na..kan (nakan flute) and oral transmission cohesion and musicality

8/18/2019 Na..Kan (Nakan Flute) and Oral Transmission Cohesion and Musicality

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NÅ•kan (NÅ• Flute) and Oral Transmission: Cohesion and Musicalitythrough Mnemonics

Mariko Anno

Asian Theatre Journal, Volume 27, Number 1, Spring 2010, pp. 130-148

(Article)

Published by University of Hawai'i Press

DOI: 10.1353/atj.2010.0009

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Asian Theatre Journal, vol. 27, no. 1 (Spring 2010). © 2010 by University of Hawai‘i Press. All rights reserved.

debut panel paper

N ōkan (N ō Flute) and OralTransmission: Cohesion andMusicality through MnemonicsMariko Anno

The nōkan (n ō flute) is traditionally taught in a mode of oral transmission that involvesmemorization of shōga (mnemonics) . Shōga help bring a nō play to fruition by keepingthe timing and allowing improvisation. This case study discusses the teaching of Iss ō Yukihiro, an Iss ō school performer, arguing that nōkan transmission is changing incontemporary practice by certain masters.

Mariko Anno is a PhD candidate in Musicology at the Tokyo University of the Arts

(Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku), and earned her DMA in Flute Performance and Literaturewith a minor in Ethnomusicology from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Her research focuses on the musical aspects of nō, with an emphasis on the role of thenōkan in traditional and Japanese contemporary nō and English nō. She is a certified Alexander Technique teacher. Her research was supported by the Murata Science Foundation.

Japanese n ō is a comprehensive art form that includes music,drama, literature, and the use of costumes and masks. It was createdmore than six hundred years ago and continues today as a living art

form reflecting the personalities and preferences of individual perform-ers. It is traditionally defined by three fundamental elements: “Talent,ability, [and] skill” (Omote 1978: 61); in addition to these, the “skill ofspecialty that one demonstrates” (Omote 1978: 61) can be applied toall of the varied aspects of n ō . In order to fully understand how its vari-ous components interact with one another, a basic familiarity with allthe elements is crucial.

The n ō kan (n ō flute) is a transverse flute made from a type ofbamboo known as Pleioblastus simonii (Fig. 1). Though traditionally


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Cohesion and Musicality through Mnemonics 131

played in n ō , kabuki, and some shrine festivals, it can now be seen onconcert stages with both traditional and nontraditional ensemblesin experiments and collaborations by n ō kan players. These nontradi-

tional ensembles include jazz groups and orchestras both in Japan andbeyond. Through these experiments and collaborations, the n ō kan hasbeen gaining international attention.

The n ō kan is unlike any other flute in the world. Its distinguish-ing characteristic is a thin bamboo tube called a nodo (throat), whichis approximately eighty millimeters in length and twelve millimetersin diameter, inserted in the flute tube between the mouth hole andthe first finger hole (Fig. 2). This simple, yet significant, tube within atube deliberately distorts the instrument’s natural acoustics, producing

inexplicable sounds that attract some and repel others. Furthermore,because of the insertion of the nodo, there are no “standard” pitches forthe n ō kan because each one differs slightly in length and construction.This does not pose a problem in the musical ensemble because then ō kan plays with three drums—ko-tsuzumi (shoulder drum), ō -tsuzumi(hip drum), taiko (barrel drum)—and is the sole melodic instrument,although it often serves a more essentially rhythmic function.

Figure 1. The n ō kan (n ō flute). (Photo: M. Anno)

Figure 2. The bamboo tube called a nodo (throat) gives the n ō kan a distinctivesound. (Photo: M. Anno)


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The n ō kan is taught using sh ō ga, which are mnemonic devicesthat aid in the memorization of the n ō kan repertoire. Sh ō ga embodythe musical expressions that give rise to individual musicality, prefer-

ences, and variations. They are also used by other Japanese traditionalinstruments, such as hichiriki (double reed wind instrument) and ry ū teki (court flute) played in gagaku (court music).

