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Myth making and meaning making: the school and Indigenous children David Rose In M Hamilton, R Heydon, K Hibbert & R Stooke [Eds.]. Multimodality and Governmentality: Negotiating Spaces in Literacy Curricula Across Domains. London: Continuum, 2015, 167-184 Introduction The themes of this volume bring together two fields of study that seem only distantly related at first sight, a sociological study of governance in education and the semiotic study of communicative modalities. But the breadth of these themes gives me an opportunity to tie together two perspectives on schools and Indigenous children, that I hope the reader will find illuminating and useful. One perspective is on the governance of the colonising modern European culture over what happens to Indigenous children in school (beyond the formal role of government); the other is on the realisation of the colonising culture in the modalities of teaching and learning that Indigenous children are subjected to in school. However the chapter is not merely a complaint, it contains two parts: the first part is an analysis of these factors and effects, using a framework from social theory, the second is a procedure for overcoming them, developed and proven in a long term action research program. The background to the chapter starts from my own long term commitment to education for Indigenous people, from the Pitjantjatjara homelands in central Australia (Rose 1999, 2011a) to metropolitan universities (Rose, Lui-Chivize, McKnight & Smith 2004, Rose, Rose, Farrington & Page 2008). My experience working with a generation of Pitjantjatjara children who had completed primary school but remained almost entirely illiterate, and addicted to petrol sniffing, led me to ask why their schooling had been so unsuccessful, and what role this may have played in their self-destructive activity. At the urging of their elders, it also led me to seek out how to teach literacy more effectively, culminating over the last 15 years, in the development of a teacher professional learning program known as Reading to Learn. Reading to Learn began with an action research project, Scaffolding Reading and Writing for Indigenous Children in School (Rose, Gray & Cowey 1999), that worked with teachers to synthesise strategies for teaching reading and writing that had been developing in Australia over the previous decade (Rose & Martin 2012). At the start of the project, no students tested in the Pitjantjatjara community primary schools were reading more than basal picture books by the end of primary school, and no Pitjantjatjara students tested in urban secondary schools were reading above junior primary levels. By the end of the project’s first year, most of these students were reading at age appropriate levels, and independent evaluation showed average literacy growth at a rate normally expected over four years (McCrae et al 2000). Since then Reading to Learn has grown in scope as a classroom and professonal learning program for primary, secondary and tertiary teachers, and in scale across Australia, south and east Africa (Dell 2011, Millin 2011) and western Europe (Coffin, Acevedo & Lövstedt 2013). The results of up to four times typical literacy growth rates have been consistently replicated (Culican 2006, Rose 2011b, Rose & Martin 2013). Central to the program’s effectiveness are on one hand, an analysis of governmental factors in education

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Page 1: Myth making and meaning making 3...My experience working with a generation of Pitjantjatjara children who had completed primary school but remained almost entirely illiterate, and

Mythmakingandmeaningmaking:theschoolandIndigenouschildren

DavidRoseInMHamilton,RHeydon,KHibbert&RStooke[Eds.].MultimodalityandGovernmentality:NegotiatingSpacesinLiteracyCurriculaAcrossDomains.London:Continuum,2015,167-184Introduction

Thethemesofthisvolumebringtogethertwofieldsofstudythatseemonlydistantlyrelatedatfirstsight,asociologicalstudyofgovernanceineducationandthesemioticstudyofcommunicativemodalities.ButthebreadthofthesethemesgivesmeanopportunitytotietogethertwoperspectivesonschoolsandIndigenouschildren,thatIhopethereaderwillfindilluminatinganduseful.OneperspectiveisonthegovernanceofthecolonisingmodernEuropeancultureoverwhathappenstoIndigenouschildreninschool(beyondtheformalroleofgovernment);theotherisontherealisationofthecolonisingcultureinthemodalitiesofteachingandlearningthatIndigenouschildrenaresubjectedtoinschool.Howeverthechapterisnotmerelyacomplaint,itcontainstwoparts:thefirstpartisananalysisofthesefactorsandeffects,usingaframeworkfromsocialtheory,thesecondisaprocedureforovercomingthem,developedandproveninalongtermactionresearchprogram.ThebackgroundtothechapterstartsfrommyownlongtermcommitmenttoeducationforIndigenouspeople,fromthePitjantjatjarahomelandsincentralAustralia(Rose1999,2011a)tometropolitanuniversities(Rose,Lui-Chivize,McKnight&Smith2004,Rose,Rose,Farrington&Page2008).MyexperienceworkingwithagenerationofPitjantjatjarachildrenwhohadcompletedprimaryschoolbutremainedalmostentirelyilliterate,andaddictedtopetrolsniffing,ledmetoaskwhytheirschoolinghadbeensounsuccessful,andwhatrolethismayhaveplayedintheirself-destructiveactivity.Attheurgingoftheirelders,italsoledmetoseekouthowtoteachliteracymoreeffectively,culminatingoverthelast15years,inthedevelopmentofateacherprofessionallearningprogramknownasReadingtoLearn.ReadingtoLearnbeganwithanactionresearchproject,ScaffoldingReadingandWritingforIndigenousChildreninSchool(Rose,Gray&Cowey1999),thatworkedwithteacherstosynthesisestrategiesforteachingreadingandwritingthathadbeendevelopinginAustraliaoverthepreviousdecade(Rose&Martin2012).Atthestartoftheproject,nostudentstestedinthePitjantjatjaracommunityprimaryschoolswerereadingmorethanbasalpicturebooksbytheendofprimaryschool,andnoPitjantjatjarastudentstestedinurbansecondaryschoolswerereadingabovejuniorprimarylevels.Bytheendoftheproject’sfirstyear,mostofthesestudentswerereadingatageappropriatelevels,andindependentevaluationshowedaverageliteracygrowthataratenormallyexpectedoverfouryears(McCraeetal2000).SincethenReadingtoLearnhasgrowninscopeasaclassroomandprofessonallearningprogramforprimary,secondaryandtertiaryteachers,andinscaleacrossAustralia,southandeastAfrica(Dell2011,Millin2011)andwesternEurope(Coffin,Acevedo&Lövstedt2013).Theresultsofuptofourtimestypicalliteracygrowthrateshavebeenconsistentlyreplicated(Culican2006,Rose2011b,Rose&Martin2013).Centraltotheprogram’seffectivenessareononehand,ananalysisofgovernmentalfactorsineducation

