mystics and metaphysics of metals

8/12/2019 Mystics and Metaphysics of Metals

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vol. 25 2002 29-54

HISTORICAL ASPECTSON M YSTICS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS

J.A.PREZ-BUSTAMANTE DE MONASTERIOUniversity of Cdiz

R E S U M E NSe presenta una visin panoramica sobre la

evo/ucin histrica de l a mtica y m etaf is ica del o s me t a le s cons i derand o su am cep t o gnes i sconstitucin desde /a Antigiiedad hasta la pocade Lavoisier en re lac in con concepc iones astro-lgicas anim tas, hilozoistas, vitalistas y ineta-fisicas carac teris t icas de los s is tem as a lqum icosarientales y occidentales.

ABSTRACTAn overvietv is presented on the historical

evo/ution of the mystics a n d metaphysics o f met-als taking into consideration their concept gene-s s and constitution from Antiquity up toLav oisier s t ime, considering main v i e w s an dconce pu re lated to as tro logy animistic, hy/ozois-tic nd met physic l thought b o t h in orientaland tves tern sy s terns o f the a k h e m i c al rradition.

Palabras clave: Metales Alquimia Elixires Transmutacin Teorias de la materia

IntroductionThe subject meta/s has been a most important polyfacetic complex and fasci-

nating matter throughout history due to the determinant role played by metals in all civ-ilizations and cultures not only from an utilitarian point of view but also in connectionwith their mystical magic and metaphysical meaning. As a matter of fact one of themost important pillars of the Neolithic revolution is based on the knowledge and useof metals by mankind as related to most of its needs as well as to many of its beliefs.Social progress commerce richness war and conquest rravels and expeditions workand art technologies etc. are everywhere bound to the production and use of metals.In addition to their indispittable utilitarianism in connection with the technologicalRe c ib id o e l 1 0 d e ju l io d e 2 0 0 1 .S.S.N. 0210-8615


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30OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25progress of m ankind, the protagonism of m etals extends both to religious m ystics beliefsand m etaphysical theories of matter sustained over millenniae, thereby m aking the sub-ject of metals a m ost inter- and pluridisciplinary m atter invo lving a lot of both hum an-istic and technical aspects cove ring the fields of religion, philosophy, m yths, crafts andtechniques, science and technology. Of special interest is the subject of me tals withinthe frame o f such a synchretic holistic system as wa s alchemy, aim ing at the establishme ntof a unifying cosm ovision of m ystics, metaphysics and science.

The subject of M etallurgy was in Paracelsus 's cosmovision one of the basic pillarson which the Ars M edica was based together with Philosophy, Astronomy a nd Physics.In more a ctual tenns Ihde [23] assumes A rs Cheniica, the actual scientific chem istry, toderive from three main historical sources, i.e, M edicine, Alchemy an d M etallurgy.

In the present communication attention will be paid exclusively to a numberof aspects on old theories on matter and metals within the frame of the traditionalmean ing of M etallography which actually has acquired quite a different mean ing asrelated to the structure of metals and alloys at the beginning of the present centuryas dealt with in detail by Sm ith 176]. As a m atter of fact very little progre ss was m adeon the structure of metals in the period covered by this paper, as derived both fromthe lack of suitable scientific theories as well as from the insufficiency ofexperime ntal m eans available.

Considering that one of the important derivations of the holistic concept ofalchem y is protochem ical experim entation as dea lt with elsewhere by the author [61]whereby metals played an essential role and also considering the fact that chemicalexperimentalism did not achieye a real scientific dimension until the end of the 18thc. i t becom es self evident that the history of m etals is to a great ex tent a fundam entalpart of the history of chem istry. For this reason the k eywords related to the history ofmetals are associated with m ost of the fundam ental concepts in chem istry (matter the-ories, elements and principles, mixture and combination, affinity, calcinations andcombustion, pneumatics, etc.) bound traditionally with mystical and magical con-cepts planetary gods, cosmical energies, planets, rituals, myths, etc.) as well as withmetaphysical alchemical connotations elixirs, tinctures, quintaessentiae, matterennoblement, metal transmutation, etc.).A curious fact in this history is the paradoxical great protagonism played bymetals as compared with their reduced number which amounted to seven in


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greek matter ph . exhalations theory S-Hg theory Tria Prima theory Calcination,combustion theories Phlogiston

LLULL, 25N MY STICS AND M ETAPHYSICS OF METALS1antiquity and remained very limited (up to about one dozen) until the middle of the18th c. [62] considering that about three quarters of the more than 110 actuallyknow n elements are metals.

The importance of specific metals has depended historically on their abun-dance and uses: fottr of them w ere essentially utilitarian Cu , Sn, Pb, Fe), referred toin early alchetny as tetrasomy as prima materia to carry ou t metal transmutations; twoof them A g, Att) scarce and of limited technical utility were greedily sought for andhighly appreciated as symbols of dignity, richess and power, even ofdivinity, perfection and im mortality as was the case of gold in pharaonic E gipt. Manyaspects of metals in antiquity are reviewed elsewhere 1 1 9, 33 , 35 , 48, 57, 841.Even the etymology of the term metal is a subject of curiosity since it derivesfrom the original greek term metallon, not related specifically to metals, passingthrottgh the aristotleian term metalleuta finally becom ing metalluni, the latin word inthe actual context [19]. A detailed study ofmany important tenns related to metallurgyand alchemy, all derived from the rootmetal has been carried ottt by Zacharias[86] indicative of the complexity andgeneralised confusionism resultingfrom the translation and interpretation of a lot of metallicterms related to ancientmetallurgy and alchemy.