The n ō kan is an instrument that thrives in its musical context,and it is an integral part of the hayashi (musical ensemble). Its func-tions and musical patterns are intricately interrelated with those of theother instruments, musicians, and performers. Therefore, to compre-hend the fue-kata’s (n ō kan player in n ō ) musical choices in n ō plays, it is

vital to understand the transmission process, where skills and musical

nuances of the n ō

kan are passed down from one generation to the nextthrough the employment of sh ō ga.In this paper, I will introduce sh ō ga by explaining their role in

n ō and the oral transmission process of the n ō kan through a case studyon Issō Yukihiro (b. 1964), a fifteenth-generation Issō school n ō kanplayer. This case study provides evidence of how n ō kan transmission ischanging in contemporary practice by certain masters. Furthermore,it argues that sh ō ga are a central component in bringing a n ō play tofruition by keeping the timing for the ensemble and allowing improvi-sation by the n ō kan player.

Sh ō ga

As mentioned earlier, the n ō kan is taught using sh ō ga, which arealso known as kuchi-sh ō ga, literally translated as “songs to be chanted.”Thus, without a proper master, it is extremely difficult to learn or beginto understand sh ō ga, which are made of combinations of chanted kana ( Japanese syllables) that make up the n ō kan ’s basic musical vocabulary.To the untrained eye (or ear), sh ō ga may seem like a bunch of “non-sense” syllables, but to the trained eye (or ear) they reveal sounds andmelodies with a specific order, as David W. Hughes has shown in his

research (2000: 93–120). Moreover, sh ō ga are used by instructors in cor-recting or leading the student while he or she plays the instrument.

To demonstrate how sh ō ga are chanted, I have taken one exam-ple from the “ground pattern” of the dance, “Chū no Mai” (MediumTempo Dance). This dance is the first piece of music one learns on then ō kan. It contains the basic and essential materials necessary for devel-oping one’s skills and is a commonly used dance for several differentcharacters.

This “ground pattern,” which is also called ji, is a cyclic pattern

reoccurring in all dances. It consists of a four-phrase cycle: ryo (low),ch ū (middle), kan (high), and kan no ch ū (high middle), as seen in


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Figure 3. This is also referred to as the ryo-ch ū -kan keishiki (ryo-ch ū -kanstructure). Figure 4 provides the transcription of the sh ō ga syllables ofthe Ryo-ch ū -kan structure using Roman letters for easier analysis.

As seen in Figure 4, each phrase is divided into eight beats, andprolongation of syllables is marked by a hyphen succeeding it. Whena piece is introduced, these syllables are chanted by the master whilemarking the beats and drum patterns on the hy ō shiban (or hariban, woodblock) struck by hari ō gi (fans used to hit the wood block). An actualmusical example of the chanting and performance of sh ō ga using West-ern staff notation is explained later in my case study.

N ō kan Repertoire

In the present day, when learning the Issō

school n ō

kan rep-ertoire, a student employs two sh ō ga volumes: Iss ō -ry ū sh ō ga-sh ū ( J ō ) (Issō School Sh ō ga Book, First Volume), (Issō Matarokurō 1936a), andIss ō -ry ū sh ō ga-sh ū (Ge) (Issō School Sh ō ga Book, Second Volume), (Issō Matarokurō 1936b). They consist of the essential dance repertoire ofthe n ō plays, using only sh ō ga, which are made of twenty syllables in

Figure 3. Sh ō ga of the “Chū no Mai,” the ryo-ch ū -kan struc-

ture (Issō Matarokurō 1936a: 1, publishing permission givenby Issō Eiji.)


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different combinations. In addition to the two volumes of the Iss ō -ry ū sh ō ga-sh ū , the Iss ō -ry ū fue yubitsuke-sh ū (Iss ō School Flute Fingering Book, Morikawa 1930) is also provided to students to accompany the sh ō ga

books. This yubitsuke-sh ū (fingering chart) has the sh ō ga of the reper-toire on the right-hand side, with the fingerings of each note alongsideit, as seen in Figure 5.

The yubitsuke-sh ū is read by viewing the seven holes for eachnote directly from the player’s angle. The three holes on the left sideof the line represent the first three finger holes below the mouth holeon the n ō kan played by the left hand, and the four holes on the rightside of the line represent the remaining four holes played by the righthand. The filled-in circles indicate closed holes by the fingers using

the fleshy part of the fingers (as opposed to the fingertips), while theempty circles indicate open holes. A circle bisected by a horizontal linerepresents “hitting” the hole, or utsu, which is often used when repeat-ing the same note, although it is specified by another kana (syllable).

This fingering book is most helpful if one is familiar with thesh ō ga of the repertoire, since it is difficult to follow the sh ō ga and finger-ing chart at the same time. Hence, memorization of the basic sh ō ga, with

Figure 4. Sh ō ga of the ryo-ch ū -kan structure of Figure 3 using Roman letters.