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systemsthatconstraineffectiveteachingfordisadvantagedstudents,andontheotherhand,adesignofmultimodalstrategiestoenhanceliteracylearningforallstudents.GovernmentalityandIndigenouseducation

Although‘westernculture’isoftenopposedto‘Indigenousculture’asthoughtheywerepolarcontrasts,theoppositionishighlymisleading.Tobeginwith,whataspectsofeachculturearebeingcontrasted?Oneaspectthatcouldreasonablybecomparedissocialhierachy.WhereasIndigenouscommunitiestendtofavouranideologyof‘egalitarianmutuality’(Maddock1972),thedominantorganisingprincipleofmodernwesternsocietiesremainssocialstratification.Thecolonisingcultureisorganisedbysocio-economicclass,whetherornotthepoliticalsystemisdemocratic.Colonisedcommunitiesdonotsitoutsidetheclasssystem,butaremoreorlessintegratedinit,ofteninthelowesteconomicstratum,withhighunemployment,loweducation,poorhealth,highwelfaredependency,incarcerationandvariousothermarkersofsocialdisadvantage.Forthisreason,theproblemsthatIndigenouschildrenexperiencewithschoolarenotentirelydifferentfromtheproblemsthatmanyotherchildrenexperiencefromeconomicallydisadvantagedgroups.Pooreducationoutcomesarefrequentlyassociatedwithfamilies’lowersocio-economicclasspositions;thepoorerthefamily,thepoorertheirchildren’sschooloutcomesarelikelytobe.Indigenouschildren’slackofschoolsuccessisnotjustbecausetheyareIndigenous,butiswidelyassociatedwitheconomicdisadvantageinthemodernsocietiestheyarepartof.IfweareseriousaboutimprovingtheeducationoutcomesofIndigenousstudents,wehavetostartwithananalysisoftheschool’sroleinreproducingsocio-economicdisadvantage.TothisendIwilldrawonBasilBernstein’s(1990/2003,2000)analysisofwhathecalls‘thepedagogicdevice’.Likethesocietiestheyserve,Bernsteinpointsoutthateducationsystemsarealsohighlystratified.Heanalysestheirorganisationintermsofthedivisionoflabourintheexchangeofknowledge.Atonelevelistheproductionofknowledge,primarilybyresearchersandtheoristsintheupperechelonsofacademe.Thesecondlevelhedescribesastherecontextualisingfield,inwhichknowledgeistransformedforpedagogicpurposes.Thethirdlevelhecallsthefieldofreproduction,whererecontextualisedknowledgeisexchangedbetweenteachersandlearners.Bernsteincomparesthishierarchyofpedagogicfieldstoreligioushierarchies,fromwhichitevolvedintheearlymodernperiod,ofprophets,priestsandlaity.Crucially,Bernsteindrawstwobroaddivisionsintherecontextualisingfield,apedagogicrecontextualisingfield(PRF)includingteachereducationfacultiesandeducationalpublishers,andanofficialrecontextualisingfield(ORF)thatincludesstateeducationdepartmentsandboardsofstudies.Theofficialandpedagogicrecontextualisingfieldsareofteninconflictoverwhateachconsidersappropriatepedagogies,curriculumcontents,andassessments.Bernsteinsuggeststhatthesestrugglesareassociatedwithconflictsbetweenclassfractionsinthesocietyservedbytheeducationsystem,primarilybetweenfractionsofthemodernmiddleclass,thathaveevolvedoverthepastcenturyintandemwiththeevolutionofschooling.Bernsteindistinguishesan‘oldmiddleclass’,whosebaseisineconomicproduction,andinprofessionssuchasmanagement,engineering,law,medicine,anda‘newmiddleclass’,