METAPHYSICSCIENCE lavoisier- Combustion theory- Metals: elements- Clossificotion Da lton: atonic theory 20 th c.:quantummechanics models

Fig. 1.- Stages of dete/opment of the s i e n e o metals tuithin the frame of COMTE sthree stadia law


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32OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25The pattern of the approach to metals in the present paper conform to theframe of Comte s three stadia law and to the author s holistic interpretation ofalchemy [61] as depicted by F ig.l. In accordance to these guidelines a num ber of mys-tical and m etaphysical aspects of m etals will be dealt with considering the three m ainprojections of the holistic concept of alchemy, nam ely

hylic exoteric protochem ical alchemy ) medicina/ alchemy iatrochemistry) mystical alchemy spiritual ; oriental macrobiotics)The three projections of alchemy have in common the use and ennoblement

of metals for achieving different purposes of complementary interest: matter ennoblement metal transmutation) body ennoblement pharmacological use of metals) spiritual ennoblement use of me tals for the prepa ration of elixirs of longevity

and immortality in connection with macrobiotics and ascetical practices .In all cases the protagonism of metals

is connected with the idea of the prepara-tion of transmutatory elixirs aiming at the

purpose of healing or purifying low-quality matter, body illness orspiritual imperfection.

M A T E R I A L I S T I C hyl ic) dry p rocedures-sp i ri ts S , Hg , As , NH,C I )- gases , vapours , e f f l uv ia ,em anat ions , exha la t ions we t proce dures dis t i lla t ion)

- q u i n ta e s e n t ia e e s s e n c e s s p i ri ts

M E T A P H Y S I C S p n e u m a air , f i re sp i r itus m und i iqn is naturae ru t roaer ia l sp i r i t e t h e r phlog is ton ca lo r ic pr inc ip les, e lements vi ta l fu ids sp i r i tual )

Fig. 2.- Overview on the p rojections of pneum atics of speci l incidence in akhemy nd chemistry


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Fig. 3.- The chorits of the stuenmetals iStolcius Viridiarumchemicum, Frankfurt, 17491

LLULL 25N MY ST7CS AND M ETAPHYSICS OF METALS3A very important link bridging mysticism, metaphysics, alchemy and chem-istry is pneumatics, a term with plenry of conceptual connotations related to activiry,subtlety and thinness, both in figurative and actual sense, as summed up in Fig. 2,considering and differentiating mystical implications, some metaphysical aspects ofthe greek term pneuma, active alchemical spirits (volatile reactive substances) and dis-tillates quintaessentiae) ending with the materialistic chemical concept of gases andvapours which were the rypical airs of pneumatic chemistry along the 18th c. thestudy of which led to such a fundamental chemical milestone as was the chemicalrevolution which meant the end of chemical metaphysics based on the phlogistontheory paving the way towards scientific modern chemistry. As a matter of fact, thedecisive step for experimental chemistTy to get rid of alchemical mystical and meta-physical connotations to become a new experimental science took place during the18th c. on the basis of the development and interpretation of the so-called pneu-matic chemistry, centered around gases, combustion and calcination of metals lead-ing to such im portant conclusions as the identiry (Van Helmont) and the chemicalreactivity of gases (Black) ; the elucidation of the composition of air and water, theoxygen combustion theory and the definition and classification of simple bodies orelements, among them the known metals (Lavoisier).

Mystics, magics and metalsWithout disregarding specific differences typ-

ical of old oriental and occidental civilisations met-als have been historically associated with a lot of cor-respondences: gods and planetary deities, planets,numbers symbols geometric figures and magicsquares and seals, sexuality, body organs, colours,plants and stones, etc. The art ot metals has oftenbeen referred to in alchemical tenns as lower astron-omy and the protagonism of inetals has beenomnipresent in the traditional alchemical and chem-ical nomenclature plenty of chemical substancesarbitrarily named after the seven planets, pictorialallegories and intTiguing symbolisins up to the endof the 18th c. when it was rationalised and systema-tised by prominent french chemists 16, 461. Two good


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OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL 25Fig. 4. Astrological metallic

allegory of the alchem ical M agnusOptts [Michelspager Cnbala

A ugsburg 16161metal delivery in the crucible

representative exam ples of alchemical allegories formetals are depicted in Figs. 3 and 4.

Metals were considered alternatively inantiquity as telluric corporifications of cosmic prin-ciples, as solidified cosmic energies, as planetary ele-ments, as astral spirits or effluviae condensed in thetelluric matrix, as Shiva s semen (mercury), as con-densed solar energy etc.Extended hylozoisticthought gave rise to a generalised embryologicalconcept on the genesis of metals whereby the earthplays the role of a telluric nurse or matrix wh ere theseeds of metals grew ripened and got gradttallyennobled over very long periods of time to becomefinally precious metals (Ag , Au). Metallurgy exhib-ited a fundamental obstetric character plenty ofinitiatic rites aiming at the aceelerated birth or

in substitution of the slow telluric matrix naturalprocess, as dealt with by ELIAD E [12]. In essence the work of the miner, metallurgistor alchemist aimed at the imitation and acceleration of natural slow metal matura-tion ennoblement) processes.This idea was explicitely fornutlated in comparativelyrecent time by Paracelstts stating that the purpose of alchemy is the finishing off ofNature, by chemical ineans and operations.

Extensive attention Itas been devoted to the bibliography of metal mysticism,mythology and hermetism in connection with the deciphering and interpretation ofplanetary correspondences 14 , 33, 48, 57, 58, 71, 781, nume rological associations andmagic squares 111, 21, 26, 79, 801.

As mentioned above the influence of the tradition of mystic and magic aspects asrelated to metals lasted up to the 18th c. through a num ber of inherited beliefs main-taining many ancestral ideas such as the feeding and g rowth of m etals in the bow els ofthe earth; the regeneration of exhausted m ines by letting them rest sufficiently; ideas ofsickness and healing of metals and ininerals; the transtuutation of air into ore; the reviv-ification of metal seeds by sprinkling the mines with water; the sowing o f metal filings tobecome metal seeds; the concept of metal fectindity, etc. 11]. C urious vitalistic concep-tions arose in the 16-17 th c. related to palingenesis and the so-called metal vegetations


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LLUL L, 25N MYSTICS AND METAPHY SICS OF METALS5[39, 691 such as the growing of D iana s and Saturn s trees, typical crystallisationphenome na rightly interpreted by Hom berg and Lm ery.A curious aspect of the 16th c., essentially reactionary against the stagnation ofscholasticism , is to be found in the increased interest in m agics and henneticism q uite

compatible with new trends towards knowledge and science a century where manyimportant development in chem istry and m etallurgy took place.

