheoryDual Centre Theory

A decline in glucose activates the A decline in glucose activates the lateral lateral hypothalamus (LH) hypothalamus (LH)

Activity within the LH gives rise to Activity within the LH gives rise to hunger hunger Hunger motivates the search for and Hunger motivates the search for and

consumption of food consumption of food Food is broken down to release glucose Food is broken down to release glucose Glucose activates the Glucose activates the ventromedial ventromedial

hypothalamus (VMH) hypothalamus (VMH) Activation of the VMH causes a feeling of Activation of the VMH causes a feeling of

satiety satiety Satiety inhibited further feeding. Satiety inhibited further feeding.

Page 24: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

http://www.psy.plym.ac.uk/year3/psy337EatingNeuralFactors/PSY337EatingNeuralFactors.htm

Effect of lesions in the VMH on body weight and food intake.

Dysphagic rat after lesion.

Page 25: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Role of the HypothalamusRole of the HypothalamusSet-Point HypothesisSet-Point Hypothesis

Body weight seems to be regulated around a Body weight seems to be regulated around a set-point, just as other bodily functions.set-point, just as other bodily functions.

A hormone, leptin, is released from fat cells at A hormone, leptin, is released from fat cells at the same rate that fat is being stored in those the same rate that fat is being stored in those cells—the more fat storage, the more leptin in cells—the more fat storage, the more leptin in the blood stream. the blood stream.

Hypothalamus monitors levels of leptin and very Hypothalamus monitors levels of leptin and very slowly inhibits eating as levels increase and slowly inhibits eating as levels increase and probably activates eating as the levels drop.probably activates eating as the levels drop.

Thus, the hypothalamus seems to work to Thus, the hypothalamus seems to work to maintain that set point, some predetermined maintain that set point, some predetermined level of fat storage in the body.level of fat storage in the body.

Seems to regulate weight over the long term. Seems to regulate weight over the long term.

Page 26: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Role of the HypothalamusRole of the HypothalamusSet-Point HypothesisSet-Point Hypothesis

The number of fat cells in the body is The number of fat cells in the body is determined, through genetics and eating determined, through genetics and eating experience, by the age of two.experience, by the age of two.

What varies from then on the amount of fat What varies from then on the amount of fat stored in that set number of cells.stored in that set number of cells.

In animals deprived of food the metabolism In animals deprived of food the metabolism slows and less food is required to maintain a slows and less food is required to maintain a given weight.given weight.

Weight gain occurs rapidly in these animals after Weight gain occurs rapidly in these animals after deprivation—return to set-point.deprivation—return to set-point.

Page 27: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Psychological Factors in EatingPsychological Factors in Eating

Our emotional state affects our eating but affects Our emotional state affects our eating but affects different people in different ways (depression different people in different ways (depression can lead to weight gain or weight loss).can lead to weight gain or weight loss).

Conditioning affects our eating habits—time of Conditioning affects our eating habits—time of day, smell of food become triggers for eating.day, smell of food become triggers for eating.

These are learned cues that have been These are learned cues that have been reinforced by our habits or experiences.reinforced by our habits or experiences.

We learn what to eat and how much to eat.We learn what to eat and how much to eat.

Page 28: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Social Factors in EatingSocial Factors in Eating

Each culture has a view of what is an ideal Each culture has a view of what is an ideal appearance—a norm for weight.appearance—a norm for weight.

Our present culture:Our present culture: We value slimness and constantly see ideal shapes We value slimness and constantly see ideal shapes

for a man or woman on TV and in magazines & for a man or woman on TV and in magazines & movies. movies.

We are very weight conscious and are preoccupied We are very weight conscious and are preoccupied with eating, waistlines, and fat.with eating, waistlines, and fat.

The conflict:The conflict: Our modern lifestyles have created a need for quick Our modern lifestyles have created a need for quick

meals—leads to pre-prepared commercial food, high meals—leads to pre-prepared commercial food, high in fat and sugar.in fat and sugar.

Page 29: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

ObesityObesity

North American levels of obesity are the North American levels of obesity are the highest in history. What contributes to highest in history. What contributes to this?this? The number of fat cells in the body, The number of fat cells in the body,

determined by both genetics and eating determined by both genetics and eating experience, is set by the age of two. experience, is set by the age of two.

From then on, the only change is the amount From then on, the only change is the amount of fat in those cells.of fat in those cells.

