Map of China

Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other Key Events

ca. 2100-1600 BCE Xia (Hsia) Dynasty  

ca. 1600-1050 BCE Shang DynastyCapitals: near present-day Zhengzhou and

Anyang

ca. 1046-256 BCE Zhou (Chou) Dynasty Capitals: Hao (near present-day Xi'an) and

Luoyang

  Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE)  

  Eastern Zhou (ca. 771-256 BCE) Spring and Autumn Period

(770-ca. 475 BCE)

    Confucius (ca. 551-479 BCE)

   Warring States Period

(ca. 475-221 BCE)

221-206 BCE Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty Capital: Chang'an, present-day Xi'an

    Qin Shihuangdi dies, 210 BCE

206 BCE-220 CE Han Dynasty  

  Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE) Capital: Chang'an

   

Confucianism officially established as basis

for Chinese state by Han Wudi (r. 141-86

BCE)

  Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE) Capital: Luoyang

220-589 CE Six Dynasties Period

Period of disunity and instability following

the fall of the Han; Buddhism introduced to

China

  Three Kingdoms (220-265 CE) Cao Wei, Shu Han, Dong Wu

  Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE)  

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 Period of the Northern and Southern

Dynasties (386-589 CE)  

581-618 CE Sui Dynasty Capital: Chang'an

618-906 CE Tang (T'ang) Dynasty Capitals: Chang'an and Luoyang

907-960 CE Five Dynasties Period  

960-1279 Song (Sung) Dynasty  

  Northern Song (960-1127) Capital: Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng)

  Southern Song (1127-1279) Capital: Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou)

1279-1368 Yuan DynastyThe reign of the Mongol empire; Capital:

Dadu (present-day Beijing)

1368-1644 Ming Dynasty Re-establishment of rule by Han ruling

house; Capitals: Nanjing and Beijing

1644-1912 Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty Reign of the Manchus; Capital: Beijing

1912-1949 Republic Period Capitals: Beijing, Wuhan, and Nanjing

1949-present People's Republic of China Capital: Beijing

Annotated Chronological Outline of Chinese History

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10,000-2,000 BCE Neolithic Cultures

ca. 2100-1600 BCE Xia (Hsia) Dynasty

ca. 1600-1050 BCE Shang Dynasty

One of the Three Dynasties, or San Dai (Xia, Shang, and Zhou), thought to mark the

beginning of Chinese civilization: characterized by its writing system, practice of

divination, walled cities, bronze technology, and use of horse-drawn chariots.

ca. 1046-256 BCE Zhou (Chou) Dynasty: Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE), Eastern Zhou (771-256 BCE)

A hierarchical political and social system with the Zhou royal house at its apex: power was

bestowed upon aristocratic families as lords of their domains or principalities. Although

often compared to European "feudalism," what actually gave the system cohesion was a

hierarchical order of ancestral cults. The system eventually broke down into a competition

for power between rival semi-autonomous states in what became known as the Spring

and Autumn period (ca. 770-475 BCE) and the Warring States (ca. 475-221 BCE) period.

It was during these tumultuous times that Confucius (551-479 BCE) lived.

221-206 BCE Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty

Created a unitary state by imposing a centralized administration and by standardizing the

writing script, weights and measures. Known for its harsh methods of rule, including the

suppression of dissenting thought.

206 BCE-220 CE Han Dynasty: Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE) and Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE)

Modified and consolidated the foundation of the imperial order. Confucianism was

established as orthodoxy and open civil service examinations were introduced. Han power

reached Korea and Vietnam. Records of the Historian, which became the model for

subsequent official histories, was completed.

220-589 CE "Period of Disunity" or Six Dynasties Period

The empire was fragmented. The North was dominated by invaders from the borderland

and the steppes. The South was ruled by successive "Chinese" dynasties. Buddhism

spread.

581-618 CE Sui Dynasty

China reunified.

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618-906 Tang (T'ang) Dynasty

A time of cosmopolitanism and cultural flowering occurred. This period was the height of

Buddhist influence in China until its repression around 845. Active territorial expansion

until defeated by the Arabs at Talas in 751.

960-1279 Song (Sung) Dynasty: Northern Song (960-1127) and Southern Song (1127-1279)

An era of significant economic and social changes: the monetization of the economy;

growth in commerce and maritime trade; urban expansion and technological innovations.

The examination system for bureaucratic recruitment of neo-Confucianism was to provide

the intellectual underpinning for the political and social order of the late imperial period.