Renewed attention was paid by Ficino, Agrippa, Paracelsus and others tonumerology and metals developing a system of magic squares and seals for metals,the antecedents of which can be traced back to chinese arabic and Ilullian alchemi-cal traditions. In addition, a pioneer attempt w as m ade by Pantheus (Voarchidtimia,Venedig, 1518) to connect alchemy and m etal trasmutation w ith jewish thought aim-ing at the establishment of a cabbalistic science of metals, a trend which was fol-lowed in the 17th c. by Knorr and Rosenroth who developed a curious metal trans-mutational scheme based on cabbalist jewish sephirotical trees aiming at theobtention of a metal medicine allowing for the transmutation of bass metals intosilver and gold [56, 70].

Sp ecial interest for the we stern civilization presents the R enaissance period inconnection w ith the progress of metallurgy both as derived from inherited traditionalsources as well as concerning new developments in technology assay of metals andalloys and mining techniques. Ho wev er, most of the ancient views on the constitutionof metals, their genesis, matter theories, beliefs associated with elixirs and metal trans-m utation, etc. rem ained. A realistic picture of the state of the m atter concerning ideasand facts about minerals, ores and metals during the 16-17th c. period is very wellreflected in the classical books of Webster [84] and Rulandus 67). This period issumm ed up concisely and accurately by S uhling [82].

The p rogress of scientifical knowledge has bee n historically hampere d by theweight and exten sion of mystical and metaphysical conceptions which are two of them ain obstacles to be overcom e in the developm ent of science. Bach elard [1] has paidspecial attention to the a nalysis of epistemological obstacles opposing the progress ofscience some of them specifically affecting the understanding of metals which veryclearly exemplify the weight of such obstacles together with a holistic hermetic cos-movision as was the case with alchemy of direct impact on the metaphysics of mat-ter, essentially qualitative and lacking any trend towards a metrological quantificationof the protochemical experimentation associated with exoteric alchemical laboratory


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O SM I SO UL two subsouls- y in F e m a l e )- yo n g m a le )

fire

ear th

JOS ANTONIO PREZ BL STAMANTELULL, 25work. However, as dealt with by Joly 124], alchemy can not be considered as irrationalplaced in its time considering the corresponding general status of science. The sup-posed irrationality of alchemy, a widely generalised concept lasting up to recent time,is but a short-sighted oversimplification entailing ignorance and misconceptions ofpast facts and attitudes in science as focused on our actual state of knowledge. Sucha misconception was seemingly and purposedly initiated in France by Lemery 1631 inhis own interest but can nowadays be easily superated by proper understanding of theholistic concept of alchemy 1611.

As a matter of fact the world of metals is full of phantasies and legendswhich extended well up to the end of the 18th c. which is reflected for example, inthe names given to some metals like nickel, related to Old Nick Satan, devil) andcobalt, derived from Kobold gnome, goblin) associated with metallurgical diffi-culties or mining dangers associated with their obtention and superstitious beliefs.A number of highly qualified scientists, among them Glauber, Boerhaave, Boyleand even Newton sustained quite phantastic beliefs on metals, as disclosed in thepast few years by different authors, i.e., Dobs 101, Figala 141, Newman 152 - 54 and

Principe 1641.The mystics of metals also presents special

interest in eastern civilisations [13, 65] relatingbrahmanic and tantric conceptions to the genesisof metals assumed to derive from divine hierogam-

ic marriages i.e., Agni-Apa; Hara-Gauri;

0 W S bIP r s she generalised embryological conceptyon inenting some element or principle. ThusShiva-Parvati, etc.) each divinity repre-of the genesis of metals closely ressem- omplementa rytynterpenetration bles many beliefs sustained by most ofw ter he old mythical western civilisations.wv haing However a distinctive featuremet lf the use of metals lies in the strongemphasis relating metals and elixirs inthe Chinese and Indian alchemical sys-tems with mystical beliefs and macrobiot-ic practices whereby the role played by

Fig. 5.- The dernntion of meta s s elements in theduahstic

yin-yang chinese sys tem


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Ano ther philological curiosity is the chinese ideogram for mercury built up bytwo ideograms associating a composed one silver) with the simple ideogram forwater, wherefrom it can be stated that the association of the ideas of liquidity, water,

silver, metallicity and mercury is a

EiL western alchemical and language systems.ing common feature both in oriental andmetal goldopper As a matter of fact, such an association ro neco: mes evident from the followingslvames for mercury in different languages:ftIL drargiros greek), hydrargyrum latin), vivejZtj le tinrgent french), kesef hay hebrew; livingsilver), simab persian; silver water).wer e r u r y The fact that mercury is also related tolife in german ic, scandinavian andother languages is evident from theFig. 6.- hinese ideognim sfor the m etals nn d indogermanic root jiv or iv wherefromwater

LLULL, 25N MYSTICS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS7animistic conceptions, the protagonism of cinnabar, herbometallic calcinations, etc.were essential aspects in connection with metal transmutation [37, 381. A very curi-ous feature of brahm anic alchemy lies in the fact of metal transmutation interdictionbased on religious and social tenets directly related to the indian caste systern whichprecludes enno blemen t from original status be it persons or metals 1651.

Very interesting animistic theories on the genesis and ennoblement of metalsare put forward by Mandihassan [36] based on the mystical significance of the redcolour as related both to blood and life from which the author suggested three theo-ries for metals as deriving from minium, cinnabar and minium and finally fromcinnabar alone as a chronological development.

