multifaceted nature of intrinsic motivation: the theory of 16 basic desires
DESCRIPTION
White (1959) proposed that certain motives—such as curiosity, autonomy, and play (called intrinsic motives or IMs) – have common characteristics that distinguish them from drives. The evidence that mastery is common to IMs is anecdotal, not scientific. The assertion that “intrinsic enjoyment” is common to IMs exaggerates the significance of pleasure in human motivation and expresses the hedonistic fallacy of confusing consequence for cause. Nothing has been shown scientifically to be common to IMs that differentiate them from drives. An empirically testable theory of 16 basic desires is put forth based on psychometric research and subsequent behavior validation. The desires are largely unrelated to each other and may have different evolutionary historiesTRANSCRIPT
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Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:
The Theory of 16 Basic DesiresSteven Reiss
The Ohio State University
Review of eneral !sycholo"y# $%% '# 1()*1)+,
Please send reprint requests to: Steven Reiss, 321 McCampbell Hall, 1581 odd rive,!"io State #niversit$, Columbus, !H %321&'12()* email: reiss*+osu*edu
September, 2&&2
Revised: -ebruar$, 2&&3
. Cop$ri/"t Steven Reiss, 0ll Ri/"ts Reserved o part o t"is document ma$ be
reproduced, copied, distributed or stored it"out ritten permission rom t"e aut"or*
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5/21/2018 Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires - s...
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-.stract
4"ite 1(5(6 proposed t"at certain motives7suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, andpla$ called intrinsic motives or Ms6 9 "ave common c"aracteristics t"at distin/uis"
t"em rom drives* "e evidence t"at master$ is common to Ms is anecdotal, not
scientiic* "e assertion t"at ;intrinsic ena//erates t"esi/niicance o pleasure in "uman motivation and e>presses t"e "edonistic allac$ o
conusin/ consequence or cause* ot"in/ "as been s"on scientiicall$ to be common to
Ms t"at dierentiate t"em rom drives* 0n empiricall$ testable t"eor$ o 1) basicdesires is put ort" based on ps$c"ometric researc" and subsequent be"avior validation*
"e desires are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er and ma$ "ave dierent evolutionar$
"istories*
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5/21/2018 Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation: The Theory of 16 Basic Desires - s...
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Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:
The Theory of 16 Basic Desires
Motives are reasons people "old or initiatin/ and perormin/ voluntar$ be"avior*
"e$ indicate t"e meanin/ o "uman be"avior, and t"e$ ma$ reveal a person?s values*
Motives oten aect a person?s perception, co/nition, emotion, and be"avior* 0 person"o is "i/"l$ motivated to /ain social status, or e>ample, ma$ be observant o mar@s o
social distinction, ma$ t"in@ oten about issues pertainin/ to ealt", ma$ especiall$ enamples include a c"ild pla$in/ ball or p"$sical e>ercise and a student readin/ aboo@ out o curiosit$* n eac" o t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal is desired or its on sa@e* n
contrast, means are indicated "en a person perorms an act or its instrumental value*>amples include a proessional at"lete "o pla$s ball or a salar$ and a student "o
studies to improve a /rade* n eac" o t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal salar$, /rade6 is desired
because it produces somet"in/ else* 0 person mi/"t see@ a salar$, or e>ample, as ameans o en"ancin/ social status, or "i/" /rades as a means o pleasin/ a parent*
0n anal$sis o a person?s be"avior ma$ identi$ a series o instrumental acts
olloed b$ one or more end /oals t"at complete t"e ;be"avior c"ain*= -or e>ample, aperson ma$ ta@e a second tra
salar$ to purc"ase "ealt" care instrumental motive6, and desire t"e "ealt" care to beneit
"is or "er amil$ end /oal6* "is e>ample o a simple be"avior c"ain s"os t"reebe"aviors, to motivated b$ instrumental /oals and a t"ird motivated b$ an end /oal*Do/icall$, onl$ /oals t"at are desired or t"eir on sa@e can serve as t"e ;end= o a
purposeul e>planation o a series o "uman acts*
"e number o instrumental motives is or all practical purposes unlimited* !nl$ima/ination limits "o man$ dierent a$s individuals can pursue t"e end /oal o, sa$,
poer* Eenerall$, t"ere seems to be little or no point to listin/ instrumental motives
because no matter "o compre"ensive a list "appens to be somebod$ can probabl$ima/ine an additional instrumental motive t"at as overloo@ed and could be added to t"e
list* n contrast, t"e number o ends is limited b$ "uman nature* 0 central issue or
ps$c"olo/$ s"ould be to identi$ and classi$ t"e end purposes o "uman be"avior,
because ends indicate t"e ultimate /oals o muc" o "at people do*o t"eoretical perspectives "ave been advanced concernin/ end /oals* Multi'
aceted t"eor$ "olds t"at t"e various end /oals are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er,
per"aps to t"e point "ere t"e$ are /eneticall$ distinct sources o motivation it"dierent evolutionar$ "istories* Multi'aceted t"eorists include p"ilosop"ers "o "ave
su//ested lists o t"e most undamental motives o "uman nature e*/*, SpinFoa,
1(%(B1)+56, ps$c"olo/ists "o "ave put ort" evolutionar$ t"eories o motivation e*/*,