1279-1368 Yuan Dynasty

Founded by the Mongols as part of their conquest of much of the world. Beijing was made

the capital. Dramas, such as the famous Story of the Western Wing, flourished.

1368-1644 Ming Dynasty

The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, laid the basis of an authoritarian political culture. Despite

early expansion, it was an inward-looking state with an emphasis on its agrarian base.

Gradual burgeoning of the commercial sector; important changes in the economy and

social relations in the latter part of the dynasty; also a vibrant literary scene as

represented by publication of the novel Journey to the West.

1644-1912 Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty

A Manchu dynasty. Continued the economic developments of the late Ming, leading to

prosperity but also complacency and a dramatic increase in population. The acclaimed

novel Dream of the Red Chamber was written in this period. Strains on the polity were

intensified by a rapid incorporation of substantial new territories. Its authoritarian structure

was subsequently unable to meet the military and cultural challenge of an expansive

West.

1912-1949 Republic Period

Weak central government following the collapse of the dynastic system in 1911-12;

Western influence was shown by the promotion of "science" and "democracy" during the

New Culture Movement. The attempt of the Nationalist government (est. 1928) to bring

the entire country under its control was thwarted by both domestic revolts and the

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Japanese occupation (1937-45). The Nationalists fled to Taiwan after defeat by the

Communists.

1949-present People's Republic of China

Communist government. The drive for remaking society ended in disasters such as the

Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Economic reform and political

retrenchment since around 1978.

"The Dynasties Song"

This "dynasties song," sung to the tune of "Frère Jacques,"

can help students remember the major Chinese dynasties in chronological order.

Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han

Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han

Sui, Tang, Song

Sui, Tang, Song

Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic

Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic

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Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong

Notes on Pronunciation

Zhou is pronounced “Joe”

Qin is pronounced “chin”

Sui is pronounced “sway”

Qing is pronounced

Historical Notes

The Yuan Dynasty was also the Mongol Dynasty in China

The Qing Dynasty was also the Manchu Dynasty in China

The word Republic in the song signified the period when China was known as the Republic of China

The word Mao Zedong is the name of the Communist leader of China who began the period of Communist

rule of China. China would be known as the People’s Republic of China from this point forward.

Chinese Dynasties Xia Dynasty About 1994 BCE - 1766 BCE Shang Dynasty 1766 BCE - 1027 BCE Zhou Dynasty 1122 BCE -256 BCE Qin Dynasty 221 BCE - 206 BCE Early Han Dynasty 206 BCE - 9 AD Xin Dynasty 9 AD - 24 AD Later Han Dynasty 25 AD - 220 AD Three Kingdoms - Period of Disunion 220 AD - 280 AD Sui Dynasty 589 AD - 618 AD Tang Dynasty 618 AD - 907 AD Sung Dynasty 969 AD - 1279 AD Yuan Dyansty 1279 AD - 1368 AD Ming Dynasty 1368 AD - 1644 AD Manchu or Qing Dynasty 1644 AD - 1912 AD

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Events Outside of China at the Same Time

Outside Dynasty

Egypt Neolithic/ShangAssyria ZhouGreece QinRoman Empire Han Dark Ages Three Kingdoms Jin SuiCharlemagne Tang Five DynastiesFeudalism Songin Europe YuanRenaissance MingIndustrial Qing Revolution

The Xia Dynasty

About 1994 BCE - 1766 BCE

The Xia dynasty has been called the first dynasty. The Xia dynasty was said to have ended only when a Xia ruler mistreated his people and was overthrown by his people. However, there isn't any archaeological record to prove this story; the Shang dynasty is the first dynasty to be documented with reliable historical evidence.

The Shang Dynasty

1766 BCE - 1027 BCE

The Shang dynasty ruled parts of northern and central China. Its capital city was located at Anyang near the border of Henan from about 1384 BCE. This dynasty was based on agriculture; millet, wheat, and barley were the primary crops grown. In addition to the crops, silkworms, pigs, dogs, sheep, and oxen were raised. Aside from their agricultural prowess, the Shang dynasty was also advanced in metallurgy. Bronze ships, weapons, and tools were found from that era.

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The Shang dyansty was an aristocrastic society, with a king ruling over the military nobility. Territorial rulers were appointed by him in return for their support in his military campaigns. Underneath the aristocratic class was the priest class. The priests kept the records of the government and were also in charge of religion. The religion in the time of the Shang dynasty was based on ancestor worship and a worship of many gods; the main god was known as Shang Ti, the Lord on High. The fall of the Shang dynasty was much like that of the Xia dynasty, the last king was a cruel tyrant. Instead of the people overthrowing the king, he was killed by a king from a rival kingdom, the Chou kingdom. The Chou dynasty was part of the Shang kingdom; its civilization was a combination of the Shang culture and that of non-Chinese civilizations.