As regards to chinese m ystics of metals the dualistic yin-yang system of opposi-tions is omnipresent as depicted by Fig.5 wherefrom the typical five-element unAsingtheory derives, one of the elem ents being generically m etal. A very typical feature ofthe chinese ideograph ic nomenclature for metals 183 ] as depicted by F ig. 6 lies in thefact that all metal ideograms are built by the combination of a generic root meaningmetal or gold second aception) with a second specific ideogram applying to each par-ticular metal. The japanese ideographic system of representing metals is essentiallyidentical with the Chinese one.


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38OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25the following terms for mercury derive: Quecksilber germ an), quicksilver Eng lish),qviksoeiv scandinavian languages), whereby all queck quick and kvik prefixes m eandife thus associating the liquidity property with the alive m etal mercury. The sameconceptual association can easily be detected in other words for mercury both inislam ic and slavonic languages: zibak Persian), zawuk Arabian), zhivak Bulgarian),dzhiva Azerbayan) terms deriving all from the root zhit meaning the verb to live.There are of course exceptions to this gene ral philological association life-silverwa ter-mercury) as it happens for example in Russian which uses the term rtut for mercurytotally devinculated from the abov e- me ntioned derivations 1181.

Another interesting feature of mercury a metal of utmost importance inalchem ical context as related to metal constitution and transm utatory elixirs can befound in astronomic-astrological context due to the fact that the planet mercury isclosest to the sun and therefore moving quickest from all planets traditionally asso-ciated to specific metals, in this case to the mercury metal. A third important rootfor mercury derives from the Arabian al-zauq az-zauq or as-soc roots 181 giving rise tothe spanish latinised term azogue , synonymous of mercury still in use occassional-ly.This last term is of special interest in the alchemy of Renaissance since it is themother-term of azoth meaning the metal transmutatory elixir, coined by Paracelsusand used frequently by Van Helmont. Special attention to many questions related tothe azoth and to the closely related hypothetical universal solvent alkahest has beenpaid by Joly [25].

Me rcury is a singular liquid me tal bridging particularly well astronomy, astrol-ogy, mythology and alchem y in connection with the classical problem of m etal trans-m utation whe re the proximity of m ercury and gold is taken for granted in conceptualassociation with the proximity of the planet me rcury to the sun, m etaphorically asso-ciated with the gold metal, both within m ythical and astrological-alchem ical contexts.As will be discussed in com ing lines merc ury was considered for m any centuries to bea fundamental constituent of metals which led to the coining of the phi/osophicalme rcury term, sinonimou s with elixir , azoth, phi/osophica/ stone etc.

Speak ing now in pure scien tific term s it is not without interest to consider thestriking proximity of 80-Hg to 79-Au in the periodical classification system, a fact ce r-tainly recalling the traditional alchemical intuition upon which the transmutatorym yth and dream of the crysopoeia belief was based lasting for m any centuries. Actualscientific knowledge a ccoun ts for the striking differences of the aggre gation states and


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LLULL, 25N MYSTICS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS9general physical and chem ical properties of both metals despite their similar atom -ic structure and closest neighbourhood in the Periodical System of the elem ents inmec hano-quantical terms as derived from relativistic phenomena resulting from theirhigh nuclear charges and electronic structures as discussed by Norrby W hy is m er-cury liquid?, [1991, J.Chem. Ed 11 0-11 3]. As stated in the preceding linesexam ination can lead to ve ry interesting conclusions concerning the general idea thatall metals have something in common and very substantial. In this respect a furtherexam ple is fumished by vedic hinduism which associated m etals generically with theroot aya suitably com bined to refer to specific metals considering their colour [2], asillustrated by the names krishaya black metal) for iron, loit y s red metal) for copper,etc. evidencing that the property of colour has played a determining role in .alchem y throughout the centuries in all cultures for any type of m aterials.

Metaphysics and metalsHistorically the philosophy of matter is essentially qualitative metaphysics

until Lavoisier s pragmatic definition based on chemical analytical criteria, concre-tion and classification of simple bodies, or chemical elements .It is out of the scopeof this paper to to review in depth the historical evolution of the theories of matter:from the point of view of actual chemistry; however a few historical aspects of theltheme deserve to be discussed briefly at this place.

Here we will recall on passing the monistic matter theories of ancient preso--cratic greek philosophers, the four or five element theories bound to the names ofEmpedocles, Plato and Aristotle; the five elements of the indian panchatouan and ofthe tvu-hsing chinese theories; the d ialistic sulphur-mercury arabian theory for metalsderiving from the aristotleian two-exha lations theory or, perhaps from the chinese yin-yang dualistic system , to arrive later on to the paracelsian trichotom y of the tria primato end finally with the five-principle theory of general adoption in the 17-18th c. asrelated to the interpretation of observations made on the products resulting fromdistillation and fire-analysis of any type of ma tter [9, 22].

Metaphysical principles played a determinant role in alchemy and chemistryup to the end of the 18th c. expressed in a variety of forms spirits, airs, effluviae, exha-/ations, fluids, etc. which were consubstantial to pneumatic chemistry, initiated byVan Helmont extending for over one and half centuries up to the end of the 18th c.


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40OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25However, even after the abolition of the phlogiston theory quite a number of meta-physical theories on matter appeared during the 19th c. reaching even the beginningof the 20th c., some of them extremely phantasious held even by very prestigiouscheinists [27, 77] clearly demonstrative of the conceptual problems posed by the con-stinition of matter before the irruption of atomic physics in modern science.

Brief attention will be paid in the following lines to a few of the most impor-tant theories on the constitution of metals which have played an important role inalchemy and cheinistry up to Lavoisier s time.

Plato considered in his T imaetts. that metals were built by forms of solidifiedwa ter thus accounting for their fusibility distinguishing two types of w ater, liquid andfusible (heavier) the later accounting for the nature of metals. With the exception ofgold as a perfect inetal, all metals should contain varying am ounts of water m ixed withearth, the later separating as rust or dregs on ageing. The m etal content of earth shouldaccoun t for the stabiliry and hardness of the me tals while the structural compressionof the geom etric building elements would determine the metal density (compacity).