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whosebaseisintheproductionandexchangeofsymboliccommodities,suchaseducationandmedia.Thesegroupshavedifferenteconomicinterests,andtendtoholddifferentpositionsoverwhatconstitutesvalidcurriculumandpedagogy.Wheretheoldmiddleclasstendstofavourpedagogiesinwhichteachers’authority,transmissionofknowledge,andcriteriaforassessmentareexplicit,thenewmiddleclasstendstopreferpedagogiesinwhichlearnersappeartohavemorecontrol,discoveringknowledgeforthemselvesattheirownpace,achievingcriteriauniquetotheirownperson.Thesetypesofpedagogyhavelongbeencharacterisedas‘traditional’and‘progressive’respectively.Bernsteincontraststhemas‘visible’and‘invisible’,sincehierarchy,sequencingandcriteriaareexplicitinthetraditionalmode,butmaskedintheprogressivemode.TheprogressivistmovementsweptAustralianeducationfacultiesfromthelate1970s,as‘wholelanguage’literacypedagogy,andmorespecifically‘processwriting’,inwhichchildrenwereexpectedtospontaneouslydevelopliteracycompetencesthrough‘immersion’in‘languagerichenvironments’,andteacherswereproscribedfrominterveninginandhenceconstrainingchildren’screativedevelopment(Christie2004,2010).Theseideasarealiveandwelltodayinmanypartsoftheworld,withthetermconstructivistnowgenerallyusedtorefertotheapproach.Alexander,inhisrevealingstudyofprimaryschoolpedagogyaroundtheworld,notesthefollowingpieceofprogressivephilosophy(2000:548),prominentlydisplayedontheclassroomwallofoneofhisMichigan,USAschools.

Importantissuestome–ProcessorientationvsproductorientationTeachingstudentsvsteachingprogramsTeacherasfacilitatorvsteacherasmanagerDevelopingasetofstrategiesvsmasteringasetofskillsCelebratingapproximationvscelebratingperfectionPromotingindependenceinlearningvsdependenceonteacher

Theideologicalpolarisingofprocessvsproductandindependentlearningvsteachingofskillsarguablyadvantagedchildrenfromliteratemiddle-classfamilies,whotypicallyarriveatschoolwithanaverage1000hoursexperienceofparent-childreading,incontrastwithchildrenwhostartwithlittleornosuchexperience(Adams1990,Williams1995).ForIndigenouschildren,whosefamilycultureisoftenpurelyoral,withlittleornohomereading,andmayalsobenon-Englishspeaking,ithasremainedanon-goingcalamity.AlloverAustralia,Indigenouschildrenrightthroughprimaryschooltypicallyproducedshorttextsofafewsentences,inresponsetotheprogressivistinstructionto‘writefrompersonalexperience’.Thetextswerebriefrecountsorobservation/comments,usingonlywordstheyknewhowtospell,andsentencestheyknewwouldnotbecorrectedbytheteacher,intheso-called‘editing’stageofprocesswriting(Gray1990,Rose,Gray&Cowey1999,Rose&Martin2012).Text1illustratesacommonstandardformanystudentsinupperprimaryschool,afterfourorfiveyearsofprocesswriting.

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Text1:Exampleofprocesswritinginupperprimary

OntheholidayIwentmydadsfor3weekweaksanwewenttoanteJhinshousforcrismus.IgotLeogoandahumonicIwasverehappytoseher.FromBLakItwasnotthatchildrenwritingsuchtextslackedtheresourcesofspokenEnglish,butthattheycouldnotusetheseresourcesasabasisforlearningtoreadandwrite,aswholelanguageandprocesswritingexpectedthemto.HenceapedagogicmovementthatwasostensiblyliberatoryfailedtoprovidemanyIndigenouschildrenwiththeresourcestheyneedtosucceedinschool,andtogoontofurthereducation.ThishasbeenadoubletragedyforIndigenouspeople,asprogessivism/constructivismtookoverinanerawhentheyneededaccesstohighleveleducationmorethaneverbefore.Untilthe1970sinAustralia,educationforIndigenouschildrenwasoftenrestricted,andthelivesofIndigenouspeoplewerecontrolledunderracistlegislation.Astheideologicalclimateshifted,authoritativepedagogicpracticeswereoftenassociatedwithauthoritarianpoliticalregimes,andabandonedinfavourofprogressivistpedagogies.Thiskindofpolarisationcontinuestodayasconstructivismispromotedinpost-colonialcontexts.Examplesincludethe‘newliteracies’advocate,Street,whoopposesteachingoftechnicalliteraciesas“simplyimposingwesternconceptionsofliteracyontoothercultures”(1996:2).IntheSouthAfricancontext,Streetassociatesliteracy“attachedtoformaleducation”with“vestedinterestswhichdependupontheoldviewsfortheirlegitimacy”(ibid),smearingstateliteracyprogramsbyassociationwithapartheid.Bernstein’sanalysishelpstoshowwhythiskindofpolarisationisnothelpfulforIndigenousandotherdisadvantagedstudentgroups,asthepedagogicconflictdoesnotoriginatewiththeirinterestsorneeds.Whereasprogressivism/constructivismhaslongbeenlegitimatedwithvaluessuchascreativity,personaldevelopment,freedomofexpression,andlearner-centredpractice,versus‘traditional’reproductive,teacher-centredrote-learning,atbottomisastruggleforcontrolofeducation,betweenelitemiddleclassfractions.