The Zhou Dynasty

1122 BCE - 256 BCE

The Chinese civilization expanded during the time of the Zhou dynasty. The massive size that the dynasty covered was too much for the Zhou leaders to handle due to the poor means of communication. Because of this, the leaders decided to appoint people to oversee each of the territories. The territories started off as walled off cities. The leader of each of the territories were the lords, each receiving the title through inheritance. Next in the hierarchy were the fighting men, followed by the peasants and the domestic slaves. Soon, these territories became more independent, eventually breaking away from the main Zhou dynasty leaders. The Zhou society was based on agricultural production. During that time, the land of the lords was divided among the peasants to grow crops. They were divided up into three by three squares, with the eight outer squares being worked on by the peasants. The center tract of land was worked on by all eight of the peasants for the lord. The extent of this type of land distibution was unclear, but the later dynasties believed that this was the most equitable way of dealing with land distribution and use. The religious practice of the Zhou empire reflected their hierarchical way of life. The Zhou kings believed that they were given a mandate from heaven to rule. The kings prayed and sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Lord on High, now called T'ien (Heaven), and to their ancestors. The lords of the territories prayed to the local nature gods and to the gods of agriculture in addition to their ancestors. If any sacrifices or prayers were missed, great ill was predicted to fall on the territory or kingdom of the neglectful leader.

Eastern Zhou

In 770 BCE, the Zhou kings lost control of the territories they had delegated to their lords. These territories, along with non-Chinese forces, rebelled and defeated the original Zhou capital. The Zhou then formed a new capital farther East. From this new capital, the Zhou forfeited their political and military control over their territories.

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The territories now were larger and more powerful than the original Zhou kingdom. Even though the Zhou were not in control, they still thought they were appointed by the heavans and continued to be the ceremonial lords of the kingdoms. During this time, there was great economic growth, even among the constant warfare between the territories. It was also during this time that China entered its Iron Age. The Iron Age brought iron-tipped oxdrawn plows and improved irrigation techniques which increased the agricultural yield which in turn increased the population. With the increase in population came greater wealth, and people started to become merchants and traders. With the explosion of the merchant and trader class, the improvement of communication was inevitable. The improvement came in the form of expanding the horseback communication system. This increase in the economic situation allowed the rulers to control more and more territories. Communication was far better than before, and a ruler could have a larger empire and still be kept up to date on situations that may arise. The territories that were located at the edges of the Zhou empire expanded into non-Chinese countries. Upon expanding, the kingdoms of the Zhou became more diversified and these kingdoms selectively chose the aspects of the newly acquired culture to assimilate into their own. One such aspect was the mounted cavalry. Before, all the Chinese fighting was by foot soldiers. By the 6th century, seven powerful states arose from the former Zhou territories. With the Zhou dynasty's decline and the rise of power of the former territories, the situation in China became unstable. Then, by the late 5th century, the Zhou dynasty fell into a state of interstate anarchy, this period was known as the Period of the Warring States.

The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy

403 BCE - 221 BCE

Due to the instability of China, an intellectual movement swept through China that shaped China's state and culture. The most influential of the philosophers was Confucious. Confucius was the representation of the emerging class of administrators and advisors that were needed to aid rulers deal with the ever-present need of diplomacy with other states and internal administration. Confucius wanted a return to the Zhou style of governing. He believed that the rulers of that period had tried to develope a society based on the example of great personal virtue. By this, Confucius then took to the task of creating a class based on virtue that would take over the high positions of government and lead the people by their example. In addition to Confucianism, another school of philosophy was Taoism. The principles of Taosim are explained in the Tao-te-Ching or "Classic of the Way and Its Virtue." This text is said to have been created by Lao-tzu and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Taoist philosophy was based on simplicity. The belief is that the government should be hands off, and let the people deal with the problems of nature and the people should return to primitive agricultural communities. Legalism was the third school of philosophy. The philosophers felt that, during their time of great disorder and chaos, something needed to be done. The legalist philosophers believed that every aspect of life should be ruled by a set of strict and impersonal laws.

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To have this system work, the legalists needed to have a powerful and wealthy state where the ruler had ultimate authority. The wealth and military strength is what gave the state and ruler power.