Aristotle adhered essentially to his ma ster s concept as regards the connectionof the metal property of liquidity with the presence of water as an element therebydistinguishing between potential water which on melting becomes actual water. Thepermanent liquidity of mercury w as considered by him to derive from the presence ofair in the inetal, in addition to water and earth. Contrary to his master however,Aristotle did not consider gold to be a perfect meta 1.

E A R T H0.^.1

S U N( r o y s ) W E T E X H A L A T IO No tmeiodesterov M E T A L Sl iquidi ty Iwater) b r eA I X E Sf r leprosy . )smoke, vopoursk i ry exho lo t ion)

voporous , cool I volat i l i ty

; Ietotwo exha lot ion feonodwsnioseise) impr isioned in the eorth)b I r tk , p r ow t h , m o dw o l i on o f . s e t nennoe .

fonys t w o t h sD R Y E X H A L A T I O N S T O N E S , M IN E R A L SS U N pmennotocies tero. infusibi l i ty eorel) r e E A R T H. evtl.:s m o k y , coker f i rel s m o k evopoors

Iwet en holot ion)

Fig. 7.- Conceptual inrrepretation of AR/STOTLE s two-exhalations theory for the genesisof the met ls in the earth


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LLUL L, 25N MYSTICS AND METAPHY SICS OF METALS1Special interest on the gene sis of metals presents Aristotle s tw o-exhaiations the-ory briefly outlined in Fig.7.The g ebberian corpus (8-9th c.) introduced the sulphur-m ercury theory in islam -

ic alchem y to explain the constitution of m etals probably as a synchretic derivation ofAristotle s ttvo-exhalations theory and pneumatic stoic philosophy or, alternatively,related to the C hinese yin-yang system [7, 8]. This theory w as based on the p resence oftwo principles in m etals, one of com bustibili ty (sulphur: active, male, father, soul) andone o f liquidity (m ercury: fem ale, mo ther , alternatively spirit or body in different con-texts) the later being coagulated by the first one. This model of metals played a fun-dam ental role in alchem y for many ce nturies, both in islamic and scho lastic t ime untilit was displaced by a new m atter theory in the 16th c. , the parac elsian tria printa, theoriginality of w hich has bee n con tested occasionally, although after a careful and crit-ical analysis of the question Hooykaas [Chemical trichotomy before Paracelsus,Arch.Int.d Hist. des Sci., 28 1063-74] has arrived to the conclusion that i t was re ally anew original theory advanced by P aracelsus. Geber 's matter ph ilosophy is dispersedalong a vast co rpus of m ore than 70 books based on aristotleian hylem orfism althoughw ith som e impo rtant modifications placing special emp hasis on opposed qualities ornatures of metals both internal and external [20, 28] assuming m etaLs to be form edby the two mentioned principles: sulphur and mercury. The type and proportions ofsuch qttalities were co nsidered to determ ine the physical prope rties of m etals (purity,colour, weight, etc. . Metallic perfection was related to balances of qualities ornatures, w eights, e thymologies and num bers in a peculiar way focusing on the m agicnumber 17, sinonimous of the elixir, metal perfection, etc. According to Geber allme tals exhibit two n atures, internal (occult) and ex ternal (manifest) each po ssessing apair of opposing qualities which can be inverted by alchem ical means thereby allow-ing for the rransmutation of bass metals into noble ones, for example lead into gold.

Theories on the com posit ion of m etals based on o pposit ion dialectics are a c om -mon very imp ortant aspect both in oriental and western alchemical systems 17, 8] where-by metals are assumed to originate from the alchemical ma rriage of rw o opposing prin-ciples: su/phur (solar seed, yang , father , com bustibili ty principle) and me rcury (lunarseed, yin , m other, me tallicity or l iquidity principle ) . 'The alchem ical ma rriage of fireand w ater , sulphur and me rcury, etc. is therefore the basis of me tal genesis as the resultof the union of tw o fundamen tal com plementary opposi t ions.


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M E T A L S

42OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL 25In oriental alchem y the union of sulphur and m ercury m aterialised in cinnabarplays a very important protagonism for the preparation of elixirs suitable for metal,human body or spiritual ennoblement after a preliminary activation or anitnation ofthe two subsouls of cinnabar, yang (sulphur) and yin (m ercury) by resorting to alchemi-cal procedures based on controlled herboreal calcinations of selected starting me tals orcinnabar 137, 3 8, 85 1. L Jnity of oppositions as well as sexuality are fundamental aspectsin connection with the genesis of metals within the alchemical context 160 1.

T he connection between A ristotle s two-exhalations theory and the dualistic stil-phuranercury theory of the Gebberian Corpus is interpreted conceptually by the author

as depicted by Fig. 8 in line withRead s approach I66J. Accor-ding to Cardano (47 1 the originof this theory may well havederived from em pirical old met-allurgy based on observationsthat many ores submitted toroasting by fire and reduction bycoal evolve sulphureous fumes(association s(ilphur-combustibil-ity) yielding finally silvery liquids(association mercury- liqu id ity-metallicity).

The Faithfill B rother sCorpus (10-th c.) adopted anaristotelic-neoplatonic patternassuming metals to consist of

Fig. 8.- Derivation of the sulphurmercury theory from theody, spirit and soul a theoryoristotleion elements to neeount for the composition of met lsdopted occasionally by differ-b sed on the two-exhalations thearynt authors assumed erroneous-ly to have been precursors ofParacelstts s rria prima as discussed by Hooykaas whereby their colour should be relat-ed to fire (sulphta), their purity and Ittster to air, metal softness and cohesion to som e unc-nious or radical humiday and metal weight to earthy componen ts or terrosity (811.