Theoppositionbetweenthesefractionsofthemiddleclassisanoppositionnotoverthedistributionofpowerbutoverprinciplesofsocialcontrol.AteconomicandpoliticallevelstheoppositionisanoppositionovertheroleoftheState.(Bernstein1990/2003:212).

ThisanalysisshinesadifferentlightonobjectionswithinthePRFtostatesponsoredliteracyassessments,asconstrainingfreedomofexpressioninfavourof“objectiveandprocessablerepresentations”(DeVault,2008:40).Thesetestingregimeswerecertainlyintroducedbyconservativegovernments,suchastheUKThatchergovernmentinthe1980s,inresponsetoperceivedfailurestoimproveeducationoutcomes,andareclearlyassociatedwiththestrugglebetweenthestatecontrolledORFandtheuniversitybasedPRF.However,theyhavebeencontinuedandexpandedbysocialdemocraticparties,suchastheRudd-GillardAustraliangovernmentof2007-2013,thatrepresenttheinterestsoflessprivilegedgroups,alongsidetheoldandnewmiddleclasses.

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Onesuchassessmentregime,introducedbytheHawke-KeatingLaborgovernmentinthe1990s,andcontinuedbytheconservativeHowardgovernment,wastheAustralianNationalProfilesforliteracyandnumeracy.TheseNationalProfileswereorganisedinto8assessmentlevels,andeachlevelwasconsideredtocorrespondwithexpectedliteracygrowthover1.5schoolyears.Theenormousgaprevealedbythisandotherassessments,betweentheliteracyofIndigenousandotherstudentgroups,ledtolargescalefundingofeducationresearchprograms,ofwhichScaffoldingReadingandWritingforIndigenousChildrenwasone.Withinthefirstyearofthisproject,independentevaluatorsreportedaverageimprovementsforjuniorsecondarystudentsat‘2.5Profilelevels’(McCraeetal2000:69).Asthisgrowthwouldnormallybeexpectedoverfouryears,theprojectreceivednationalpublicity,ultimatelyleadingtothedevelopmentoftheReadingtoLearnprogram.HenceReadingtoLearndidnotemergefromacommitmenttooneideologyofpedagogicpracticeoranother,buttotheneedsofIndigenousstudentsandtheircommunities.IthasbeentakenupandexpandedinAustralia,AfricaandEuropeinresponsetotheneedsofotherlessadvantagedstudentgroups.Howtheprogrammeetstheseneedsisillustratedbelow.Howeverinthecourseofthetraining,teachersareaskedtotracktheliteracygrowthofstudentsinthetop,middleandbottombandsoftheirclasses.Thepurposeoftheassessmentisforteacherstoanalysehowtheirpracticeisenhancingtheskillsofallthestudentsintheirclasses,moderatedagainststandardsforeachstageofschool.Theassessmentenablesteacherstoobjectivelyidentifythelanguageresourcesthatstudentsareusingintheirwriting.Fourteencriteriaarescoredfrom0-3,givingapotentialtotalscoreof42.Criteriacoverdimensionsofsocialcontext,textorganisation,discoursepatterns,grammarandgraphicfeatures.Teacherscollecttextsamplesfromtheirstudentsbeforestartingtheprofessionallearningprogram,andattheend.Figure1showsresultsforthese‘pre-intervention’and‘post-intervention’writingsamples,averagedacrossassessmentsby400teachersinonetrainingprogramin2010,representingatleast10,000students.Thisprogramincludedschoolswithupto50%enrolmentsofIndigenousstudents.Pre-interventionandpost-interventionscoresareforthesamestudents,inthetop,middleandbottomcohortsineachschoolstage.

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Figure1:Pre-andpost-interventionscoresshowgapbetweenstudentgroups

Thepre-interventionscoresinFigure1showthemeandifferencesinwrittenlanguageresourcesofhigh,middleandlowachievingstudentsineachschoolstage.Asthisisalargesampleacrossclassesandschools,itmaybereadasapproximatingdifferencesintheAustralianandsimilareducationsystemsasawhole.Whatisparticularlyinterestingisthatthegapbetweentopandbottomgroupsiscomparativelynarrowatthestartofschool,labelledKforkindergarten,butthatafterayearortwo(Yr1-2)thegaphastripled,andremainssteadythrougheachfollowingschoolstage.ThetopgroupinYr1-2hasclearlybenefitedfromtheliteracypracticesoftheirearlyyearsteachers,astheiraverageresultshaveshotuptothemedianstandardfortheschoolstage.Thesechildrenarenowreadingandwritingindependently,andarelikelytobeactivelyengagedinlearningfromreading.Themiddlegrouphasalsoobtainedsomebenefit,butthebottomgroupappearstohavereceivedverylittlebenefitfromtheseliteracypractices;theirresultsarestillnearzero,andimproveonlyslightlythrougheachsubsequentstage.Thechildrenwhowerefailingatthestartofprimaryschoolarestillfailingatthestartofsecondary,despitealltheinterventionsprescribedbyvariousliteracytheories.Theselarge-scaledataconfirmwhatteachersknowintuitively,thatthegapbetweenthetopandbottomstudentsintheirclassesandschoolswillessentiallybethesameattheendofeachyear,andeachstudent’sschoolcareer,asitwasatthestart.Thepre-interventionscoresalsosupporttheviewintroducedabove,thatproblemsthatIndigenouschildrenexperiencewithschoolaresimilartotheproblemsthatmanyotherchildrenexperience.AkeydifferenceisthatamuchlargerproportionofIndigenousstudentsfallintothefailinggroup,withseriousconsequencesfortheirfuturelives,andfortheirwholecommunities.Assuch,thedataalsosupporttheviewpresentedinGray1990,