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Mcou/all, 1(2)6, and ps$c"olo/ists "o "ave su//ested t"eories o "uman needs e*/*,
Murra$, 1(386*
n contrast, unitar$ or /lobal t"eorists "old t"at end /oals can be proitabl$reduced to a small number o cate/ories based on common c"aracteristics* #nitar$
t"eorists see@ t"e underl$in/ ps$c"olo/ical principles t"at are e>pressed b$ diverse
motivational events* "e ancient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, or e>ample, reduced end /oalsinto cate/ories e>pressin/ t"e needs o t"e bod$, mind, and soul e*/*, Plato, 1())B3+5
AC6* Hedonists distin/uis"ed beteen end /oals associated it" pleasure en"ancement
versus pain reduction Russell, 1(%56* -reud 1()3B1(1)6 reduced motives to se>ual anda//ressive instincts*
oda$, some social ps$c"olo/ists classi$ end /oals into to /lobal cate/ories,
called drives and intrinsic motives Ms6* "e distinction "as been inluential 7 1,(21
sc"olarl$ publications on intrinsic motivation M6 appeared durin/ t"e period o Ganuar$1()+ to Ma$ 2&&2 source:PsychInfo6* M "as been investi/ated in social ps$c"olo/$
e*/, R$an eci, 2&&&6, developmental ps$c"olo/$ e*/*, Harter, 1(816, clinical
ps$c"olo/$ e*/*, isenber/er Cameron, 1(()6, or/aniFational ps$c"olo/$ e*/*,
Hou@es, Ganssen, Gon/e, iamine "o various end /oals relate to eac" ot"er* 4eill consider t"e meanin/ o t"e concept o ;M= and ill as@, ;4"at, i an$t"in/,
ample, are circular it" respect to
eac" ot"er: ;Reards stren/t"en be"avior,= and ;0n$ event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior is
a reard*="e concept o drive as introduced to escape rom t"e circularit$ o t"e la o
eect Aron, 1()1*6 nstead o identi$in/ ;reards= as an$ stimulus or satis$in/
event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior, drive t"eorists deined ;reard= as a reduction in a stateo deprivation* "e statements, ;drive reduction stren/t"ens be"avior,= and ;drive
reduction occurs "en a state o deprivation is lessened,= are not circular it" respect to
eac" ot"er*Hull 1(%36 reco/niFed our t$pes o drives7"un/er, t"irst, se>, and escape rom
pain* n man$ animal learnin/ e>periments investi/ators induced drives b$ deprivin/
animals o an important need prior to t"e e>periment* "e deprivation o ood, or
e>ample, establis"es ood as a poerul reard, increasin/ t"e animal?s motivation to
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learn responses t"at produce ood S@inner, 1(386* Muc" o animal learnin/ t"eor$ is
based on t"e results o ps$c"olo/ical studies it" ood'deprived or ater'deprived
animals*2
II, UNIT-R2 IM T0OR2
"e unitar$ construct o M as put ort" as an alternative to drive t"eor$* "e
initial insi/"t as t"at man$ o t"e motives not e>plained ell b$ drive t"eor$ 9 motivessuc" as e>ploration curiosit$6, autonom$, and pla$ '' "ave common properties* o a
lar/e e>tent, unitar$ M t"eor$ initiall$ represented an attempt to s"o t"e essential
dierences beteen drives and "at ps$c"od$namic t"eorists "ave called ;e/o motives*=n t"e past, t"e distinction beteen drives and Ms "as been t"ou/"t to "ave a
p"$siolo/ical basis, at least accordin/ to some publis"ed remar@s* "e /eneral idea as
t"at drives suc" as "un/er and t"irst arise rom ;tissue needs= involvin/ ;perip"eral=
components o t"e nervous s$stem, "ereas Ms arise rom ps$c"olo/ical or co/nitiveprocesses involvin/ primaril$ central neural activit$* eci 1(+56, or e>ample, rote
t"at t"e primar$ eects o M ;are in t"e tissues o t"e central nervous s$stem rat"er t"an
in t"e non'nervous s$stem tissues= p* )16* "is p"$siolo/ical paradi/m or
distin/uis"in/ drives rom Ms ala$s lac@ed scientiic supportK indeed, e no @not"at it is p"$siolo/ical nonsense* Motives suc" as "un/er and t"irst, or e>ample, involve
si/niicant central nervous s$stem or co/nitive activit$ Aerntson Cacioppo, 2&&&6*Aot" t"e be"aviorist concept o ;drive,= and t"e concept o M as ;non'drive,= "ave no
precise p"$siolo/ical meanin/, and ori/inall$ ere put ort" at a time "en little as
@non about t"e p"$siolo/$ o motivation*
-, M-ST0R2
4"ite?s 1(5(6 paper on competence motivation master$6 as ar/uabl$ t"e start
o t"e current era o sc"olars"ip on M* 4"ite 1(5(6 asserted t"at e>ploration,
manipulation, and pla$ are not drives ori/inatin/ rom states o deprivation partiall$because t"e$ are not related to ;visceral needs comparable to "un/er, t"irst, or se>=
1(5(, p* 3&16* >ploration and pla$ ;cannot be re/arded as leadin/ to an$ @ind oconsummator$ response= p* 3&16* He urt"er ar/ued t"at motives t"at are not drives"ave ;ver$ vital common properties= p* 3186* n particular, suc" motives are concerned
it" ;eective interactions it" t"e environment, under t"e /eneral "eadin/ o
competence= p* 31+6* 4"ite?s motive or competence "as been variousl$ calledeffectance motivation, competence motivation, and mastery* eci 1(+56 later embraced
4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at competence motivation is a common propert$ o non'drives,
deinin/ M as be"avior ;"ic" a person en/a/es in to eel competent and sel'
determinin/= p* )16*4"ite appreciated t"e need to validate "is idea o eectance motivation* He
rote, ;o doubt it ill at irst seem arbitrar$ to propose a sin/le motivational
conception in connection it" so man$ diverse @inds o be"avior* 4"at do e /ain b$attributin/ motivational unit$ to suc" a diverse arra$ o activities= 4"ite, 1(5(, p* 3186*
He cited bot" Pia/et 1(526 and anecdotal observations to support "is "$pot"esis t"at