Those with more fat cells have greater Those with more fat cells have greater storage capacity—gain weight more easily storage capacity—gain weight more easily and are more likely to become obese.and are more likely to become obese.

Page 30: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

ObesityObesity

Animals who are hyperphagic and humans Animals who are hyperphagic and humans who are obese have some similar who are obese have some similar characteristics, empirically determined:characteristics, empirically determined: Lower sensitivity to internal body cues for Lower sensitivity to internal body cues for

eating and cessation of eating.eating and cessation of eating. Greater sensitivity to external cues, such as Greater sensitivity to external cues, such as

time of day, food smells, appearance of food, time of day, food smells, appearance of food, presence of food and others who are eating.presence of food and others who are eating.

Are less active, eat faster, and less willing to Are less active, eat faster, and less willing to work hard for food.work hard for food.

Page 31: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

ObesityObesity Why is it so hard to diet, and so hard to keep the Why is it so hard to diet, and so hard to keep the

weight off when successful?weight off when successful? Those who have become obese have more fat cells Those who have become obese have more fat cells

than normal weight individuals. If the set point says than normal weight individuals. If the set point says those cells have less than the ‘optimal’ amount of fat, those cells have less than the ‘optimal’ amount of fat, the pressure to eat becomes strong.the pressure to eat becomes strong.

It is harder for obese individuals to know when they It is harder for obese individuals to know when they are are reallyreally hungry. hungry.

Obese individuals are very sensitive to external cues Obese individuals are very sensitive to external cues in a world that is full of pressure to eat.in a world that is full of pressure to eat.

Much of what we eat is high in fat and sugar because Much of what we eat is high in fat and sugar because of the change in our life styles—more calories for the of the change in our life styles—more calories for the same volume of food.same volume of food.

Page 32: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating DisordersEating DisordersAnorexia and BulimiaAnorexia and Bulimia

Page 33: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating DisordersEating DisordersAnorexia and BulimiaAnorexia and Bulimia

Both are severe eating disorders characterized by an Both are severe eating disorders characterized by an intense preoccupation with one’s weight.intense preoccupation with one’s weight.

More common in women.More common in women. Seems to have psychological roots:Seems to have psychological roots:

Distorted body image—see themselves as overweight even Distorted body image—see themselves as overweight even when not.when not.

Can lose huge amounts of weight and still see themselves as Can lose huge amounts of weight and still see themselves as fat.fat.

Typically occurs during adolescence, often triggered by Typically occurs during adolescence, often triggered by family crisis or relationship breakup.family crisis or relationship breakup.

Can lead to death.Can lead to death. Treatment focuses on the psychological aspects with Treatment focuses on the psychological aspects with

dietary management.dietary management.

Page 34: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating DisordersEating DisordersAnorexiaAnorexia

Characterized by refusal to eat because of Characterized by refusal to eat because of fear of becoming fat.fear of becoming fat.

Can become preoccupied with exercise in Can become preoccupied with exercise in order encourage weight loss.order encourage weight loss.

Page 35: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating DisordersEating DisordersAnorexiaAnorexia

Physical results:Physical results: Extreme weight loss—not unusual to drop weight to Extreme weight loss—not unusual to drop weight to

60 – 80 pounds.60 – 80 pounds. Often unable to maintain bodily processes like body Often unable to maintain bodily processes like body

temperature and menstruation.temperature and menstruation. Electrolyte imbalance is common and can cause Electrolyte imbalance is common and can cause

death. death.

Typical personalityTypical personality High achievers and perfectionists.High achievers and perfectionists. Well-behavedWell-behaved

Page 36: Motivation. Why did you choose St. FX? Context and Sources of Motivation ContextSource of Motivation Primarily Biological Primarily Social Alone hunger,

Eating DisordersEating DisordersBulimiaBulimia

May occur alone, or with anorexia.May occur alone, or with anorexia. Characterized by bouts of uncontrolled Characterized by bouts of uncontrolled

eating (binges) followed by purging eating (binges) followed by purging through self-induced vomiting or use of through self-induced vomiting or use of laxatives.laxatives.

Physical resultsPhysical results Less likely to have extreme weight loss.Less likely to have extreme weight loss. Damage to esophagus because of vomiting.Damage to esophagus because of vomiting. Electrolyte imbalance.Electrolyte imbalance.