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Rose1999thattheproblemsofIndigenousstudentscannotbeaddressedmerelybyafocusonculturaldifference,butonlybysignificantchangesinmainstreamteachingpractices.Centraltothispositionistherecognitionthatteachersneedmoreeffectivetoolstoenablealltheirstudentstosucceedatsimilarlevels,iftheachievementgapineachclassroomistobenarrowed.Thegaphasclearlynarrowedinthepost-interventionscoresinFigure1.Eachcolumnshowsresultsforthesameteachersandsamestudentsasthepre-interventionscoresabove.Thepost-interventionresultsare6-8monthsafterthepre-intervention,achievedwhileteacherswerelearningtousethestrategiesoutlinedabove.Post-interventionscoresshowaveragegrowthinKindergartenis70%abovepre-interventionscores,andthegapbetweenlowandhighachievinggroupsishalved.Allthesechildrenarenowindependentlyreadingandwriting,atanaveragehighstandardforKindergarten,andarewellpreparedforthestartofjuniorprimary.Intheotheryearlevels,growthis30-40%abovethepre-interventionscores,andthegapisreducedto20-30%.Studentswhonormallyremaininthefailingrangearenowreadingandwritingatanacceptableaveragestandardfortheirgradelevels.However,thetopgroupshavealsoacceleratedtoanaverageveryhighstandardfortheirgradelevels.ThesedataarediscussedinmoredetailinRose(2011b,inpressa&b),Rose&Martin(2012,2013).Insum,relationsbetweengovernmentalityandIndigenousstudents’problemsinschoolhavebeendiscussedheremorebroadlyintermsoftheinterestsofvariousgroupsincontemporarysocieties.Controlmeasuressuchasstateliteracyassessmentsandnationalcurriculaareinterpretedintermsofastrugglebetweentheofficialandpedagogicrecontextualisingfields,toinfluencepracticesinschools.WhilethesemeasuresmaybeexperiencedbyagentsinthePRFasconstrainingfreedomofexpression,theycanalsobeusedtoservetheinterestsofgroupswhoseneedshavenotyetbeeneffectivelymetbyprogressivisttheoriesandpracticesadvocatedinthePRF,particularlytheneedsofIndigenousstudents.Modalitiesofteachingandlearningliteracy

Inthissection,IcomparesomecurrentliteracypracticesoftheschoolwiththedesignedpracticesofReadingtoLearn,intermsofsemioticmodalities.Modalitiesofmeaninghavebeenamajorfocusofresearchinrecentdecades,asrepresentedbythepapersinthisvolume.However,classroomteachingandlearningareparticularlycomplexasmultiplesemioticdimensionsareunfoldingsimultaneously,moment-by-moment,inasocialcontextinvolving20-30ormorelearners,exchangingknowledgethroughvariousmodalitiesinagreatvarietyofactivities.Bywayofexample,acommonactivityintheearlyyearsofschoolisSharedBookReading.Inthisactivity,theteacherreadsapicturebookwiththeclass,oftenintheformofa‘bigbook’mountedonaneaselthatallchildrencansee.Typicallytheteacherbeginsbytalkingthroughthepictures,usingthemtoorientthechildrentotheplot,settingsandcharactersofthestorybeforereadingthewordstothem.Thismaybedoneinteractively,byaskingchildrenwhattheycanseeinthepicturesandwhattheyknowabouttheirthemes.Inaddition,othermodalitiesmaybeusedtoorientchildrentothefield,suchaspictures,