eectance motivation is common to e>ploration, manipulation, and pla$*4"ite speculated on t"e development o eectance motivation* He su//ested t"at
in bot" inants and $oun/ c"ildren ;it seems sensible to conceive o eectance motivation
as undierentiated* Dater in lie it becomes proitable to distin/uis" various motives suc"
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as co/niFance, construction, master$, and ac"ievement* t is m$ vie t"at all suc"
motives "ave a root in eectance motivation= 4"ite, 1(5(, p* 3236*
Some o t"e appeal o 4"ite?s t"eor$ is su//ested b$ t"e be"avior o $oun/animals and c"ildren* Loun/ lion cubs, or e>ample, sometime seem to be burstin/ it"
ener/$ 9 t"e$ /et into misc"ie, pla$ it" t"e ot"er cubs, e>plore t"eir environment, and
"ave a tendenc$ to ander aa$ rom t"e /roup* n ot"er ords, t"e$ e>press sel'assertive ener/$ as pla$, e>ploration, manipulation, a desire or p"$sical e>ercise, and a
desire or autonom$* "e$ create a stron/ impression t"at t"ese be"aviors are lin@ed b$
a common motive o sel'assertion*0necdotal observations, "oever, do not constitute scientiic evidence* 0s ar as
e could determine, no researc"er "as presented scientiic tests o t"e "$pot"esis t"at
master$ is t"e aim o e>ploration, autonom$, and pla$* 4"ite 1(5(6 cited as evidence
or "is "$pot"esis anecdotal e>amples o c"ildren at pla$ and "is interpretations o "att"ose c"ildren ere reall$ aimin/ or it" t"eir be"avior* 0lt"ou/" "is interpretations
ere reasonable and per"aps even insi/"tul, t"e$ did not rise to t"e standards o
scientiic evidence* Part o t"e diicult$ it" 4"ite?s "$pot"esis is t"e lac@ o
quantiication and measurement, "ic" are to pillars o a scientiic approac"* 0s Harter1(816 put it, ;"e /lobal nature o t"is construct eectance motivationN "as made it
diicult to operationaliFe* 4"ite?s ormulation does not readil$ lend itsel to anempirical test*= p* 3&16*
4"ite did not develop a measure o competence motivation* He did not assess
correlations beteen competence motivation and various Ms, s"oin/ t"at t"e$ aresi/niicantl$ "i/"er t"an correlations beteen competence motivation and drives* 4"ite
did not propose speciic studies to test "is concept* He did not sa$ "at mi/"t alsi$ "is
t"eor$* He developed some interestin/ ideas, but "e did not put ort" scientiic support
or t"ose ideas*Ia/an 1(+26 reco/niFed t"e need to develop measures o eectance motivation*
He su//ested t"at t"e$ be developed based on principles similar to t"ose used in t"e"ematic 0pperception est Murra$, 1(%36* o suc" measure, "oever, "as beenvalidated* "e validit$ o t"e "ematic 0pperception est, moreover, "as been called
into question Oubin, ron, Sc"umer, 1()56* oda$, e researc"ers use t"e 0 or
ot"er stor$'tellin/ tec"niques to measure motivation*4"ite?s ar/ument t"at master$ is a common element o t"e Ms is based on a ver$
broad interpretation o competence motivation* He deined competence motivation so
broadl$ it includes nearl$ all motives* !ne could ar/ue, or e>ample, t"at drives also
e>press a desire to interact eectivel$ it" t"e environment* n "un/er, or e>ample,people ant to become eective "unters to ind ood* Some people spend a considerable
amount o ener/$ to become se>uall$ eective in attractin/ ot"ers* A$ puttin/ ort" a
suicientl$ /eneral deinition o competence motivation, it seems possible to ar/ue t"atnearl$ an$ collection o diverse motives ma$ "ave common elements*
"e "$pot"esis t"at eectance motivation is undierentiated at birt" and later
dierentiates into t"e various Ms "as not been tested* obod$ "as observed t"epredicted process o dierentiation o master$ motivation* obod$ "as conducted
measurements o eectance motivation in an undierentiated state and in its predicted
dierentiated orm, s"oin/ t"at t"e ormer is lin@ed to t"e later*
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n conclusion, c"ildren s"o a need to eel competent and master t"eir
environments* "is need, called master$, is important in c"ild"ood development and in
"uman be"avior /enerall$* "e relations"ip beteen master$ and ot"er e/o motives,"oever, is not ell understood* Researc"ers need to develop met"ods to e>plore more
ull$ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at master$ is t"e aim o important e/o motives suc" as
e>ploration, manipulation, and autonom$*A, INTRINSI3 !40-SUR0S
ntrinsic pleasure is anot"er common c"aracteristics o Ms, accordin/ to unitar$
t"eorists* "is viepoint "olds t"at people are motivated to en/a/e in activities t"e$e>pect to e>perience as pleasurable* 4"en t"e pleasures are in"erent to t"e be"avior or
activit$ itsel 9 suc" as drain/ or its on sa@e7M is imputed R$an eci, 2&&&K
4einer, 1((56* 4"en t"e pleasures are e>ternal to t"e be"avior or activit$7suc" as
drain/ or a Eood Pla$er 0ard7e>trinsic motivation M6 is imputed* 0s eci andR$an 1(856 put it, ;4"en people are intrinsicall$ motivated, t"e$ e>perience interest and
enperience
lo= p* 3%6* 4einer 1((56 deined M as a source o motivation arisin/ rom t"eenjoyment o an activit$*
B1, -R0 IMs !40-SUR0-B40J M t"eorists ma$ "ave erred in embracin/"edonism 9 t"e p"ilosop"$ t"at pleasure motivates be"avior* !ver t"e centuries, sc"olars
"ave s"on a number o si/niicant limitations o pleasure t"eories* 0pplied to t"e
concept o intrinsic pleasures, or e>ample, e ma$ question "et"er or not M t"eorists"ave e>a//erated t"e e>tent to "ic" certain activities reall$ are pleasurable*
M t"eorists ar/uabl$ "ave e>a//erated t"e motivational si/niicance o
