myers 8th ed. ch 2 notes

8/4/2019 Myers 8th Ed. Ch 2 Notes

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PSYCHOLOGY

(8th Edition)David Myers

PowerPoint Slides

Aneeq AhmadHenderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2006

http://www.hsu.edu/dept/dap/StyleGuide/Images/c_oval.jpg



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Neuroscience andBehavior

Chapter 2



3

Neuroscience and Behavior

Neural Communication

The Nervous System

The Endocrine System

The Brain



4

History of Mind

In 1800, Franz Gall

suggested thatbumps of the skull

represented mentalabilities. His theory,

though incorrect,neverthelessproposed that

different mentalabilities were

Phrenology

Bettman/Corbis



The Nervous System

It starts with an individual nerve cell called a NEURON.



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Neural Communication

We are a biopsychosocial system.

Cellular Level

(Interconnected

Neurons)

Organ Level

(Brain)

System Level

(Information

Processing)

Individual Level

(Human Being)

Group Level

(Family)

Ethnic Level

(Culture)

Community Level

(Society)



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Neuron

A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of manydifferent parts.



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Parts of a Neuron

Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron.

Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body.

Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, coveredwith myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate andspeed up messages through neurons.

Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.



How does a Neuron fire?

• Resting Potential: slightlynegative charge.

• Reach the threshold when

enough neurotransmittersreach dendrites.

• Go into Action Potential.

• All-or-none response.

• Transfer of ions acrossaxon’s membrane causeselectrical charge.



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Action Potential-SodiumPotassium Pump

-A neural impulse.

generated bythe movement of

positivelycharged atomsin and out



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Depolarization &Hyperpolarization

•Depolarization: Depolarization occurswhen positive ions enter the neuron,making it more prone to firing an actionpotential.



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Threshold

• Threshold: Each neuron receivesdepolarizing and hyperpolarizing currentsfrom many neurons.

–When the depolarizing current (positive ions)minus the hyperpolarizing current (negativeions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) theneuron fires an action potential.



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Refractory Period & Pumps

Sodium-Potassium Pumps: Sodium-potassium pumps pump positive ions out

from the inside of the neuron, makingthem ready for another action potential.

Refractory Period: After a neuron fires anaction potential it pauses for a short

period to recharge itself to fire again.



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Action Potential Properties

All-or-None Response: When thedepolarizing current exceeds the

threshold, a neuron will fire. If thedepolarizing current fails to exceed the

threshold, a neuron will not fire



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Synapse (http://

outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential.swf )

Synapse [SIN-aps] a junction between theaxon tip of the sending neuron and thedendrite or cell body of the receiving

neuron. This tiny gap is called the synapticgap or cleft.

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential.swf






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Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters(chemicals) released

from the sending

neuron travel acrossthe synapse and bindto receptor sites on

the receiving neuron,

thereby influencing itto generate an action

potential.



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Reuptake

•Neurotransmitters inthe synapse arereabsorbed into the

sending neuronsthrough the process of reuptake.

• This process appliesthe brakes onneurotransmitteraction.



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How Neurotransmitters InfluenceUs?

Serotonin pathwaysare involved withmood regulation.

From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989

University of California Press



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Dopamine Pathways

Dopaminepathways areinvolved with

diseases such as

schizophrenia andParkinson’s disease.

From Mapping the Mind, Rita Carter, © 1989

University of California Press



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Neurotransmitters



Acetylcholine (ACH)

• Deals with motormovement andmemory.– Too much and you

will….– Too little and you

will…

• Lack of ACH hasbeen linked toAlzheimer’s disease.



Dopamine

• Deals with motormovement andalertness.

• Lack of dopamine hasbeen linked toParkinson’s disease.

• Too much has beenlinked to

schizophrenia.



Serotonin

• Involved in moodcontrol.

• Lack of serotoninhas been linked toclinical depression.



Endorphins

• Involved in paincontrol.

• Many of our mostaddictive drugs dealwith endorphins.



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Lock & Key Mechanism

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock

mechanism.



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Agonists



27

Antagonists



Types of Neurons

• Efferent (Motor)Neurons

• Interneurons

• Afferent (Sensory)Neurons



29

The Nervous System



30

Central Nervous System

The Spinal Cord and Reflexes

Simple Reflex



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The Brain and Neural Networks

Complex Neural Network

Interconnected neurons form networks inthe brain. Theses networks are complex

and modify with growth and experience.