Of special relevance for future m etal theories is the concept of un ctuous humid-ity in the constitution of metals to explain both their cohesion and relative lack of


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LLULL, 25N MYS77CS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS3volatility upon melting, contrary to the behaviour exhibited by common water. Toaccount for such a difference A ristotle postulated the existence of two types of hum id-ity fix and volatile) while the stoics accounted for the problem of cohesion andvolatility of matter by introducing the tonos concept [68] associated with the inter-penetrating pneuma. Albert Magnus paid special attention to the unctuous humidi-ty of me tals within Aristotles s wa y of though t, as dealt with by Freud enthal[15, 16]who concludes that such a question is directly related to the su/phur (fatry) com po-nent of metals acting oth as a combustible and cohesive principle throughout thealchemical literature. Besides, the author assumes that such a principle can be con-sidered a distant precedent of the p hlogiston principle, passing historically through thesoul principle of combustibility in the paracelsian tria prima Becher s terra pinguisGeo ffroy s principe hui/eux to becom e finally phlogiston with Stahl along the 18th c. upto Lavoisier s introduction of the oxygen com bustion theory.

Particular attention deserves a benedictine monk in the middle ages, knownas pseudo-Geber, identified in all probability by Newman (491as Paul of Taranto, whomarks the culmination of mediaeval corpuscularianism in the 13-14th c. through thepublication of the very im portant book S umm a Perfectionis (13th c.) translated andcritically com mented b y said scholar [49]. No doubt this is by far the mo st noticeablecontribution to metals in the scholastic period thereby introducing a stoicheiometricmetal model deriving qualitative criteria relating the properties of metals to theircomposition based on similarity principles consecrated by tradition as dealt with byKubbinga [29]. Pseudo-Geber s Summa though including aspects based onAristotle and the islamic alchemical and m edical tradition presents a great number ofimportant original innovations, to such an extent that it strongly influenced a greatdeal of important authors during the 13-14th c. being even adopted with correspon-ding modifications in the 17th c. by Van Helmont, Philalethes, Boyle and evenNewton as a result of the revival of corpuscularianism and atomism in this century16, 50-54].

Pseudo-Geber s metal theory is based on the sulphur-mercury pattern andexplains in corpuscular terms many important properties of metals such as nobilitypurity, actiN7ity, volatility, com pacity, com bustibility, malleability, am algamability, etc. asrelated both to the relative com position, neighborhood of the two principles enhancedby coction or concoction and purity of the two principles considered and to the physicaland structural characteristics of their corpuscles (size, packing, porosity, homog eneity,earthtiness, etc.). In pseudo-Geber s view the four aristotleian elements are


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44OSE ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25corptiscular and from their union per minima arise the two m etallic principles sulphurand mercury) which by homeomeric juxtaposition true mbcture) by coction originatethe inetals. In this theory sulphur is related to impurity earthiness), porosity andmetal corrosiveness while abundance of inercury of inedium particle size subtilis sub-stantia, obtained by fractional distillation of mercury) is associated with metal nobili-ty and perfection. The author differentiates between essential sulphur and externalsulphur, the first bound indissolubly to mercury while the latter acts as impurity ordreg hindering amalgam ation of the bass m etal with me rcury and considers two typesof metal impe rfections: accidental superficial) and essential profound) in connectionwith their eventual elimination by means of three types o f elixirs or inetal med icinesof increasing ennob lement power. H e further develops a m etal theory based exclusivelyon inercury based on the dualistic behaviour of mercury exhibiting both pnetimaticand somatic properties closely related to the preparation of the transmutatory elixirfor inetals, which was adopted by different authors in the 14th c.

However, attention should be paid to the fact that pseudo-Geber s theory iscorptiscular, not atomistic in the classical sense, since no consideration whatsoever isgiven to such aspects as matter indivisibility, vactium voids, atom shapes and move-ment. As a matter of fact his ideas represent a personal synchretism of aristotleian,platonic, stoic and corptiscular approaches to matter.

A new matter theory, the tria prima, was put for-ward in the 16th c. by Paracelsus, based on three com-

plementary principles extensive to the constitutionof any type of matter within the frame of the three

kingdoms the main aspects of which are sum-marized in Fig. 9.The connection between the

b o d yotleian four-element theory is a ratherF R C U R Y spirit o s problematic question since the inean-opority yolotiley rnefollicityng of the paracelsian element f e s d p i l i t y liquiddyoncept is quite different from Pneornoric boodirs force that of Aristotle 1551 aFig. 9.- Conceptual implications of PARACELSUS s dria primn,

theory ccounting for the constitutionof ny type o matter

paracelsian three principles and the aris- i n e r i n e r r , h o n n e a s 6oflon told reedoe, orkes o n c o r e b u s e b e l d y e o r t h i n e r s c r y e o f b e d e o o d e p o r nrj o fp c o g a s t o c f o r toforsj

c o r p o n f ie s s u l p h o r r e r o u r y

fact that has originateda lot of mistinderstand-ings and has led to


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LLULL, 25N MYST1CS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS5many misinterpretations, among them according to Hooykaas to the appearance ofthe five-principle theory, first formulated by Quercetanus in 1584 which was widelyadopted along the 1 7th c. by most alchem ists and physicians. Given the pan vitalisticparacelsian cosmovision approach, m etals w ere considered by him as animated m at-ter 155 1 following extended old classical hylozoistic patterns. In Paracelsus s views acalcinated metal was but a c rpse which ha d lost its soul escaping from the metal as aresult of combustion although such a corpse could be enlivened again by suitabletreatment with a soul-donating substance.

Most of Paracelsus s views on metals can be found in Webster s classicalMetallographia [84] , which deals with a lot of both sound and phantasious viewsof metals within a frame of typical hermetism considering metal sexuality, the dis-tinction of genuine metals from derivated bastard metals i.e., Bi and Zn as relat-ed to the genuine C u and S n metals, respectively ), the description of different typesof golds and m ercuries, the conception that mercury w as weak (as liquid) due toits constitution lacking enough coagulating sulphur and corporifying salt though heassumed the possibility of strengthening (solidifying) this metal by alchemicaltransmutatory practices, etc. On the other hand, a most positive aspect ofParacelsus s achievements is related to his ideas put into practice of using metalsand their salts to heal body diseases thereby unfettering the i t rochemic l revo/utionwhich led to the development of such an important medical field as is actually thatof pharm acological chemistry.