intellectual pleasures* "e$ "ave "eld t"at ever$bod$ is born it" t"e potential to entrinsic incentives suc" as /rades Io"n, 1((36* n order tomotivate students in sc"ool, unitar$ M t"eorists advise teac"ers to ind a$s to ma@elearnin/ un Depper and Cordova, 1((26 and to tap into students? natural curiosit$*
M t"eorists "ave presented little scientiic evidence to support t"e "$pot"esis t"at
ever$bod$ is born it" t"e potential to enamples oadolescents and adults s"o t"at man$ people react to intellectual activities as i t"e$
ere unpleasant* People oten sustain t"ou/"t on a problem or no more t"an brie
periods o timeK t"e over"elmin/ maamples are ar/uabl$
si/ns t"at intellectual activit$ is naturall$ unpleasant under man$ circumstances or i
en/a/ed in or more t"an a e minutes at a time*M t"eorists ma$ "ave put ort" a misleadin/, almost romanticiFed description o
t"e inquir$ process* "e inquir$ process is not ala$s pleasurable and oten involves
si/niicant ne/ative emotions* Man$ scientists "ave ritten about t"e a/on$ o t"ecreative inquir$ process and t"e emotional ups and dons o researc"*
4"ereas M t"eorists "ave said t"at t"e ps$c"olo/ical aim o inquir$ is
intellectual pleasure, t"e multiaceted t"eor$ e propose later in t"is article implies t"at
t"e aims o inquir$ are learnin/ and @noled/e* #nder our viepoint, "i/"l$ curious
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people desire @noled/e and understandin/ so stron/l$ t"e$ pursue t"e inquir$ process
even "en t"e$ must endure an>ieties, severe criticism, devastatin/ ailures, and ot"er
rustrations* Inoled/e is t"e end /oal o curiosit$, but t"in@in/, e>ploration, andproblem solvin/ are not necessaril$ pleasurable* "in@in/ can be rustratin/, e>ploration
can arouse ear Games, 1(5&B18(&6, and problem solvin/ can be rustratin/*
n conclusion, one problem it" t"e concept o intrinsic pleasures is t"at itimplies t"at intrinsicall$ motivated be"avior is more en
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trait curiosit$ as virtuall$ nil, r *&5, 1,15%* Since "i/"l$ autonomous people are
not necessaril$ "i/"l$ curious, "o can autonom$ and curiosit$ be about t"e same t"in/
master$6J
D, 3ON34USIONS
4"ite 1(5(6 put ort" t"e t"esis t"at Ms suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, and pla$"ave common c"aracteristics pressed a multiaceted t"eor$ o end
motivation ;doin/ somet"in/ or its on sa@e*=6* 0ristotle, or e>ample, identiied 12
end motives: conidence, pleasure, savin/, ma/niicence, "onor, ambition, patience,sincerit$, conversation, social contact, modest$, and ri/"teousness* escartes
1(58B1)3+6, on t"e ot"er "and, listed si> ;passions o t"e soul*= He rote, ;"ere areonl$ si> intrinsic motivesN "ic" are simple and primitive, viF*, onder, love, "atred,
desire, Q= p* 2(16* Games
1(5&B18(&6 and Mcou/all 1(2)6 reco/niFed beteen 8 and 2& ;instincts*= 3 4"enps$c"od$namic ps$c"olo/$ /ained inluence, Murra$ 1(386 reinterpreted Mcou/all?s
list o instincts into a list o 2& basic ps$c"olo/ical needs*% Maslo 1(%36 also put ort"
a t"eor$ o diverse "uman motives*
Some ps$c"olo/ists "ave ta@en stron/ e>ception to eorts to develop lists o endmotives* Critics "ave ar/ued t"at 8 to 2& undamental motives are too man$ to be studied
proitabl$ -reeman, 0nderson, 0Fer, Eirolami, Scotti, 1((86* Aiolo/ists stud$ scoreso enF$mes, and c"emists stud$ 115 elements* Since e do not sa$ t"at biolo/ists stud$;too man$= enF$mes, or t"at c"emists stud$ ;too man$= elements, "$ s"ould e t"in@
t"at 8 to 2& basic motives are ;too man$= or ps$c"olo/ists to stud$J Scientiic rules
permit ps$c"olo/ists to stud$ as man$ undamental motives as can be identiied* 4e donot ant to invent a motive or ever$ be"avior, o course, but e also do not ant to
proceed based on invalid, preconceived notions o "o man$ motives t"ere are*
volutionar$ t"eor$ su//ests a multi'aceted model o Ms* 4"en e consider
t"e various Ms, t"e$ seem relevant to dierent survival needs, su//estin/ possibl$distinct motives controlled b$ dierent /enes* icac$, or e>ample, motivates buildin/
nests and ot"ers orms o s"elter, "ic" "ave t"e survival value o protectin/ animals
rom "ars" environmental elements* 0utonom$ 9 t"e desire or reedom 9 motivatesanimals to leave t"e nest "en t"e$ come o a/e, spreadin/ t"e searc" or ood over a
lar/er /eo/rap"ical area* "ese considerations su//est at least a possibilit$ o separate
evolutionar$ "istories, "ic" supports t"e idea t"at Ms are multiaceted*
-, -3TORI-4 STUDI0S O 0ND MOTI/-TION
Since 1((5, "ave been developin/ a list o diverse Ms, variousl$ called t"etheory of 16 basic desiresorsensitivity theory* M$ /raduate students and "ave been
(
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/at"erin/ evidence s"oin/ t"e reliabilit$, actorial validit$, and be"avioral validit$ o
t"is list* A$ validatin/ a variet$ o lar/el$ unrelated end motives "at people see@ or
its on sa@e6, m$ collea/ues and "ave sou/"t to s"o t"at end motivation is, in act,multiaceted*
Reiss and Havercamp 1((), 1((86 deined basic orundamentalmotivesto "ave
t"ree eatures: 16 end purposes Ms6, 26 universal motivators, and 36 ps$c"olo/icalimportance* "e criterion o ps$c"olo/ical importance is intended to ocus multiaceted
t"eor$ on be"aviors t"at "istoricall$ "ave been central to ps$c"olo/ical personalit$
t"eor$* atin/, or e>ample, is considered to be ps$c"olo/icall$ important becauseaspects o culture, man$ ever$da$ activities, and some clinical disorders are concerned
it" ood and ood preparationK on t"e ot"er "and, t"irst is not considered to be a