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video,toys,objects,activities.Theteachermayreadthetextafterorwhilediscussingthepictures.Acommonpracticeisfortheteachertopointatthewordsinthebookastheyarereadaloud.Typicallyasharedreadingbookmaybereadrepeatedly,untilthechildrenarethoroughlyfamiliarwiththestory,andcansaymanyofitswordsalongwiththeteacherasshereads.SharedBookReadingsharesmanyfeatureswiththepracticesofparent-childreadinginliteratemiddleclassfamilies(Williams1995).Thegoalofbothistoengagechildreninwrittenmodesofmeaning,throughapleasurablesocialactivity,inwhichtheparentorteacheristheguide.Parent-childreadingappearstohaveevolvedasamiddleclassculturalpractice,alongsidetheevolutionofschoolinginthelastcentury,andSharedBookReadingappearstohaveevolvedinparallel.AlthoughitisoftendiscussedandadvocatedinthePRF,manyofitsfeaturesseemtobeintuitivelypracticedbyteachers,asreadinginthehomeisintuitivelypracticedbycarers.Itcanbehighlyeffectiveinengagingchildrenfromallbackgroundsinthepleasureofreading.IhaveoftenwitnessedearlyyearsteachersengageIndigenouschildreninunderstanding,enjoying,andsayingthewordsinEnglishpicturebooks,althoughtheymayhavenoreadingandlittleEnglishinthehome.Tounderstandwhyitiseffective,wecananalyseitscomponentsusingafunctionalmodeloflanguageastext-in-context(Martin&Rose2007,2008).Inthismodel,languageanditssocialcontextsarecomplementarydimensionsoftheprocessofmakingmeaning,inwhichlanguageenactsrelationbetweeninteractants,andconstruestheirexperience.Socialrelationsandsocialactivityarerealisedasunfoldingpatternsofdiscourseintexts,thatareinturnrealisedaspatternsofwordings,orgrammar,thatareinturnrealisedaspatternsofsoundsinspeechandlettersinwriting.Wecanthusdistinguishthreelevelstolanguage:patternsofdiscourse,patternsofgrammar,andpatternsofsoundsorletters,togetherrealisingpatternsofsocialrelationsandactivities.Thesethreelevelsoflanguageunderpincommonunderstandingsoftasksinreading:recognisingwrittenwordsandtheirletterpatternsiswidelyknownas‘decoding’;recognisingmeaningsofwordsinsentencesisknownas‘literalcomprehension’;recognisingconnectionsbetweenmeaningsindiscourseisoftentermed‘inferentialcomprehension’;andinterpretingtextsintermsofthereaders’knowledgeandvaluesisoftencalled‘interpretivecomprehension’.SharedBookReadingprovidesstudentswithinterpretivecomprehensionbyrelatingtheirexperiencetoimagesinthebook,andothersourcessuchaspictures,video,toys,objects,activities.Itprovidesinferentialcomprehensionbytalkingthroughthesequenceofthestory,usingtheimagesforsupport.Itprovidesliteralcomprehensionbydiscussingthemeaningsofwordsastheyarereadinthecontextoftheunfoldingstory.Cruciallytheseunderstandingsarebuiltthroughthemodalityofspokeninteractionbetweenteacherandlearners;comprehendingthestoryisinterwoveninthesocialrelationsenactedbetweenteacherandchild.TheonlylevelofthereadingtasknotdirectlyaddressedinSharedBookReadingorparent-childreadingisdecodingofwrittenwords.TheengagementwithwrittenwaysofmeaningaffordedbySharedBookReadingshouldformasolidbasisforchildrentodevelopasreaders,andformanychildrenitcertainlyappearstodoso.ButmanyIndigenousandotherchildrendonotgoontobecomeindependentreaders,asthethepre-interventiondatainFigure1illustrate.Theproblemlies

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withtheotherliteracyactivitiesoftheearlyyearsclassroom,thataretypicallyconductedwithothertexts,otherwords,othersoundsandletterpatterns.Thelowerlevelpartsoflanguagearedislocatedfromthemeaningful,engagingactivityofsharedreading,andtaughtasdiscreteelementsofthedailyprogram,whichmanychildrenexperienceasdisconnectedsegments.Despitethedominantprogressivistphilosophyofearlychildhoodeducation,manyoftheseactivitiesusedforteachingbeginningliteracyhaveveryoldorigins,involveagooddealofrotememorisation,andoperatewitharudimentarybricks-&-mortarmodeloflanguage,incontrasttothesocialsemioticmodeloutlineabove.Itiswidelyassumedthatchildrenmustrecognisethelettersofthealphabetandthesoundstheyrepresent,beforetheycanbegintoread,sothealphabetsystemispractisedbyrotememorisation.Childrenrepeatthenamesofletters,astheyarepointedto,oftenwithpicturesillustratingwordsthatstartwiththesoundrepresentedbytheletter(‘a’isforapple),andpractisewritingtheletters.Thispracticeoriginatedintheclassicalperiod.However,astheRomanalphabetdoesnotcoverthesoundsofnorthernEuropeanlanguagessuchasEnglish,childrenmustalsomemorisesystemsofdigraphsthatrepresentthesesounds,commonlyknownasphonics.ThispracticeoriginatedinthemonasteriesofmedievalEurope.Thenextlevelinthebricks-&-mortarmodeliswordrecognition,widelytaughtusingthe‘sightword’or‘wholeword’activity,inwhichchildrenmayhaveweeklylistsofdecontextualisedwordstomemorise.Thenextlevelisthentoputthesewordsintosentences,forwhichchildrenaregivenbasalpicturebooksthatbuildinlevels,fromawordorphraseonapage,toasentence,toaparagraph,andsoon.Thetheoryoflanguagehereisa)componential,buildinglargerbricksoutofsmallerbricks,andb)representational,assumingthatwordsrepresentconcepts,thatwrittenwordsrepresentspokenwords,andwrittenlettersrepresentspokensounds.Nevertheless,thesepracticesoftendoworkforlearnerswhoalreadyhaveextensiveexperienceandunderstandingofwrittenwaysofmeaning.Childrenwhostartschoolwith1000hoursofparent-childreadingareclearlyadvantagedinthisregard,andthismaybeakeyfactorintheevolutionofthismiddleclassculturalpractice.However,childrenwhodonothavethisexperienceoftenfinditdifficulttoassociatethesedecontextualisedpracticeswithmeaningsintexts,sothattheirreadingskillsdevelopmoreslowly.ThuschildrenwhoparticipateeagerlyandintelligentlyinSharedBookReading,andexperienceitasameaningfulcommunicativeactivity,cancometoperceivereadingindividuallyasameaninglessactivityofmemorisingstringsofwordsinabasalpicturebook.Thishelpstoexplainwhyotherwiseintelligentchildrenmaystillbeunabletoreadmorethanbasalpicturebooksbytheendofprimary,andstillbereadingatjuniorprimarylevelsinsecondaryschool,asdiscussedforPitjantjatjarastudentsabove(formoredetaileddiscussionseeRose2010).TheseproblemsareaddressedintheReadingtoLearnprogram,byusingthecomprehensionandengagementprovidedbySharedBookReadingasthestartingpointforacarefullydesignedsequenceofmultimodalactivities.Therepresentationaltheoryisreplacedbyarealisationaltheoryofmeaning,inwhichsocialrelationsandexperiencearerealisedbypatternsofdiscourse,realisedbywordings,realisedbysoundingandlettering.Thatis,wordsmakesenseinthecontextofsentences,thatmakesenseinthecontextoftexts,andsoundsandlettersarealternativemodesofrealisingwords.