It is also of interest to recall that Paracelstis established a criterion for metalclassification based on their malleability which lasted for ab out two centuries. On theother hand Paracelsus s arria prima theory was adopted by most physicians,alchemists and chemist along the 17th c.

From iatrochemistry to phlogistonWhile the tria prima theory protagonized most of the matter theory views

during the 17 th c. significant changes occu rred in this century due to the coexistenceof iatrochemists, atomistics and corpuscularians.Th e tria prima becam e progressivelydisplaced in the 17-18th c. by the five principles conception introduced by Quercetanusand Ba sso /22 1 and w as adopted by Lm ery and other french physicians and chemists(Beguin, Glaser, Lefvre, Willis, etc.) as derived from experimental observations madein connection with the different fractions obtained by distillation and fire-analysis


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46OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25processes of many substances [9, 22]. As a matter of fact , corpuscular matter theoriesand the five-principles approach w ere perfectly com patible for most scientists in thisperiod whereby atomism rem ained a metaphysical theory as imposed by unavoidableexperimental limitations in contrast with the five-principle theory based on sensorialexperimental evidence 14 01.

Metals acquired special protagonism during the 18th c. in connection withtheir direct implication in pneumatic chemistry which, although initiatied by VanHelmont in the middle of the 17th, did not reach a real chemical dimension until thefollowing century due to the discovery and investigations of new gases carried out byCavendish, Scheele, Priestley, Black, Lavoisier, Bayen, etc., focused on the ca lcinationof metals and their attack by mineral acids whereby all the investigations were con-cerned with the evolution, identification and isolation of important gases hydrogen,nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen m ainly) during the 17-18th c. specially along thelatter one after the generalised adoption of Stahl s phlogiston theory the main prob-lem of it lying in the scientific interpretation o f the w eight increase accom panying thetransformation of the metals into their calices oxides).Two ma in interpretative linesemerged to explain such a phenom enon: either the metals absorbed something dur-ing the calcination process from the flame or present in the air or, alternatively, themetals emitted something to the air, some kind of metallic common combustionprinciple, supposedly phlogiston

In either case the calcinations process implied the essential idea of the trans-ference of something.

The main obstacle opposing the correct interpretation of the calcinationprocess of metals derived from a numbe r of facts:

the ignorance of the composition of the air eventual hypothesis considering the presence of certain species suspended

in the air which were supposed to be active in the calcinations process problematic interpretation of experimental observations evolution of

fumes and vapours, colour and density changes, etc.) speculations about the nature of light, heat, fire and flames the weight of traditional metaphysical matter theories


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LLULL, 25N MYSTICS AND METAPHYS/CS OF METALS7 the traditional infravaloration of the quantitative aspects of the chemicalreactions centered exclusively on a qualitative paradigm

total absence of the energy conceptExtensive attention has been paid by many authors to reviewing and dis

cussing the many theories on the question put forward during the 16 18th c. toaccount for the constitution of metals and the explanation of their combustionmechanism and accompanying weight changes involved in the process of metalcalcinations (59].

Table 1. Theories on the constitution of metals along the 16th and 17th centuries.

A U T H O R M E T A L T H E O R Y R E M A R K S

CARDAN Hylozoisticpproach.etalsassumed to becongealed water. D iscardedheulphur-mercurytheory.PARACELSUS Triarima theory.anvitalistapproach. Ambiguousonnectionitharistotellic elernents (55).BIR INGU C C IO Metalsssumedoriginatefromhelementsyfermentation-decoction. D iscardedheulphur-mercurytheory.AGRICOLA SimilariewsslatoSeartha nd water). Metalobilityncreasesithdecreasing earth content.T A C H E N I U S Dualist theory based on two acidandlkalir-inciples4 3,5,

57).Metalsffervescenceycidattack assumedo derive fromalkali content.

SEIV IV O G IU S

Asstrned metals to be canposedbyrincipalomponent(philosophicalercuryrradicalumidity)ndulphur(dry, secondary component) (10,14). Embryological theoryased onsublimation and subtilisation ofseeds of the four(ementsnthe earth as matrix trider theinfluence of natural Archeus .

S E NNE R T

Corpuscularianpproachomatter.etals assumedo be pri maixt 2 rdercorpuscles) of the fotr eleme nts(elementaryor pusc ular minima ) (41). Followerf te6-17hcorpuscularianevivalnitiatedaliger,assendi,tc.,continuatorsfheedievalpseudo-Geber traditicn.

Van HE L M ON TSyntheticorpuscularpproachtoetalspseudo-Geber)ndparacelsian Vitalism adhering tothe mineral tree theory (51).

Mystic- vi talisticheorydepartingromatersprimeval element acted upon byinternalrxternalerrnentsunderrchetrsctionringingabout ferrnentaticn.G E O F F R O Y / H O M B E R G Metals supposed to be composedbynarthnds ulphurpri nciple. The combustibility principle wasreferredoyeof froys p rinc ipe huileux .


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48OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL, 25A U T H O R M E T A L T H E O R Y R E M A R K SB O Y L E

Fol lowing Epicurus andennertproposedynamic a tomis t ictheorya s e dnniquecathol ic universal)at ter .Rejected c lassica l e leme nts andpr inc ip les. He w as a c lear f igureof t ransi t ione tweenlassicalalchemy and ch emistry. ceor snceptt se ( t u r e s o f e theu s cU o rlalustan dt ructuresoccounto rt h e ch em ica l p r ope r t i e s o f t hec o r p u s c le s3 0 ,1 ).ustainedmany a tchem ica l v iews re la tedto meta lrasmutat ion, Alkahe st , ac idum peracutum ,e tc. (64) .N E W T O N

Doubte d abou t t he s imp l ic it y o fmetals.evelopedhellmeta lheorynluencedyS T A R K E YndE N D I V O G I U Scons ider ing a complex su lphur -mercury meta lode l (a tomic )based cn mat r ix ccncep t ion androbi l i tyonsider ingt t ract iveforcese la ted to t hea g n e s -chalybs pheno menon (10,14) . At tem p t ed b y ma n y me a n s t or esolveetalsntoo r e ssimotetementa tartsn dpreparedan yl loysnderfarefu lontro leta loroport ions (3, 10) .Like Boy le wa s ve ry in te re s tedin me ta l t ransm uta t ion (10 , 64 )and pract ical a lchemy.