Fall of the Zhou Dynasty and the Rise of the Ch'in State

During the 4th century BCE, the state of Ch'in, one of the former territories of the Zhou kingdom, emerged as a power. Based on theories of a leading legalist, the Ch'in kingdom reformed its administration, economy, and military and became stronger as the Zhou empire weakened and eventually died in 256 BCE. Soon, the Ch'in had conquered the seven other warring states.

The Qin Dynasty

221 BCE - 206 BCE

The Qin Dynasty was the dynasty that redefined China. The emperor of this era wanted to conquer the warring states that the Chou dynasty had in essence created. This emperor succeeded and China was one nation once more. Upon conquering all the warring states, the emperor pronounced himself as the first emperor of China or, Shih Huang Ti. The unified China was larger than it ever was. This was the first time outside forces acknowledged the existance of another race of people, and aptly named the nation China after the then current dynasty, the Qin. The first emperor not only unified China, but went about standardizing writing, weights, and measures throughout his kingdom. This was used to promote internal trade among the newly aquired states. The states each had their own standards of measuring and weighing, and the Qin emperor wanted his kingdom to be as one to strengthen it. This standardization was good for the weights and measurements but was not good for philisophical ideas. During this time, many schools of thought were outlawed; only legalism was given official sanction. In 213 BCE, all the books of the opposing schools of thought were burned except for the copies held in the Qin imperial library. The only way for emperor to keep his nation together was to have all his subjects think the same way. Any deviation would throw China back to the hundreds of years of warring. The Qin empire was vast. The first emperor pushed China's borders South to current day Vietnam, and current day Korea. But the central kingdom was still in the Yellow River Valley. Regardless, of all the accomplishments of the Qin, the best known is the Great Wall of China. The construction of the Great Wall of China did not come without a price. It came with massive financial burden as well as human life. This led to resentment of the Qin emperor by his people. Not only that, the intellectuals were not happy with the emperor either; the books they coveted were burned at his hands. By this time, the emperor had grown old and he did not want to face death. He wanted to be immortal. He set all the court scientists and doctors to work to make some sort of medicine that would make him a god. The doctors came up with a deadly solution that

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they truely thought would work. The medicines the doctors prescribed were pills that contained traces of mercury which eventually lead to the emperors death. When the emperor died, China went into a rage, and a rebellion against the Qin dynasty ensued, leading to the next dynasty, the Han.

The Early Han Dynasty

206 BCE - 9 AD

From the turbulent Ch'in dynasty a rebel leader, Liu Pang, arose to seize control of the former Ch'in empire. He proclaimed himself emperor in 206 BCE. He established the Han dynasty which would become the most durable dynasty of the imperial age. The Han empire was established using what the Ch'in had already set up. The only difference is that some of the policies were modified, especially those that had caused the Ch'in collapse. Taxes were also reduced drastically, while the government played a smaller role in the economic policies. One of important contributions of the Han was the establishment of Confucianism as the official ideaology over Legalism. The Confucianism was not the pure studies of Confucius, but a conglomeration of various other philosphies and superstitions to augment the complex and sparse teachings of Confucius. This changed the way that the empire was run. Before, emperors appointed people to positions regardless of thier competence. Now, the emperors chose the people they thought were the best suited for the job based on merit. Written examinations were used to identify the best qualified people for the job. In the 2nd cnetury BCE, an imperial university was established to teach students the five classics of the Confucian school to prepare them to become bureaucrats. The height of the Han empire was under the rule of Emperor Wu Ti, who ruled the Han empire from 140 to 87 BCE. Emperor Wu wanted to expand his kingdom and did, but at a price. The once abundent coffers of the Han kingdom, collected in the days when the government was hands off regarding the economy, were empty. This led to the re-establishing of the legalist philosophy; taxes and old policies were reinstated. This did not go well with the people and large land owners opposed the centeral government by refusing to pay taxes. The government overlooked the large land cases and over-taxed the peasants. The peasants did not like the change and a revolt ensued.

The Xin Dynasty

9 AD - 23 AD

During the revolt, a courtier, Wang Ming, deposed and infant emperor and established the short Xin dynasty. Slavery was abolished in this time and the peasants' lives were improved. State monopolies on salt, iron, and coinage were strengthened and new monopolies were created. Wang Ming tried to do too much and this lead to his downfall. He tried to pass legislation on land but it was repealed. A large rebellion, led by a group known as the Red Eyebrows, succeeded in killing Wang Ming and restoring the Han dynasty.