undamental motivator because it does not account or a si/niicant amount o ever$da$
be"avior o interest to ps$c"olo/ists* 4it"out t"e criterion o ps$c"olo/ical si/niicance,t"ere ma$ be scores o basic motives additional to t"ose considered in t"is article,
includin/ one or eac" biolo/ical need*
4e be/an our eort to identi$ t"e basic motives o "uman be"avior b$
developin/ a list o ever$ motive e could ima/ine* 4e consulted a variet$ o reerencesources and as@ed collea/ues or su//estions* 4e obtained ideas rom Murra$?s 1(386
t"eor$ o needs, motivational studies, ps$c"opat"olo/$ articles and boo@s, andps$c"iatric classiication manuals* 4e pared don our initial list o items b$ eliminatin/
redundancies and motives t"at "ave relativel$ little ps$c"olo/ical si/niicance* 0s a
result o t"is process, an initial list o nearl$ 5&& items as reduced to 328 items*Reiss and Havercamp 1((86 as@ed researc" participants to rate "o important
eac" o t"e motives e identiied as in determinin/ t"eir be"avior* nitiall$, e
conducted our actor studies 3 e>plorator$ studies and 1 conirmator$ stud$6, eac" it"
a dierent sample o participants* "e combined total o 2,55% people included people odiverse a/es 12 to +)6 and stations in lie e*/*, "i/" sc"ool students, colle/e students,
militar$ people, ast ood or@ers, seminar$ student, "uman service providers, nursin/"ome residents6* "e results o an initial conirmator$ actor stud$ supported a 15'actorsolution* Aased on t"ese results, e constructed a sel'report instrument, called t"e Reiss
Proile o -undamental Eoals and Motivational Sensitivities* "e initial version o t"e
instrument assessed 15 undamental motives*4e developed a scale to assess Savin/, or t"e desire to collect, "ic" as added
as a si>teent" actor because e became convinced t"at collectin/ is an end motive e
"ad overloo@ed* n a stud$ o 512 adults solicited rom sources in urban and rural !"io,
Havercamp 1((86 conirmed t"e 1)'actor solution t"e ori/inal 15 actors plus savin/6to t"e revised 128'item Reiss Proile instrument*
n conclusion, "en people ere as@ed to sel'report t"eir motives, t"e$ reported
1) actor'distinct cate/ories o ps$c"olo/icall$ si/niicant end motives Ms6* 0n$ eortto reduce t"is list to onl$ a e cate/ories ould result in t"e loss o si/niicant
inormation, and t"is s"ould produce a vastl$ inerior s$stem compared to t"e ull 1)
basic desires6 or anal$Fin/ and predictin/ people?s be"avior*Reliability of Factors* est'retest reliabilities or t"e Reiss Proile "ave been
reported Reiss Havercamp, 1((8K Reiss Havercamp, in press6, it" mean r?s o *83
ran/e *8& to *()6 or to ee@ reliabilit$ and *8& ran/e *)( to *886 or our ee@
reliabilit$* "ese test'retest reliabilities e>ceed t"ose reported or some personalit$ tests
1&
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suc" as t"e MMP'2 Autc"er, a"lstrom, Era"am, elle/en, Iaemmer, 1(8(6* "e$
support t"e "$pot"esis t"at t"e Reiss Proile assesses trait motives*
Reiss and Havercamp 1((86 reported Cronbac"?s alp"a coeicients o internalreliabilit$ or eac" o 15 scales all e>cept savin/*6 "e median alp"a value as *8)
ran/e *+& to *(26, su//estin/ /ood internal reliabilit$ or t"e Reiss Proile scales*
Social Desirability* Havercamp and Reiss in press6 assessed t"e socialdesirabilit$ o t"e Reiss Proile it" a sample o 1+1 under/raduate student volunteers,
"o completed bot" t"e Reiss Proile and t"e Marloe'Crone Social esirabilit$ Scale
MCSSK Crone Marloe, 1()&6* "e r values computed beteen t"e MCSSandeac" o t"e Reiss Proile scales ran/ed in absolute value rom *&1 to *3( Mdn* *&(, M
*1)6* -or sa@e o comparison, Gac@son 1(8%6 reported correlations beteen t"e
Personalit$ Researc" -orm PR-6 and social desirabilit$ scales ran/in/ rom *&1 to *%%
Mdn *2&, M *226* "ese results s"o t"at t"e Reiss Proile sel'reports areminimall$ aected b$ social desirabilit$*
Universal values. 0dditional support or t"e multiaceted model comes rom
researc" on values* -actorial studies o values s"ould produce results similar to actorial
studies o end /oals because, as a matter o lo/ic, all end /oals are values, and ultimatevalues are potentiall$ motivatin/, or reasons to insti/ate be"avior* Aecause ends and
values are lo/icall$ related ideas, or centuries motivation as studied under t"e topic oet"ics 9 or e>ample, 0ristotle?s lecture notes on motivation ere publis"ed in "is boo@,
ichomachean !thics*6
"ese considerations impl$ t"at empiricall$'derived lists o basic desires anduniversal "uman values s"ould be similar* n a series o studies anal$Fin/ surve$ data
rom (+ samples rom %% countries, Sc"artF 1((%6 identiied 1& universal values* 0ll
ten o Sc"artF?s universal values correspond to basic motives in Reiss?s s$stem*
Sc"artF?s value o poer, or e>ample, alls under Reiss?s motive called poer*0dditional ;matc"es= are Sc"artF?s value o ac"ievement and Reiss?s motive o poerK
Sc"artF?s "edonism and Reiss?s social contact are similar because eac" includes un'lovin/ be"aviorK Sc"artF?s e>citement is t"e opposite o Reiss?s tranquilit$ t"e samemotive but assessed rom dierent ends o a continuum6K Sc"artF?s sel'directin/ alls
under Reiss?s motive o independenceK Sc"artF?s value universalism is Reiss?s motive
o idealismK Sc"artF?s benevolence alls under Reiss?s motives o amil$ and socialcontactK Sc"artF?s tradition alls under Reiss?s "onorK t"e value o conormit$ as deined
b$ Sc"artF alls under Reiss?s motive or ven/eanceK and Sc"artF?s value o securit$
alls under Reiss?s motive o order* "e to bodies o researc", t"us, produced