•The Brain

and spinalcord

•CNS



Peripheral Nervous System

• All nerves that arenot encased in bone.

• Everything but thebrain and spinal cord.

• Is divided into twocategories….somatic and autonomic.



Somatic Nervous System

• Controls voluntarymuscle movement.

• Uses motor(efferent) neurons.



Autonomic Nervous System

• Controls theautomatic functionsof the body.

• Divided into twocategories…the

sympathetic and theparasympathetic



Sympathetic Nervous System

• Fight or FlightResponse.

• Automaticallyaccelerates heartrate, breathing,

dilates pupils, slowsdown digestion.



Parasympathetic Nervous System

• Automatically slowsthe body down aftera stressful event.

• Heart rate andbreathing slow down,

pupils constrict anddigestion speeds up.



Reflexes

• Normally, sensory(afferent) neuronstake info up through

spine to the brain.

• Some reactions

occur when sensoryneurons reach justthe spinal cord.

• Survival adaptation.



39

The Endocrine System

•EndocrineSystem = Post

Mail

•Nervous System

= Text Messaging



40

Hormones

Hormones and Neurotransmitters arechemically similar; HORMONES last

longer

Epinephrine : adrenaline

Norepinephrine : noradrenalin



41

Pituitary Gland

Is called the “master gland.” The anteriorpituitary lobe releases hormones that

regulate other glands. The posterior lobe

regulates water and salt balance.



LesionsCutting into the brain and looking for change.

Brain tumors also lesion brain tissue.

h



Less Invasive ways to study theBrain

• Electroencephalogram(EEG)

• Computerized Axial

Tomography (CAT)• Magnetic Resonance

Imaging (MRI)

• Positron EmissionTomography (PET)

• Functional MRI



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Older Brain Structures

•Act with out conscious effort

• It is responsible for automaticsurvival functions.

•Evolutionary Trend?



Brain Stem

• The Brainstem is the oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinalcord swells and enters the skull

– Feeds cognitive regions (“ThinkingCap”)



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Brain Stem

• The Medulla [muh-DUL-uh] is the baseof the brainstem thatcontrols heartbeat

and breathing.

•Reticular Formation

plays an importantrole in controllingarousal.

• “Tic-Toc”



Pons

• Connects hindbrain,midbrain andforebrain together.

• Involved in facialexpressions.



48

Brain Stem

• The Thalamus[THAL-uh-muss] isthe brain’s sensory

switchboard, locatedon top of thebrainstem.

– It directs messages

– Receives smell?



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• The “little brain”

helps coordinatevoluntarymovements andbalance.

•Active duringclassicalconditioning,learning, and

informationprocessing

•

Habitual/Involuntaryres onses

Cerebellum



Midbrain

• Involved with Hormones, memory, andsensory inputs

• LOCATION LOCATION LOCATION

– Thalamus

– Cerebellum – Limbic System

– Hypothalamus



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• The Limbic System associated withemotions such asfear, aggression and

drives for food andsex.

• Only in mammals

• Reptiles andamphibians rely

on pre-set genetic

The Limbic System



Hypothalamus

• Fighting, feeling,feeding

• Mating- SexualArousal (libido)

• Endocrine System

• Survival-Pleasure

Connection???



53

•Rats cross anelectrified grid forself-stimulation

when electrodesare placed in thereward(hypothalamus)center

Reward Center

SanjivTalwa r,S

UNYDownstate



Hippocampus and Amygdala

• Hippocampus isinvolved in long termmemory processing.

• Amygdala is vital for

our basic emotions.



The peripheral nervous system

consists of:

A. association areas.

B. the spinal cord.C. the reticular formation.

D. sensory and motor neurons.

After suffering an accidental brain



After suffering an accidental brain

injury, Kira has difficulty walking in a

smooth and coordinated manner. Itis most probable that she has

suffered damage to her:A. amygdala.

B. angular gyrus.

C. cerebellum.

D. corpus callosum.

Which region of the brain



Which region of the brain

appears to have the oldest

evolutionary history?

A. frontal lobes

B. limbic system

C. brainstem

D. corpus callosum

What disease is related to



What disease is related to

degeneration of the neuron’s

myelin sheath?

A. Parkinson’s disease

B. multiple sclerosis

C. Alzheimer’s disease

D. schizophrenia



59

The Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells thatcovers the cerebral hemispheres. It is the body’s

ultimate control and information processing center.



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Structure of the Cortex



Frontal Lobe

• Deals with planning,maintaining emotionalcontrol and abstract

thought.