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The Later Han Dynasty

25 AD - 220 AD

The weakness of the administration plagued the Later, or Eastern Han dynasty, from the beginning. As it was under the Earlier Han dynasty, the centeral government was weakened by infant emperors' mothers being appointed to leadership roles. With the help of the court eunuchs, the later emperors were able to get rid of this problem, but at the price of giving the eunuchs power equal to the mothers. This new power of the eunuchs did not sit well with officials, so the government was again divided by factionalism. Between 168 and 170 warfare exploded between the eunuchs and bureaucrats. The new eunuch power threatened the bureaucrat's position, something that the eunuchs thought the bureaucrats should not have had in the first place. By 184, two great rebellions broke out, led by Taoist religious groups. It wasn't until 215 that the great Han general, Ts'ao Ts'ao, was able to calm the rebellious attitude.

Three Kingdoms – Period of Disunion – Warring States Period

The end of the Han dynasty was marked by the separation of the large families of that dynasty. The families took advantage of the weakened state of the government and started to establish their own private armies. Many dynasties were established during this time.

Wei Dynasty (220 AD - 265 AD) Shu Dynasty (221 AD - 263 AD) Wu Dynasty (222 AD - 280 AD)

These three kingdoms constantly fought one another during this time. But, in 265 Yen Ssu-ma, a general in the Wei dynasty overthrew the throne and created the Western Tsin or Chin dynasty (265 AD - 317 AD) in Northern China. Yen had reunited North and South China, but it fell apart when he died. The Han Dyansty had fought non-Chinese tribes to the north to standstill. This warring brought the invasion of these northern tribes when the Later Han Dynasty collapsed. The non-Chinese invasions began in 304, and, by 317, the tribes had taken the control of the Tsin Dynasty. But, even though the Northern Tribes had wrested control of one dynasty, they could never take all of China. The non-Chinese rule lasted for about three centuries.

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This was the first time the non-Chinese controlled China. Their rule lasted until the Northern Wei Dynasty (386 AD - 534 AD) reclaimed China in 420 AD. During the second half of the 5th century, the Northern Wei adopted a policy of Sinification. The agricultural part of Northern China was administered bureaucratically as it was in earlier chinese dynasties. Even though the Chinese were conquered by foreign tribes, they still had influence on their new rulers. Chinese clothing, customs, and language were adopted by the foreign invaders. After tribal cheiftains had been overexerted by the official policies of SInification, they rebelled and in 534 the dynasty fell. For the next 50 years, Northern China was ruled by non-Chinese.

Sui Dynasty

589 AD - 618 AD

Under the Sui Dynasty (589 AD - 618 AD), China was reunited. Yang Chien, the first Sui emperor, was a military servant who usurped the throne of the non-Chinese Northern Chou in 581. In the next eight years, Yang Chien successfully reconquered the Chinese territory. The Sui dynasty re-established the centralized administrative system of the Han and reinstated the competitive tests that were once taken to measure a bureaucrat's competency. In addition to the re-establishment of the government, there was a re-establishment of religion and their roles. Even though Confucianism was officially endorsed, Taoism and Buddhism were acknowledged in formulating a new ideology for the empire. During this time, Buddhism flourished. Even though the Sui Dynasty was very short, it was filled with activity. The Great Wall was repaired at the cost of human life; a canal system, which was later formed into the Grand Canal, was constructed to carry water through out China. The eventual fall of the Sui Dynasty was due to losses in southern Manchuria and Northern Korea. With these defeats, the Sui dynasty was left devastated and rebels soon took control of the government.

The Tang Dynasty

618 AD - 907 AD

The Tang dynasty was a dynasty that was characterized by such strength and brilliance that it is unprecidented by any other. The civil service examination was so refined, that the test's basic form was used in the 20th century. The role of the the imperial and local government was amplified so that it centralized administration and enacted an elaborate code of administrative and penal laws. The Tang dynasty was vast, with its control ranging from Korea, southern Manchuria, and Northen Vietnam. In the west, the Tang influence was felt as far away as present-day Afghanistan. Tha Tang's strength came from a system of equal land allotments to the male population. A tax on the allotments was the Tang's greatest source of income. In addition to that,