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the correct rhythm and syllables, is vital to attain accurate “sh ō ga- finger”coordination, allowing further musical expressions such as sashi-yubi(embellishments) to enhance the mood, ambiance, and other musical

elements during performances.

“Sagariha”: Cohesion through Sh ō ga

I have been a disciple of Issō Yukihiro since October 2005, andhad only performed in lessons or solo settings, or in situations where I

was allowed to lead the group, being the least experienced in n ō perfor-mance in comparison to the experienced players who could follow orsupport my playing. Hence, I had never thought about playing in rela-tion to the characters of the n ō play, as Issō never mentioned anything

about the contents of the plays or dances to me. Also, as a modern fluteplayer, I had been playing the n ō kan repertoire similar to musical com-positions in Western music, standing independently from theatre. How-

Figure 5: Fingering chart for the “Chū

no Mai” (Morikawa 1930: 7). (Publish-ing permission given by Issō Eiji.)


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ever, my perception and understanding of the n ō kan changed when I was preparing for a performance of “Sagariha” (Downward Descent).

“Sagariha” is an instrumental dance music that is played when

heavenly beings descend to earth. It is played when accompanying char-acters from the present world, or gods, with elegance and buoyancyat medium tempo (Nishino and Hata 2006: 309). It is found in eightn ō plays, and, similar to “Chū no Mai,” this piece is learned throughoral transmission. In oral transmission, where the master and discipleface each other and the chanting and performance of sh ō ga take place,there is freedom in musical interpretation and rhythm of the piece, asit is taken out of context. Furthermore, as other instruments are notphysically present, ensembleship (playing as a group) is not the top

priority when learning the individual instrument.In the summer of 2007, my colleague and I were scheduled toplay “Sagariha” together at an amateur n ō kan performance. To preparefor this performance, we arranged a lesson with her ko-tsuzumi master,

where my colleague played ko-tsuzumi and I played n ō kan. First, my colleague and I played the piece without stopping.

After we had played the piece, her master explained to us (mostly tome) the action that was taking place on stage at each section, such asthe shite (main actor) waiting to go on stage behind the curtain, thecurtain opening, the shite moving forward, and so on. He also men-

tioned that I needed to relax more with my playing since I was playingfor the entrance of a drunken figure in the n ō play, Sh ō jo, which repre-sents a Japanese sea spirit who loves sake.

This was the first time anyone had mentioned the theatri-cal aspects occurring on stage to me, and the interaction betweenthe instrumentalists. After the lesson, my colleague mentioned that Ineeded to indicate each beat with a mark of the breath, so she couldhear the beat. This was another surprise to me, as I thought we werekeeping an internal beat together for the piece. However, as I reflect onthis now, I realize that each piece has a jo-ha-ky ū (introduction–break-

ing away/development–rushing to the end) within the piece. Thusas the piece rushes to the end, it was important for us, the ko-tsuzumiand n ō kan, to keep a marked beat together through the use of kakegoe (drum calls) for the drum and breath marks for the n ō kan.

These comments made me realize that the freedom I had learnedin my lessons with Issō was not fully operative. As Issō frequently col-laborates and performs with musicians from different genres, which israre for a professional n ō performer, he tries to bring the instrumentto the forefront of the ensemble. This is true for both traditional n ō

settings, especially in dances and some entrance music, and contem-porary settings.


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Until this lesson, I had perceived the n ō kan more as a solo instru-ment, mainly owing to the influences and activities of my master, butalso because the n ō kan is thought to be both a rhythmic instrument

and the sole melodic instrument in the n ō hayashi musical ensemble.Thus, I was not aware of the other instruments around me. Therefore,learning of the various aspects of n ō , such as the literary, musical, andperformative aspects is vital, as they bring significance and life to thestory and stock musical patterns that seem redundant in plays, and tothe ensembleship that takes place between the instrumentalists anddancers.

Another important aspect of sh ō ga is that they are the gluethat hold the ensemble together. Especially in the dance section, the

dancer(s), chorus, and instrumentalists listen to the n ō

kan and chantthe sh ō ga inside themselves subvocally, similarly to their lessons withtheir masters. Hence, in this comprehensive art form, the n ō perform-ers are aware of each other’s movements, text, musical patterns as theyreceive lessons on all of the aspects of n ō to a certain extent. Especiallyin the oroshi section of dances, which comes after each dan (section),the tempo slows down and the instrumentalists play phrases that areunique to each dance and section. Timing is vital, and each individualdancer or musician must learn the mnemonics and know the musicalpatterns of the instruments—and not only their area of specialty.