• Contains Broca’s Area.

• Broca’s Aphasia.

• Contains Motor



Parietal Lobes

• Deciphers SensoryStimuli

• LOCATION,LOCATION,LOCATION

• Contains the somato-sensory cortex.

• Rest are associationareas



Temporal Lobes

• Process soundsensed by ears.

• Contains Wernicke’sarea.

• Wernicke’s Aphasia.



Occipital Lobes

• In the back of ourhead.

• Handles visual inputfrom eyes.

• Right half of eachretina goes to leftoccipital lobe andvice versa.



65

Functions of the Cortex

The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntarymovements. The Sensory Cortex (parietal

cortex) receives information from skin

surface and sense organs.



68

Auditory Function

The functional MRI

scan shows theauditory cortex is

active in patients whohallucinate.



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Language

Aphasia is an impairment of language,usually caused by left hemisphere damageeither to Broca’s area (impaired speaking) or

to Wernicke’s area (impaired

understanding).

F ll i i d t hi



Following massive damage to his

frontal lobes, Phineas Gage was

most strikingly debilitated by:

A. irritability.

B. memory loss.

C. auditory hallucinations.

D. a reward deficiency syndrome.

A visit to a phrenologist would



A visit to a phrenologist would

have resulted in an analysis of

the person’s:

A. heart beats.

B. skull bumps.

C. neurotransmitter function.

D. endocrine system.



Jack accidentally touches a hot

stove. Such a strong stimulus:

A. increases the intensity of a neuron’s action

potential.

B. affects the speed that a neuron fires.

C. triggers more neurons to fire.

D. does not affect how often a neuron fires.



73

More intelligent animals have increased“uncommitted” or association areas of

the cortex.

Association Areas



74

The brain is sculpted by our genes but alsoby our experiences.

Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability tomodify itself after some type of injury or

illness.

The Brain’s Plasticity



Hemispheres

• Divided into a left andright hemisphere.

• Contralateral controlled-

left controls right sideof body and vice versa.



76

Splitting the Brain

A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the

connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpuscallosum) between them.

Corpus Callosum

MartinM.R

other

Courtesyof

TerenceWil liam

s,UniversityofIow

a



77

Split Brain Patients

With the corpus callosum severed, objects(apple) presented in the right visual field canbe named. Objects (pencil) in the left visual

field cannot.



78

Divided Consciousness



Critical Thinking Questions



A new superhero emerges on the scene. This superhero is

able to stay awake and vigilant for extended amounts of time.

He helps the intelligence community by being able to stay in

surveillance for extended amounts of time without losing

concentration and can always be paying attention to what is

happening. A study of this superhero’s brain might show that

the ____________ is more advanced and developed than a

non-superhero’s.

A. frontal lobe

B. amygdalaC. reticular formation

D. occipital lobe



You are a neurologist in a large hospital. The wife of

a construction worker visits you and describes that

her husband has experienced a serious injury to his

frontal lobe. She is perplexed by his behavior.

Which of the following would you tell her is “normal

behavior” for a person with frontal lobe damage?

A. not much decline in memory or intelligence

B. poor judgmentC. irritability and other personality changes

D. ALL of these are commonly seen in frontal lobe

damage

Whi h f th f ll i ti iti



Which of the following activities

is NOT primarily a function of the left hemisphere?

A. listening to a piano concertoB. reading your psychology book

C. reading junk mail

D. listening to a poetry reading

As Allison reaches for a box in her garage out



As Allison reaches for a box in her garage, out

jumps a big spider. Her heart immediately

begins to race as she withdraws her hand, butsoon she realizes that the spider is harmless,

and she begins to calm down. Which part of

her nervous system is responsible for brining

her back to a normal state of arousal?

A. sympathetic nervous system

B. somatic nervous systemC. parasympathetic nervous system

D. skeletal nervous system

If Dr Barnes wanted to cause a cat



If Dr. Barnes wanted to cause a cat

to take on an attack posture, which

of the cat’s brain structures shouldhe electrically stimulate?

A. amygdalaB. hypothalamus

C. hippocampus

D. cerebellum

A split-brain patient’s right



A split brain patient s right

hemisphere is presented with a

key. How is he most likely torespond?

A. say the word “key”B. select a key from a group of objects presented to his

left hand

C. select a key from a group of objects presented to his

right hand

D. he will not be able to say “key” or to pick out a key

from a group of objects with either hand

myers 8th ed. ch 2 notes

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