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periodic miltary service from all males was the basis of the Tang's military. This system worked for a while, but when the population increased, the land allotments to the males decreased in size. The government's income did not change, but the peasants' did. This caused many to flee; not only did the income for the government decrease, but the military base did as well. The early Tang monarchs were good rulers overall. But, one emperor, Hsuan Tsung, fell in love with a woman and negelected his duties. This allowed the woman to place friends and family in government positions. One general that was placed in such a position, An Li-shan, had a quarrel with the woman's brother, causing a war to break out. Fighting went on for eight years, and was stopped due to alliances made with the Centeral Asian tribes. After this rebellion, the centeral government was never the same. The Tang could no longer control the generals along the border. These generals withheld tax money and eventually created kingdoms from the land they were to protect. During the Tang dynasty, many great poets emerged. Li, Po, Tu Fu, and Po Chu-i and prose master Han Yu appeared when the political decline had begun. The printing of books and sharing of ideas promoted cultural unity. During the Tang dynasty, Buddhism declined, and Confucianism became more popular. Even though Buddhism was at its peak during the early Tang dynasty, many of the Tang officials were of the Confucian discipline and regarded Buddhism as a disruptive force in China. So, in 845, the Tang emperor started a full-scale persecution of Buddhists. More than 4600 monestaries and 40,000 temples and shrines were destroyed. Other religious groups were also brought under government control. Social and economic growth kept the Tang dynasty together during the years of disunion. Handicraft guilds and the use of paper money all started in the late Tang dynasty. The period of disunion was known as the Five Dynasties period (907-960). Not only did five short-lived dynasties form during this period, but ten independent states were also formed, primarily in Southern China.

The Northern Sung Dynasty

969 AD - 1126 AD

To avoid the problems the Tang government faced, the Northern Sung made the military subordinate to the civil government. Every aspect of government and society was dominated by the civil government. The civil service test was expanded so that the government would have a constant flow of young talent. The Sung re-organized the imperial government, centralizing the control of the dynasty at the capital. The local government was left pretty much the same. Education flourished and the economy also continued to expand. The literature that was being created in the late Tang dynasty continued to flourish as well. However, even with such improvements, there was one major flaw, a weak military.

The Sung's military was not very powerful, and they frequently signed treaties to end fighting. Usually included in the treaties were stipulations requiring the Sung to pay tributes to the enemies they were fighting. With the population growth came greater economic growth. The military was a large portion of the annual income due to border

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defenses. The Northern Sung fell apart due to differences in opinions by the civil bureaucrats.

In 1069, a young Sung emperor appointed Wang An-shih as his chief counselor. Wang brought about great change in the government. He proposed plans to increase government income, decrease spending, and strengthen military forces. Wang An-Shih realized that the government's wealth came from the peasants, and that the wealthier the peasants were, the wealthier the government would be. So, Wang implemented land reforms to give equal allotments of land to farmers, loans to cultivators to assist planting and harvesting, and a graduated tax on wealth. Parts of Wang's plan were adopted, but some were not used due to bureaucratic opposition.

The Southern Sung Dynasty1127-1279

Due to their weakness, the Sung made an alliance with a Chin dynasty (1122-1234) of northern Manchuria. After all their mutual enemies were defeated, the Chin turned on the Sung. This forced them to retreat and form a new capital in the South in 1135. This new Sung dynasty far surpassed that of the old one. The economic and intellectual achievements increased while the former Sung dynasty to the north slowly decayed. The dynasty showed no internal sign of collapse, but its downfall was many years of bitter fighting against a superior force.

In 1206, all the Mongol tribes convened at Karakorum in Outer Mongolia to confirm Mongol unity under the command of Genghis Khan. Soon, the Mongols started to conquer the surrounding land to form the largest empire of that time. First, Genghhis Khan captured the Manchurian Chin dynasty. This was the dynasty that had pushed the Sung out of the North. The Southern Sung was not captured until 1279, when Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, took control.

The Yuan Dynasty

1279 AD - 1368 AD

Kublai moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum to somewhere near Beijing. The mongol empire was vast. It stretched from eastern Europe to Korea and from northern Siberia to the northern rim of India. Instead of being tribal lords, the mongols ruled as if they were chinese. That is why they adopted the the dynasty name, Yuan. During this time, the traffic from West to East were greatly increased. Many missionaries and merchants influenced the Chinese. The most notable foreigner that visited during this time was Marco Polo. There was resentment towards the mongols by the Chinese. They accepted them as rulers but resented the fact that they held back able Chinese due to the Confucianism tests. Eventually, the mongol control of China was started to deteriorate. Uprisings sprung up in every province of China and, in the 1360s, Chu Yuan-chang was

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successful in exerting control throughout the Yellow River Valley. In 1371, Chu was successful in pushing the mongols back into Mongolia.