This cohesiveness found between the actors and musicians ispossible, even without a director or conductor, because of the overallbackground and knowledge of the n ō gakushi (professional n ō actors).Hence, they are able to have only one m ō shiawase (rehearsal) beforethe actual performance, usually without costumes. They do not go overthe entire n ō play, but only certain sections that the shite or others mayfind necessary. Also, for the dances, it is not necessary to rehearse theentire piece as instructions can be given verbally with the use of sh ō ga,indicating specific sections and details.

Professional n ō performers are content with one rehearsal, as

many of them have performed the n ō plays numerous times, or haveseen the plays multiple times performed by other professionals. More-over, they have trained with their masters countless times so that theirparts are ingrained within them, and the foundation of their knowl-edge has been built during youth, when they begin training.

There are times where certain sections are rehearsed for timingand with props. However, many n ō actors say that they enjoy the spon-taneity. According to an interview with Matsui Akira, a Kita school shite- kata (main actor), he prefers not to rehearse the n ō play too much as it

starts to “lose its energy and improvisational aspects” (Matsui 2009). Itis the “unexpectedness” that many n ō actors seem to enjoy . Thus, as it


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can be seen, sh ō ga not only play a vital role in learning the n ō kan, butalso in keeping the ensemble together.

Richard Emmert, an American n ō scholar and certified Kita

school n ō instructor living in Japan, who is also the director of TheatreNohgaku (an English n ō performance troupe), stated in an e-mail mes-sage to me regarding the role of sh ō ga:

The singing of sh ō ga is of course important for n ō kan players, but actu-ally once they learn to play the piece, it is not really so important forkeeping the piece memorized in their minds. Many amateur playersof n ō kan can play a piece without being able to sing the sh ō ga to thatpiece. For professional players however, singing of sh ō ga can be usedto check timing with the drummers backstage at a performance just

before going on stage when no one will be actually using an instru-ment to go over this timing . . . .

It is perhaps more important as a useful tool or memory aid whenthe flute itself is not being used rather than as a memory aid so theplayers themselves can remember the piece. And that is the case formost of the time when dancers or drummers are learning their partsfor a dance… Thus, it seems to me that the singing of sh ō ga is actuallymore important for dancers and drummers because it allows them topractice without a flute player or recording. And then during an actualperformance, by hearing the sh ō ga in their minds as the flute player

plays, they are also able to maintain their proper timing with the fluteand thus the entire ensemble. (Emmert 2009)

Overall, sh ō ga are more essential for the dancers and drummers in per-formances than for the n ō kan. Hence, this allows for the n ō kan playerto improvise more freely rather than strictly adhering to the writtennotation. This concept of improvisation is explained more clearly inthe following case study on Issō Yukihiro.

Case Study on Issō Yukihiro

As seen in “Sagariha,” sh ō ga are learned by all n ō actors andmusicians and keep the group together, yet also allow for freedom andimprovisation as seen from the following case study of Issō Yukihiro.

Issō Yukihiro, the eldest son of Issō Yukimasa (1929–2004),made his debut on the n ō stage when he was nine years old. Whilefirmly grounded in traditional n ō music, he also performs music ofdifferent genres, has formed his own diverse musical ensembles, andcollaborates with various musicians from around the world. In theseensembles he plays all types of flutes, ranging from Japanese flutes to

Western flutes, including recorders. He won the first prize in the 1981 Asahi Shinbun Japan Recorder Contest.


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Transmission

First, I will explain the traditionally known method of oral trans-

mission of the n ō kan to gain a better understanding of the learning pro-cess. The n ō kan is taught one-on-one with the master sitting in front ofthe disciple. David W. Hughes (2000), an ethnomusicologist, describeshis n ō kan lessons with the late Fujita Daigorō (1915 –2008), a HumanNational Treasure who passed away last year. The lessons describedhere reflect the traditional way of teaching n ō kan.