STARKEY ( Philat lethes )Deve loped a c orpuscu lar theoryfo retats.onsideredetalsn a toi f fe r substant ia l lyu tonlycddenta l l ymatur i ty ,pur i ty, e tc . ) .roposed a she l lmercury-sulphurart ic leodel(52, 53). Rela ted meta l baseness to t hep resence o fte l lu r icresidualHumidi tyerivingro mi ncomple te coc t ion in t he e ar t h .Pos tu la ted tw o types o f su lphurinheaths:xternall phur(corrosib i l i ty)n dnternalsulphur (metal l ici ty) .G L A S E R Though t a l kahes t to be ab le toreduce meta ls to the i r p r in c ip les(25, 43). Assumed B i and Zn to be t ypeso fulphureous-ear thymarcasi tes.L E M E R Y Consideredarcasi tesoemetal excrements (43) . Marcasitesu p p o s e doeear thsmpregnatedit hme tal lic par t ic tes.

B O E R H A A V EAdhere d to t he su lphu r-mercurytheory.n ,i,bonsideredsemimetats . H ga so torsideredsme ta l bu t a s t h eas is fo r a l lmetals (44).

B E C H E R. .Theoryfe aths :lapis(body),pinguis sulphureous), mercur ia l is (metal l ic) (44) . Theo ry der ived f rom Paracelsus's t r iar ima n dylemorf ism.Meta lr n a t g a m sxplainedyat t rac t ion be twee n me rcury andth ee ta lterralu ida,mercur ia l is .

S T A H LM e t a l su m e doset hompoundsfnarthi Otherwisep h log is tcn 0)* as a w e igh t lesscombu stion pr incip le (44 , 59).

Phlogiston a serivedrc mBecher'ster rainguis .adcptedechersmeta lheorysids we l l une r ,.

L O M O N O S O V M e t a l sreo o rnic hdeterrninesheirroper t ies 3 2 ) , Meta l nnoblementhypot he t ical lyo s s i b leyincreasir rg the 0 con ten t .


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LLULL, 25N M YST1CS AND METAPHYSICS OF METALS9A U T H O R f 5 M T LTH ORY R RKSB E R G 1 A A N N

Assurned metals to be the resultofoagulatingcidsyreatamounts of 0 alternatively toconsideretalss eementsbuilt by calxes with 0 43) . Suggestedquntitati vemethod for the deterrnination of0 i netals72 )hichasiound n complete disagreementby Kirwan who recalculated hisresults.G. de MORV EAU

Assumedetalsoecompcunds of an earth andwith vital air (0 .

Complete removal of 0houldhypotheticallyriginatecidsfrom metals.

M A C Q U E RAdheredohelementtheory. Metals supposedly wererelatedopecificalxestheory adhered to as we llyBerthollet and Fourcroy.

Consideredetalsoerysimilatubstancesheiralxesbeingltimatelyheameearthy element differing only byincomplete elimination of (34,75).

B R A N D TFollowirgaracelsuslassifiedmetalssalleablendon -malleable.

C onsideredon- rnalleablemetals as semimetals (Hg, Sb,Bi, (o, As, Zn).L A V O I S I E R Classified andabulated metalsasimpleodieselements)wherebyheefractoryarthswere considered provisorily as aparticularroupflements(31). The limit of chemical analyticalresolution power was adopted asaritericnfchemicalelementaity herebyllowingfo rurthernalyticalirnprovements as done by Davy(electrolytical decompositionf

refractoryearths )

D A V Y

Advancedf ugaciousheoryconsideringetalsoecomposed by hydrogen (for himthe only true undecompoundedbody ) andnknownasess metallicity principles* 73, 74). Involutio nisticheoryreminiscentf teulphur-mercury and plogiston dualistictheories.K L A P R O T 1 - 1

Refused to classify as metals thealkalinelementsbtainedyDavyserivedro mhestrikingnusualowensityshown by them. Ermanndimon1803)suggested theerm metalloidfo rhelkalineetals asnalternative,erminallyrecommendedyerzelius(1811) for non-metals acceptedfo ran years17).U P A Cnomenc latureistinguishesactuallyetweenetals,semimetalsmetalloids)ndnon-metats.The notation will e used henceforth for phlogistonTable 1 suinmarizes a number of the main aspects of the theories on the con-

stitution of metals according to the views held by different authors during the 16-18thc. period.

The for chernistry crucial theme related to metal combustion and calcination,with particular consideration of the phlogiston theory can not be considered indetail at this place given its complexity extension and trascendence for the


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50OS ANTONIO PREZ BUSTAMANTELULL 25development of scientifical chemistry. Instead here we will conclude simply as anadvance for an eventual future development of the question with a personal synthe-sis of the interpretation of the metal calcination process within the frame of Comte sthree stadia law as outlined schematically in Fig.10 considering mystical meta-physical and scientific approaches to the theme implying animistic vitalism themetaphysical combustion principle phlogiston and the actual scientific explanationbased on the transference of e l e c t r o n s respectively.

M E T A L calcination airdecomposit ion U N I V E R S A Lacceptorrpseanimation reincarnationmystics)

+ phlogistonalx, earth revivification)etaphysics)+ ve getal soul+ electrons oxidere duction) science)

Con ceptual interpretation of metal calcination:M Y S T I C S :ETA L body+sou l ) _> . co rpse + sou l f

a l iv eMET PHYSICS M0 >alx, ear th + O f

compounded substance)p h l o g i s t o nS C I E N C EM z . e .2:02; oxide)

Fig. 10.- Conceptual interpretation of nzetal cakination within the frame of COMTE sthree stadia law


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