The Ming Dynasty

1368 AD - 1644 AD

The Ming Dynasty was founded by Chu Yuan-chang, the rebel leader that was successful in removing the mongols from the throne. Chinese control was re-asserted in China and eastern Asia. Literature became more important, schools were created, and the justice system was reformed. The Great Wall and the Grand Canal were also improved. The dynasty was divided into 15 provinces and three commisioners were assigned to each province: one for finances, one for military, and one for judicial matters. The financial commisioner was over-ruled by a governor in the later years of the dynasty. The Ming's power was great. They started to re-establish a tribute among the non-Chinese states of East Asia. This tribute required that these states acknowledge the moral and cultural supremecy of the Chinese. In the first quarter of the 15th century, the Ming had decisively defeated the the mongol tribes. In addition to the superior land troops, the Chinese navy was strong. Their power was felt throughout Southeast Asia, India, and even Madagascar. From the middle of the 15th century, the Ming's power started to decline. The quality of the imperial leadership deteriorated and eunuchs started to exercise control over the emperors, causing great discontent among the bureaucrats and factionalism in the government. In addition to the deteriortion of the government, the imperial treasuries were being depleted by war. Much money was spent on defending against the mongol tribes to the north and Japanese pirates along the coast. The royal treasuries were eventually exhausted trying to defend Korea in a seven-year war against the Japanese pirates. p> In the final years of the Ming dynasty, maritime relations with Western countries were opened. Among the countries that had trading posts or settlements in China were: The Portuguese in Macao (1514), the Dutch in (Formosa)Taiwan (1619) and the near by Pescadres islands. At the same time, Jesuit missionaries came to spread the Christian faith and western scientific knowledge. The Jesuits soon won favor in the Ming court and the neo-Confucian scholars were pre-occupied with individual merit and social order. The Jesuits were unable to implant either Chiristian thought or western scientific knowledge in the Chinese court. The downfall of the Ming dynasty was brought about by a rebellion due to the inability of the government to provide food in a time of famine. When the rebels attacked, the best Ming troops were deployed along the Great Wall to protect against a Manchurian tribe. The Ming commander was offered help by the Manchurians and helped drive out the rebels. But once the rebels were purged from the capital, the Manchurians refused to leave. This forced the Ming to withdraw to the south.

The Manchu or Qing Dynasty

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1644 AD - 1912 AD

Under Manchu rule, China reached the highest point in its 2000-year history and collapsed from internal pressure along with pressures exerted by the West. As with previous invaders of China, the Manchus started to absorb the Chinese culture. The government was based on that of the Ming and was more centralized. The central administration was regulated by a new institution called the Grand Council. This council regulated the military and political affairs guided by the emperor. The chief bureaus in the capital had both a Chinese and a Manchu leader. The traditional bureaucracy and civil service examination was generally the same as with previous Chinese dynasties. By the end of 17th century, the Manchus had effectively eliminated all of the Ming opposition and put down a rebellion led by Chinese generals that had helped the Manchus. The Manchu dynasty eventually controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet. Even Nepalm Burma, Korea, and Vietnam recognized China as a major power. Even though the Manchu dynasty had over-powered it enemies, the 18th century was a time of unprecedented peace. However, as with the previous trends, the population growth superseded the economic growth. So, in the 18th century, the economic status of the Chinese peasant declined. The government's funds were depleted due to foreign expansion. The Manchus grudgingly accepted trade with the West. The most active trading partners were the British, French, and the United States. The British, wanting to gain a larger foothold in the Chinese market introduced Indian opium. This opium trade depleted the Chinese silver reserves and gave the British a large advantage over all the other Chinese trading parteners.

List of Chinese Dynasties

Not surprisingly, there is some disagreement over how Chinese dynasties should be listed. Often times, an overthrown government continues to control one region of the country, while the new regime fights to extinguish it. Several dynasties or kingdoms may co-exist, conquering each other in succession. In addition, various non-Chinese dynasties have controlled all of, or part of, China. I have consulted several sources and made my own judgment for the listing. Like most sources, I have only counted years of non-Chinese dynasties that have gained control over all China when their sovereignty over the country had been traditionally considered established.