si/niicantl$ similar results, s"oin/ t"e multi'aceted nature o ultimate values or Ms*
T0OR2 O 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0S
See able 1
Reiss?s t"eor$ o 1) basic desires, "ic" is summariFed in able 1, is put ort" as
a multiaceted model o M, alternative to t"e unitar$ models o M* H$pot"esis 1 is t"at
eac" o t"e 1) basic desires is a trait motive* 4it" t"e possible e>ceptions o t"e motives
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o idealism and acceptance, t"e 1) basic desires motivate animals as ell as people
H$pot"esis 26* "eoreticall$, t"e 1) basic desires are considered to be /eneticall$
distinct it" dierent evolutionar$ "istories H$pot"esis 36* "e satiation o eac" basicdesire produces an intrinsicall$ valued eelin/ or imiFe t"eir
e>periences o t"e 1) intrinsic plainin/ a
person?s be"avior are t"ose t"at are unusuall$ stron/ or unusuall$ ea@ compared toappropriate norms* -or e>ample, some people devote muc" o t"eir time to satiatin/ t"eir
desire or curiosit$, ot"ers see@ poer, and still ot"ers are out or reven/e* "ose basic
desires t"at are neit"er stron/ nor ea@ compared it" appropriate norms are /enerall$
less important in e>plainin/ a person?s be"avior* "e satiation o a basic desire is ala$stemporar$K soon ater e satis$ a basic desire, t"e motive reasserts itsel and needs to be
satisied a/ain* 0ter e socialiFe, or e>ample, t"e desire or social contact ma$ reassert
itsel it"in "ours*
ac" basic desire is t"eoreticall$ re/arded as a continuum o potential motivationanc"ored b$ opposite values H$pot"esis )6* 0s s"on in -i/ure 1, t"e t"eor$ o 1) basic
desires "olds t"at individuals are motivated to aim or a point o moderation called asetpointorsensitivity6 '' in ot"er ords, people /enerall$ are motivated to e>perience "at
0ristotle called a moderate mean* Most people aim or a moderate de/ree o poer, a
moderate de/ree o status, a moderate de/ree o @noled/e, and so on or eac" basicdesire* ndividual dierences, "oever, are si/niicant H$pot"esis 56* n -i/ure 1, or
e>ample, Henr$ aims or a loer de/ree o social contact t"an does Ga@e* 4"en t"e
amount o social contact Henr$ or Ga@e e>perience is less t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are
motivated to socialiFe* 4"en t"e amount o social contact t"e$ e>perience is about "att"e$ desire, t"e$ are temporaril$ satiated* 4"en t"e amount o social contact is more
t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are motivated to be alone to balance out t"eir e>periences*
i"ure 1, The .asic desire for social contact as a continuu7 of end 7otivation,
!rivate84oner999999999999999999999999999999999999Socia.le
Henr$ Ga@e
Suppose t"at Henr$ and Ga@e attend a part$ t"at lasts t"ree "ours* Henr$ ent mornin/ alone to
balance "is e>perience toard a lo avera/e amount o social contact, "ereas Ga@e /oes
to t"e nearest bar to @eep t"e part$ rollin/*"e t"eor$ o 1) basic desires "olds t"at "at is motivatin/ are discrepancies
beteen t"e amount o an intrinsic satisier t"at is desired and t"e amount t"at as
recentl$ e>perienced H$pot"esis +6* 4"en a person e>periences more poer t"an "e or
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s"e desires, t"e individual is motivated to be submissive or a period o time to balance
e>perience toard t"e desired rate* 4"en a person e>periences less poer t"an "e or s"e
desires, t"e individual is motivated to be domineerin/ or a period o time* "us, aperson "o /enerall$ "as a poerul personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be
submissive, and a person it" a submissive personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be
dominant*0ccordin/ to t"e t"eor$ o 1) basic desires, ven/eul people are motivated to
e>perience "i/" de/rees o vindication, competition, contentiousness, conlict, and
a//ression, "ereas peacema@ers are motivated to e>perience lo de/rees o t"esee>periences* 4"en a ven/eul person e>periences a period o time 9 sa$ a e da$s 9
t"at are conlict ree, t"e individual is motivated to /et into ar/uments, i/"ts, and
competitions* "e lon/er t"e period o time t"at is conlict ree, t"e stron/er becomes t"e
motivation to pic@ a i/"t it" somebod$* t"e individual ;/oes too ar= and provo@esmore o a i/"t t"an "e or s"e "ad anticipated, t"e person becomes motivated b$
peacema@in/ be"avior to balance e>perience bac@ toard t"e individual?s 0ristotlean
mean de 4aal, 1(8(6* !n t"e ot"er "and, peacema@ers are /enerall$ conlict'avoidant
and motivated to e>perience a belo'avera/e de/ree o strie* 4"en peacema@erse>perience even ordinar$ amounts o ever$da$ strie and conlict, t"e$ become motivated
to ma@e peace* "eir tolerance or strie is muc" belo t"at o t"e avera/e individual*0s as noted previousl$, basic desires or/aniFe our attention, co/nitions, eelin/s,
and be"avior into a co"erent action or "ole H$pot"esis 86* 4e pa$ attention to stimuli
t"at are relevant to t"e satisaction o our desires, and e tend to i/nore stimuli t"at donot satis$ our desires* 0 person it" a stron/ desire or ven/eance, or e>ample, is
attentive to possible insults or provocations, "ereas a person it" a ea@ desire or
ven/eance ma$ not even notice an insult* 0 person it" a stron/ desire or order pa$s
attention to "o neat and clean a room is and notices "en t"in/s are out o place* ncontrast, a person it" a ea@ desire or order ma$ not even notice "en dirt$ dis"es are
in t"e sin@ or t"e "ouse is a mess*/-4ID-TION O 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0Sn science e c"oose t"e competin/ t"eor$ t"at potentiall$ e>plains t"e most data*