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Hencebeginningliteracyactivitiesstartwithsentencesfromasharedreadingbookthatstudentsarethoroughlyfamiliarwith,understandandcansayeachwordinsequence.Asentenceiswrittenonacardboardstrip,andtheteacherguidesstudentstopointateachwrittenwordastheysaythemaloud.Intwoorthreerepetitions,childrenareusuallyabletopointandsaythefamiliarwordsaccurately.Thisactivityismoreeffectiveforteachingone-for-onewordrecognitionthanthestandarddecontextualised‘sight/wholeword’activity,aslearnersaresupportedbytheirgraspofmeaningsincontext,alongwiththevisualandmanualmodalitiesofpointing,enablingthemtorecognisethewrittenwordsasequivalentexpressionsofthespokenwordstheyalreadyknow.Oncechildrencanpointandsaythewordsaccurately,theteacherguidesthemtocutthesentenceintogroupsofwordsexpressingmeaningsegmentssuchaswhoorwhatitisabout,whattheyaredoing,whereandwhen,andthentocutupindividualwords.Thismanualactivityisenhancedbylearnersmixingupthecardsandre-arrangingthem,firstintotheiroriginalorder,andthenintoalternativeorderstomakenewsentences.ThiscreativeactivityisknownasSentenceMaking.Onlyafterchildrenhaveathoroughgraspofthepatternsofwordingsinthesentence,aretheyguidedtorecogniseandspellthepatternsoflettersthatrealiseeachofitswords.Inthissteptheyareguidedtocutupthewordsintotheirletterpatterns,andtopractisewritingthemonslates(smallwhiteorblackboards).Figure2showsguidedwordrecognitionandguidedspellingactivitieswithPitjantjatjarateachersandstudents.Figure2:Guidingwordrecognitionandguidedspellingactivities

Oncetheycanaccuratelyspelleachword,andformitsletters,theyarethenguidedtowritewholesentencesusingthesewords.Theseactivitiesmayberepeatedwithaseriesofsentencesfromasharedreadingbook,andthenagainwiththenextsharedbook.Inthisway,children’swrittenlanguageresourcesarebuiltupincyclesthatbeginwithengagementandcomprehensionoftextsincontext,followedbymanipulationofwordingsinsentences,followedbypracticewithwritingletterpatternsinwords,andwritingpatternsofwordsinsentences.

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Thegoalisultimatelyforchildrentousetheseresourcestoceatetextsoftheirown.Thisstrategyofbuildingupwrittenresourcesthroughreadingandguidedpracticecontrastswithamorecommonapproachthataskschildrentowritefrompersonalexperiencewhetherornottheyhavedevelopedtheseresources.Texts2and3contrastresultsafterafullyearofstandardearlyyearsliteracyactivities,withresultsforthesamestudentaftertwomonthsoftheReadingtoLearnstrategiesoutlinedabove.Inthe‘pre’samplethechildisonlyabletowriteanameandafewotherwords,whichwereillustratedwithasimplestickfigure.ThischildwouldfallinthebottomYr1-2groupinFigure1.Thepostsampleisacoherentdescriptionofatopictheclasshasbeenstudying.Theaccompanyingillustrationshowedtheseal,theholeintheiceandtheterriblestormsabove.Text2:Outcomeofstandardliteracypracticesinthefirstyearofschool

JohnsimonHe10sogdandhandheHeishappyText3:Outcomewithsamestudentafter2monthsofReadingtoLearn