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Dynasty Time Period Notes

Xia42205 BC - 1766 BC (trad. dates)

Conquered by Shang1

Shang11766 BC - 1122 BC (trad. dates)

Conquered by Zhou1

Zhou1

-- Western Zhou1

-- Eastern Zhou1

1122 BC - 255 BC (trad. dates)

-- 1122 BC - 771 BC

-- 771 BC - 255 BC

-- Broke up into small feudal states

-- Conquered by someone

Spring and Autumn Period

770 BC - 476 BC

Small states united to ignite Warring States Period

Warring States Period-- Han4

-- Zhao4

-- Wei4

-- Chu3

-- Yan4

-- Qi2

-- Qin2

475 BC - 221 BC-- until 230 BC

-- before 403 BC - 228 BC

-- until 225 BC

-- until 223 BC

-- until 222 BC

-- until 221 BC

-- until 206 BC (see below)

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- Conquered by Qin2

-- (see below)

Qin2 221 BC - 206 BC Overthrown by Han rebels

Han4

-- Western Han4

-- Xin1 (interregnum)-- Eastern Han4

206 BC - AD 220

-- 206 BC - AD 8

-- 8 - 25

-- 25 - 220

-- Overthrown by Xin1 rebels-- Overthrown by Eastern Han4 rebels-- Overthrown by Wei4 rebels

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Three Kingdoms-- Wei4

-- Shu3 Han4

-- Wu2

220 - 265-- 220 - 265/266

-- 221 - 263/264

-- 222 - 280

-- Overthrown by Jin4 rebels-- Conquered by Wei4

-- Conquered by Jin4

Jin4

-- Western Jin4

-- Eastern Jin4

265 - 420

-- 265 - 316

-- 317 - 420

-- Defeated by Xiongnu (Huns), moved east

-- Overthrown by Liu Song4

rebels Northern and Southern Dynasties

"Six" Dynasties Period in the South(Two of which are the Eastern Jinand Wu, see above)-- Liu Song4

-- Southern Qi2

-- Southern Liang2

-- Southern Chen2

Sixteen Kingdoms in the North-- Northern (Later) Wei4

-- Eastern Wei4

-- Western Wei4

-- Northern Qi2

-- Northern Zhou1

-- et al., mostly non-Chinese kingdoms

420 - 581

-- 420 - 479

-- 479 - 502

-- 502 - 557

-- 557 - 589

-- 386 - 534/535

-- 534 - 549

-- 535 - 557

-- 550 - 577

-- 557 - 581

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- Conquered by Northern Zhou1

-- Overthrown by Sui rebels2

Sui2 581 - 618 Overthrown by Tang2 rebels

Tang2 618 - 907 Overthrown by Later Liang2 rebels

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Five Dynasties in the North-- Later Liang2

-- Later Tang2

907 - 960

-- 907 - 923

-- 923 - 936

-- 936 - 947

-- 947 - 951

-- Overthrown by Later Tang2 rebels-- Overthrown by Later Jin4

rebels

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-- Later Jin4

-- Later Han4

-- Later Zhou1

Ten Kingdoms in the South-- Wu

-- Southern Tang

-- Southern Ping

-- Chu

-- Former Shu

-- Later Shu

-- Min

-- Northern Han

-- Southern Han

-- Wu Yue

-- 951 - 960

-- 902 - 937

-- 937 - 975/976

-- 924/925 - 963

-- 927 - 951

-- 907 - 925

-- 934 - 965

-- 909 - 945/946

-- 951 - 979

-- 917 - 971

-- 907 - 978

-- Overthrown by Later Han4 rebels-- Overthrown by Later Zhou1 rebels-- Overthrown by Song4 rebels

-- ?

-- Surrendered to Song4

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- ?

-- Surrendered to Song4

Song4

-- Northern Song4

-- Southern Song4

-- Liao4 (Khitan tribes in North China)-- Western Xia4 (Tangut tribes in Western China)-- Jin1 (Juchen tribes in North China)

960 - 1279

-- 960 - 1127

-- 1127 - 1279

-- 907 - 1125

-- 1038 - 1227

-- 1115 - 1234

-- Defeated by Jin, moved south

-- Conquered by Mongols

-- Conquered by Jin

-- Conquered by Mongols

-- Declared ind. from Liao, conquered by Mongols

Yuan2 (Mongol) 1279 - 1368 Expelled by Ming rebelsMing2 1368 - 1644 Conquered by Qing

Qing1 (Manchu) 1644 - 1912 Overthrown by republican rebels

Republic of China (ROC)-- Mainland-- Taiwan

1912 - present-- 1912 - 1949-- 1949 - present

-- Defeated by Communists, moved to Taiwan-- Retroceded by Japan in 1945

People's Republic of China (PRC)

1949 - present

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