Multiaceted t"eor$ seems to "ave si/niicant /eneralit$ o application: Reiss 2&&&b6 "as
s"on "o it is at least t"eoreticall$ possible to "old t"at "uman relations"ips, careers,amil$ lie, sports, and spiritualit$ are or/aniFed to satiate t"e 1) basic desires* "e 1)
basic desires also "ave been applied to ps$c"opat"olo/$ Reiss Havercamp, 1(()6 and
to mental retardation $@ens Rosner, 2&&&K 4iltF Reiss, in press6* Reiss?s model
o 1) basic desires as developed in t"e tradition o compre"ensive personalit$ t"eories,but unli@e previous /lobal personalit$ t"eories, Reiss?s model is testable*
s sel'report a valid basis to determine t"at motives are multi'acetedJ o people
validl$ sel'report t"eir motivesJ 0re t"e$
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Stron/ Tocational nterest Alan@* -or colle/e student populations, t"e PR-scale or
dominance predicts social be"avior Gaccard, 1(+%6 and participation in student activities
Pierce Sc"artF, 1(+16* -urt"er, t"e Reiss Proile scale or tranquilit$ "as beencorrelated it" t"e Reiss'pstein'Eurs@$ 0n>iet$ Sensitivit$ nde> 0SK Peterson
Reiss, 1((26 because o si/niicant overlappin/ item content Havercamp Reiss, in
press6* $alidated Profiles* 0 series o studies ere conducted to evaluate "o t"e 1)
motives are related to be"avior* Since motivation "as diverse applications, t"ese studies
evaluated issues as varied as spiritualit$, sports, and c"oice o club or colle/e ma
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sensitivit$ point is e>perienced as aversive* n unitar$ M t"eor$, "oever, autonom$ is
e>plicitl$ re/arded as a ercise, social contact, amil$, ven/eance, poer, and lo curiosit$* 0s as e>pected,
t"e sin/le most important correlate o sports participation as t"e intrinsic enercise
beteen students "o "ad pla$ed Fero versus to or more varsit$ sports as about a ullstandard deviation* 0lt"ou/" t"e association beteen intrinsic en "ad an absolute value o less t"an *2, indicatin/ t"at t"e scales ere lar/el$unrelated* "e most stron/l$ related scales are poer and status, r *58K ven/eance and
status, r*5%K and "onor and idealism, r*%8* "ese results support a multi'aceted
approac" to end motivation and ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eories*
/, 3ON34USIONSSince antiquit$ sc"olars "ave debated "et"er or not "uman motives can be
reduced to a e /lobal cate/ories* 0ncient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, or e>ample,
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distin/uis"ed beteen motives associated it" t"e bod$ suc" as "un/er and t"irst6
versus t"ose associated it" t"e intellect suc" as curiosit$, moralit$, and riends"ip6* n
t"e earl$ part o t"e tentiet" centur$, -reud 1(1)B1()36 ar/ued t"at all motives areultimatel$ about se>* Hedonists, on t"e ot"er "and, reduced all motives to pleasure
see@in/ versus pain avoidance*
"e concept o M can be vieed as a modern e>ample o t"e eort inmotivational reductionism* M t"eorists divide motives into /lobal cate/ories called
drives also called e>trinsic motivation6 versus intrinsic motivation 9 drives are about
biolo/ical survival needs, "ereas Ms pertain to "at some "ave called ;e/o motives*=Hun/er, t"irst, and pain avoidance are paradi/m e>amples o drives, "ereas curiosit$,
autonom$, and pla$ are paradi/m e>amples o Ms*
4"ite 1(5(6 put ort" t"e t"esis o commonalities amon/ Ms ''' speciicall$, "e
ar/ued t"at Ms are about competence master$6* n advancin/ "is idea o competencemotivation, 4"ite e>plicitl$ ac@noled/ed t"at "is t"esis seems implausible because "e
as assertin/ commonalities amon/ a diverse collection o motives* 0lt"ou/" man$
embraced 4"ite?s ideas because t"e$ seemed to broaden t"e stud$ o motivation to
include e/o motives, 4"ite 1(5(6 oered no scientiic evidence to support "is t"eor$ ocompetence motivation 9 "e developed no measure, conducted no studies to test "is idea,
and did not su//est an$ speciic studies t"at mi/"t conirm or alsi$ "is "$pot"esis* nt"e it$ $ears since 4"ite rote "is article, no scientiic evidence "as emer/ed directl$
s"oin/ t"at competence motivation is t"e underl$in/ t"eme o diverse e/o motives suc"
as pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$* -urt"er, no scientiic evidence "as been put ort"directl$ supportin/ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at Ms "ave a common ori/in 9 t"ere is no direct
scientiic evidence or t"e "$pot"esis t"at people are born it" ;undierentiated=
competence motivation, "ic" later is maniested as t"e motives o master$, autonom$,
pla$, and curiosit$* -urt"er, t"e distinction beteen drive motivation arisin/ rom t"eor/ans or perip"er$, versus intrinsic motivation arisin/ rom t"e CS or brain, is
p"$siolo/ical nonsense*"e "$pot"esis t"at ;intrinsic enperienced depends on a person?s
motivation 9 or e>ample, mountain climbin/ can be pleasant "en one desires p"$sical
e>ercise but unpleasant "en one is tired and desires rest* "us, it is not mountainclimbin/ per se t"at is pleasurable but t"e potential t"e activit$ "olds or satiatin/
motives, suc" as t"e motive or p"$sical activit$ or t"e motive or ac"ievement*
Do/icians sa$ t"at pleasure is usuall$ a non'motivational b$product o satiatin/ motives,not t"e aim o t"e motive Russell, 1(%56*
0 number o empirical considerations ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eor$ and in avor o
multiaceted t"eories* Human individualit$ ma$ be too diverse to be described