ThesealisontheiceShehadtogotherbabysomefood.TheyThesealwantthroughaholeintheice.Shedivesdowndeeptogetsomesiqdforthebabysealwaiting.Themummyandthebabygointothewater.Wenterriblestormscometheystayallwinter.Aneffectiveprofessionallearningprogram

ThisbriefoutlineofearlyyearsstrategiesisjustonecomponentoftheReadingtoLearnprofessionallearningprogram.Ondemandfromteachersandschools,theprogramhasgrowntomeettheneedsofearlyyears,primaryandsecondaryteachers,acrosssubjectareas.OthersetsofstrategiesincludePreparingforReading,whichenablesallstudentsinaclasstofollowchallengingtextswithcomprehension;Paragraph-by-paragraphreading,inwhichdensetextsmaybereadandandkeyinformationidentified;DetailedReading,inwhichshortpassagesarereadanddiscussedindetail;JointRewriting,whichguidesstudentstoappropriatethelanguageresourcesofaccomplishedauthors;andJointConstruction,whichguidesstudentstowritewholetextssuccessfully.Theseareallmultimodalactivities,involvingspoken,written,visualandmanualmodalities,aswrittenwordingsareorallydiscussed,andstudentsvisuallyandmanuallyidentifywordingsintextsusinghighlighters,andtaketurnstowriteontheboard.Cruciallytheyarealsowholeclassactivities,inwhichtheteacherguidesallstudentstoidentify,comprehend,discussandwritemeanings,step-by-step.Thestudentsareincontrolforeachtask,buttheteacheristheirauthoritativeguide(Christie2004).Thispracticeaddressesthefundamentalproblemsthatallteachersface:thewiderangeof‘learningabilities’ineveryclassroom,andthelowreadingandwritingskillsofmanystudents.Whereasclassroominteractionsinmostclassroomstypicallyinvolvejustafewtopstudentswhoconsistentlyrespondtoteacherquestions(Nutthal2005,Rose&

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Martin2013),theinteractionsintheseR2Lactivitiesarecarefullydesignedtoengageeverystudentintheclassroomtalk-around-text,byenablingthemtosuccessfullyidentifymeaningsinthetextsbeingread,andproposewordingsinthetextsbeingwritten.Predictably,thispracticehasbeencriticisedfromprogressivist/constructivistpositionsas‘teacher-centred’,buttheaimofReadingtoLearnistodemocratisetheclassroom(Rose2005).Theproblemweseeincurrentclassroomsisnotthepowerdifferencebetweenteacherandstudents,butthehierarchyofsuccessandfailurebetweenstudents.Conclusion

Learningtoreadandwrite,andlearningfromreading,aremultimodalactivitiesthatchildrenofthemostprivilegedgroupsinoursocietyareimmersedinfromtheearliestage,sothattheirtransitionsfromhometoschool,andfromprimarytosecondary,andsecondarytofurthereducationarerelativelysmoothandassured.Theskillsthatteachersaregivenintheirpre-servicetraininggenerallymeshwiththeneedsofthesegroupsofstudents,andensuretheirsuccessfulprogression.Incontrastthesametrainingdoesnotmeettheneedsofnon-middleclassstudentsaseffectively,andoftenbarelyatall,especiallyforIndigenousstudents.Teachersarenottrainedtoteachthesestudentstoreadatthelevelstheyshouldbefortheiragesandgrades,norhowtowritesuccesfullyforassessment,sothattoomanyremaininaloworfailingrangethroughouttheirschoolcareers,affordingthemfewoptionsfortheirlivestocome.Thestate,throughtheofficialrecontextualisingfield,attemptstopressureteacherstoimproveoutcomesbyimposingstandardisedassessmentregimesandcurricula.Indirectlythisputspressureonthepedagogicrecontextualisingfield,thatmaybeexperiencedasconstrainingfreedomandcreativity.Bernsteincontextualisestheseconflictsinastrugglebetweenfractionsoftheglobalmiddleclassforcontrolovertheproduction,reproductionandchangesinformsofconsciousnessthateducationaffords.Literacyisattheheartofthisstruggle,asitistheprimarymodalitythroughwhichthesymbolicresourcesofmoderncultureareacquired.Readingandlearningfromreadingarethemeansbywhichsemioticcapitalisexchangedandaccumulatedintheinstitutionsofmodernity.Familieswholackthiscapitalknowthisevenmorekeenlythanthosewhowerebornintoit.Indigenousfamiliesandcommunitiesknowitonlytoowell,assomanyweredeliberatelyexcludedfromitindaysgoneby.Todaythereisnoneedforopenlyracistpracticesofexclusion,ifteachersdonotknowhowtoteachtheirchildrentoreadandlearnfromreading.ThisisoneformthattherelationshipbetweenIndigenouspeoplesandthecolonisingculturenowtakes.Itcannotsimplybeblamedonthestaterestrictingacademicfreedom,anymorethanitcanbeblamedontheculturalorlinguisticdifferencesofstudents.Surelytheprimaryresponsibilityforteachers’capacitiestomeettheneedsoftheirmostdisadvantagedstudentsmustliewiththoseresponsibleforeducatingteachers.References

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