mutation. means change definition: an event that gives rise to an alteration in the genotype it also...
TRANSCRIPT
Mutation
Mutation
• Means change• Definition: An event that gives rise to an
alteration in the genotype• It also can be the change itself• Mutation does not mean “bad”• Mutations are IMPORTANT for a variety of
reasons
Mutation ‘Levels’
• DNA Level
• Chromosomal Level
• Genome Level
DNA Level• At or below the gene level• 1) Addition or Deletion of one or two
nucleotides (+ and – frameshifts)• 2) Substitution of one nucleotide for
another• 3) Inversion within a gene• 4) Crossingover within a gene
– Equal–Unequal
• 1 and 2 are often referred to as POINT MUTATIONS
Chromosomal Level• 1) Duplications• 2) Deletions• 3) Translocations
–Reciprocal–Non-reciprocal
• 4) Inversions• ? ‘Standard’ crossing over ?• 3 and 4 may result in POSITION EFFECTS
Genome Level
• These result in ploidy changes• Aneuploidy• Plus or minus one or a few chromosomes
• Euploidy (true polyploidy)• Involves whole SETS of chromosomes
–Autopolyploidy–Allopolyploidy
Additional Points
• ALL genes can mutate• Observed levels are usually low• Some genes have very high rates of
mutation (Mutable Genes) • Some genes seem to increase the rate of
mutation in adjacent genes (Mutator Genes)
What Causes Mutations ?
• 1) Spontaneous (?????)• 2) Chemically induced• 3) Radiation induced• Most (if not all) really come down to a
chemical level• No such thing as a “spontaneous”
mutation• “Spontaneous” means…
Chemicals
• Many chemicals are mutagens; many others are promutagens
• Chemicals (just like radiation) can cause point mutations.
• Chemicals (just like radiation) can cause chromosome breakage (e.g. - LSD, Mercury, Caffeine --- at least in cell culture)
DNA Level Mutations
• + and – Frameshifts and their effects• + or – one nucleotide• + or – a whole codon• Multiple frameshifts• The effects depend on WHERE it occurs• The effects depend on what the change is• ?????? One change equals one change, or
does it ??????
DNA Level Mutations• Substitutions• Transitions (more common)• Purine (A, G) for a purine OR pyrimidine
(T, C) for a pyrimidine• Transversions (less common)• Purine for a pyrimidine (or pyrimidine for
a purine• GENERALLY have less chance of an effect
than frameshifts. WHY?
Other DNA Level Mutations
• Inversions within a gene• Crossingover within a gene
Substitution Mutations• Results from a temporary type of
isomerization (tautomerization) during replication
• Base enters a “rare” state (unstable)• Can be in a base already in the DNA strand• Can be in one of the incoming bases• We will look at both for a TRANSITION• Requires two divisions to get the “stable”
mutation
Substitution Mutations• One nucleotide is replaced by another• Transition --- insertion of a one purine base for
the other or one pyrimidine base for the other (results in an “odd” purine-pyrimidine pair)
• Transversion --- replacement of a purine base with a pyrimidine or vice versa (results in a temporary purine-purine pair or pyrimidine-pyrimidine pair)
Substitution Mutations
• Base analogs increase the rate of formation of substitution mutations
• 5-bromouracil (5BU)• Use of 5-fluorouracil
Radiation Induced Mutations• By non-ionizing radiation (UV)• Dimer formation (especially TT dimers)• Light Repair System (enzyme breaks dimers)
Radiation Induced Mutations• By non-ionizing radiation (UV)• Dimer formation (especially TT dimers)• Dark Repair System (excision repair)– Endonuclease, exonuclease,
DNA polymerase, ligase
Radiation Induced Mutations• By ionizing radiation• Mechanisms
- “Target Hypothesis”- “Physical-Chemical” Hypothesis
• Temperature, hydration, and oxygen contentall have an effect
Mechanism
Mechanism
Ionizing Radiation and Mutation
• Late 1920s• Stadler – working on barley and corn• Muller – working on Drosophila• Muller later received a Nobel Prize (1948)• Why H. Muller and not Stadler?
SOME GENERALIZATIONS FOR IONIZING RADIATION
• Mutation frequency is DIRECTLY proportional to the dose
• Doesn’t matter if given in one large dose or several small ones
• No lower limit (no threshold)• Safe amount?????
Additions and Deletions• Chemical basis• Caused by intercalation (insertion) of some
nucleotide like chemical into the chain• Before replication --- increases length• Results in a Plus (+) frameshift mutation• During replication --- decreases length• Results in a Minus (-) frameshift mutation• Acridines are capable of doing this
Additions and Deletions• Requires 2 divisions to get the “stable” mutation• Proflavin
• Acridine Orange (very potent)
Additions and Deletions
- frameshift
Intercalation of Proflavin
DURING DNA
replication
+ frameshift
Intercalation of Proflavin PRIOR TO
DNA replication
Chemicals Besides Acridines
• Too many to mention…but…• Mustard gas (adds a methyl group)• Formaldehyde• Phenol• Nitrous Oxide (replaces NH2 with O)
Mutation Concluded• Temperature has an effect• Carcinogens and Mutagens• Somatic vs. germinal mutations• Somatic are “dead-end” in animals• In plants somatic can be “passed on”
asexually by vegetative propagation(runners, bulbs, corms, cuttings, grafting)
• In plants somatic mutations can get into the germ line!
Testing for Mutagens & Promutagens
• Ames test• Uses a histidine deficient (dependent) strain
of Salmonella• Looks for reverse mutation to histidine
independence above the background rate• For suspected promutagens: first treat
substance with a liver (human or rat) extract and then do the test
Teratogenesis
• Teratogen – an agent that induces a non-inheritable defect during embryonic development (Proteratogen)
• In humans --- about 4% of births• How do they work?– Interfere with mitosis or cell migration– Interfere with differentiation (disturb gene
regulation, translation or activity of ultimate gene products)
Teratogens• Radiation• Viruses (Rubella and pregnant women)• Thalidomide (really a proteratogen)• Diethylstilbestrol (DES) (taken by pregnant
women - results in genital tract abnormalities in their children)
• Dioxins (found as a contaminant in herbicides such as Agent Orange)
• Hexachlorophene (a bacteriocide)
Teratogens• Smoking (CO reduces O2 available to the fetal
circulation; nicotine constricts blood vessels and reduces blood flow)
• Progestin (artificial progesterone-like compound; causes masculinization of female fetuses)
• Alcohol – microcephaly, low birth weight, some mental retardation)
• Caffeine, Aspirin and numerous legal and not so legal drugs
Some Other Birth Defects
• Cleft lip and/or cleft palate• Spina bifida• Club foot• Heart disease and malformations• Cataracts• Deafness• Intestinal tract disorders• Low birth weight