adequatel$ in terms o /lobal cate/ories suc" as M and M* Man$ people "o are
1)
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stron/l$ motivated toard pla$ are not necessaril$ stron/l$ motivated b$ intellectual
curiosit$ or autonom$* curiosit$ and autonom$ bot" are motivational because o a
universal desire or competence, "$ are some people motivated muc" more b$ curiosit$t"an autonom$ or vice versaJ t is unclear "o observations o suc" individual
dierences can be made consistent it" t"e t"eor$ t"at pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$ are
reall$ about t"e same motive, a desire or competence*Reiss and Havercamp?s researc" on 1) undamental desires provides additional
evidence o t"e multiaceted nature o end motivation* "is t"eor$ provides a
compre"ensive anal$sis o individual dierences in trait motives* 0 series o actorialstudies "ave conirmed t"e 1)'actor model Reiss Havercamp, 1((86K similarl$, values
lo/icall$, values e>press end motives6 also "ave been s"on to be multiaceted
Sc"artF, 1((%6* Competence is onl$ one o t"e values people "old 9 it is not t"e
common root o diverse values* People also value ends suc" as status, social contact,reven/e, p"$sical activit$, and autonom$*
vidence or multiaceted t"eor$ e>tends si/niicantl$ be$ond t"e initial actorial
studies su//estin/ 15 and 1) actor solutions or basic motivation* ine o t"e 1) basic
motives "ave been validated a/ainst criterion be"avior outside laboratories ande>periments see Havercamp Reiss, in press6* Concurrent validit$ and social
desirabilit$ studies also support t"e multiaceted model*"e sensitivit$ model "olds t"at 1) /eneticall$ distinct desires Ms6 combine to
determine man$ ps$c"olo/icall$ si/niicant motives* "e model supports numerous
predictions about be"avior and provides standardiFed measures suc" as t"e Reiss Proilesel'report version6 needed to test t"e validit$ o t"e predictions* -uture researc" is
indicated to stud$ t"is model and t"e role o t"e 1) basic desires in "uman be"avior* "is
t"eor$, i valid, s"os t"e multiaceted nature o "uman Ms* Researc"ers stud$in/
unitar$ M t"eor$ need to s"o t"e$ can predict be"avior as ell or better t"an Reiss?smodel b$ reducin/ t"e 1) motives to one or to cate/ories* n contrast, multiaceted
t"eorists need to continue to s"o t"at be"avior is better predicted and e>plained it" acompre"ensive, multiaceted list o Ms t"an is possible it" a reductionism approac"*
1+
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OOTNOT0S
1>ample based partiall$ on empirical indin/s o a correlation beteen
motivation or status and motivation or ealt" see Reiss Havercamp, 1((86*2nducin/ drive prior to e>periments lessens t"e inluence o individual
dierences in motivation trait motives6, "ic" ill later ar/ue is t"e @e$ to
understandin/ and predictin/ muc" o "uman be"avior* Go"n "as a muc" stron/erappetite t"an Sam, or e>ample, t"is ma$ be evident under man$ circumstances, but less
so "en bot" Go"n and Sam are si/niicantl$ deprived o ood and e>tremel$ "un/r$*
"e t$pical be"aviorist animal learnin/ e>periment as poorl$ suited or observin/ t"e
eects o individual dierences in motivation Reiss Havercamp, 1(()6*3 n t"e Games'Mcou/all t"eor$, a "uman instinct is an automaticall$ occurrin/
desire or motive, not a ri/id pattern o unlearned be"avior* "e idea is t"at people do not
deliberatel$ c"oose t"eir ps$c"olo/ical needs* 0s 0ristotle 1(53B33& AC6 put it,
people ;c"oose means, not ends*= 0ristotle as ma@in/ a valid point in lo/ic i anindividual attempted to c"oose an end, t"e option t"at is c"osen ould be instrumental to
t"e criteria on "ic" t"e c"oice as based*6 n contrast, Games and Mcou/all erereportin/ anecdotal observations o "uman be"avior*
% Henr$ 0* Murra$ 1(386 ac@noled/ed t"e ori/in o "is amous list o needs
"en "e rote, ;"is classiication o needs is not ver$ dierent rom lists constructedb$ Mcou/all, Earnett, and a number o ot"er riters= p* 8%6*
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able 1 9 Reiss?s 1) Motives
Motive Na7e Motive -ni7al Behavior Intrinsic eelin"
poer desire to inluence incl*Deaders"ipK related to
master$6
dominant animal eats
more ood
eicac$
curiosit$ desire or @noled/e animal learns to indood more eicientl$
and learns to avoid pre$
onder
independence desire to be autonomous motivates animal toleave nest, searc"in/ orood over lar/er area
reedom
status desire or social standin/incl* desire orattention6
attention in nest leads to
better eedin/s
sel'importance
social contact desire or peer
companions"ip desireto pla$6
saet$ in numbers or
animals in ild
un
ven/eance desire to /et even incl*desire to compete, to
in6
animal i/"ts "en
t"reatened
vindication
"onor desire to obe$ atraditional moral code
animal runs bac@ to "erd
"en stared at b$ pre$
lo$alt$
idealism desire to improvesociet$ incl* altruism,
ercise desire to e>ercisemuscles stron/ animals eat moreand are less vulnerableto pre$
vitalit$
romance desire or se> incl*courtin/6
reproduction essentialor species survival
Dust
amil$ desire to raise onc"ildren
protection o $oun/acilitates survival
Dove
order desire to or/aniFe incl*desire or ritual6
cleanliness ritualspromote "ealt"
stabilit$
eatin/ desire to eat nutrition essential orsurvival
satiation avoidance o
"un/er6
acceptance desire or approval unclear: animal sel'conceptJ
sel'conidence
tranquilit$ desire to avoid an>iet$,ear
animal runs aa$ rom
dan/er
sae, rela>ed
savin/ desire to collect, valueo ru/alit$
animal "oards ood and
ot"er materials
oners"ip
21