Hughes explains that in his first lesson, even though he hadbrought a n ō flute with him and showed it to Fujita, Fujita just lookedat it, commented on it, and returned it to him. Then, they chanted the

“ground pattern” of “Chū

no Mai” (as in Fig. 3), for the remainder ofthe lesson.In the second lesson, after Fujita was certain that Hughes had

memorized the four lines, he handed Hughes a folded Japanese fan.Fujita, too, had a similar fan and asked Hughes to imitate his fingermovements and sing the mnemonics. At the third lesson, Hughes prac-ticed the fingerings on the actual instrument, instead of the fan, andsang the mnemonics. Finally during the fourth lesson, Hughes was per-mitted to play his n ō kan. He also mentions that during these weeks, histeacher never once picked up his instrument, nor presented any type

of written notation. About this experience, Hughes states: “Playing the flute for that

first time, ‘thinking’ the mnemonics as I did so, the melody seemed tocome out naturally . . . . The fingers knew where to go, and the syllablescontinued to course through my mind. The pitches and intervals weredoubtless different, since we had never sung at any specific pitch. . . .But I felt a very close identity between what we had sung and what I wasnow playing” (Hughes 2000: 95–96). This extended period of training,

which precedes playing the instrument, is a common experience amongn ō kan students, who have studied from masters other than Issō.1

I have been a disciple of Issō’s since 2005, but my training expe-riences have differed significantly from the way n ō kan is traditionallytaught. I have never felt “a very close identity” between sh ō ga and themelody played as Hughes did, which is mainly because of how sh ō ga areused in Issō’s teaching. I have never learned or chanted sh ō ga in my les-sons with him. Furthermore, he does not normally chant sh ō ga to teachme the music, unless I request him to do so.

It takes an average of three lessons for Issō to teach me a newpiece. In the first lesson in which a new piece is introduced, Issō plays

the entire piece on the n ō

kan including embellishments. I record thelesson. In the days between the first and second lesson, I listen to the


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recording over and over again, until I can distinguish the sh ō ga syl-lables from his embellishments. I identify his marked breaths, ends ofphrases, accents, inflections, and musical nuances, which are usually

taught by the master through the chanting of sh ō ga, as Morita Tokihas demonstrated in her research (2006). Then, I listen to recordingsthat include the other instruments of the hayashi ensemble to gain anunderstanding of what other instruments are playing, especially duringparts where intricate ensembleship is necessary.

At the second lesson, I play the entire piece by memory, includ-ing sashi-yubi (embellishments) and other ornaments that I figure outon my own. While playing the piece, Issō at times sings the sh ō ga toslow down or pick up the tempo, correct my playing, and prompt me

where I had forgotten the musical line. After I finish playing the entirepiece, he corrects my playing by directing me to sections using sh ō ga,demonstrating it not by oral recitation of the syllables, but by playingthe phrase on the n ō kan.

During the second lesson, I ask Issō to show me his fingering forthe embellishments that I was not able to figure out on my own. Thisis because he creates new n ō kan techniques that include elaborate andmodern flute techniques. He slowly plays the passage and shows me thefingerings until I understand them. Then, at the following lesson, I playthe entire piece with the ornaments. It is also important to note that

Issō discouraged me from playing ornaments during the first couple ofmonths until he thought I had a firm grounding in n ō kan.

Issō’s method of teaching allowed me to learn the major n ō kanpieces within a short period of time and play the instrument morequickly, rather than memorizing sh ō ga. At one of my lessons, I had askedhim why he does not teach me sh ō ga as he does with some of his otherdisciples. He replied that since I am able to learn and figure out thefingers, notes, passages, and embellishments by listening to the music,due to my musical background and knowledge of transverse flutes, hedid not find it necessary to take the time to teach me the sh ō ga.

However, the disadvantage of this teaching method is that enor-mous effort was and continues to be necessary on my part, because Iam forced to memorize the sh ō ga on my own without any idea how tosing them properly. I must imagine them from my lesson recordings.For example, when I watch students learn the dance “Chū no Mai” intheir shimai (dance) or ko-tsuzumi lessons, I hear myself following themusic with my fingers, singing the n ō kan melody in my head, but notthe sh ō ga. Thus, this shows that I had memorized the n ō kan repertoiremostly by ear, and my fingers remember the movements on the n ō kan.

This transmission process may be considered as aural (per-ceived by the ear) transmission of the n ō kan repertoire, as opposed to


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oral (pertaining to the mouth) transmission of sh ō ga. Oral transmissionis a vital part of transmission in Japanese traditional music. David W.Hughes states that “such systems [such as oral transmission] depend

for their effectiveness upon their orality: to fully experience the impactof the syllables, one must sing or recite them, preferably aloud but atleast in one’s head” (2000: 94).

However, in a private lesson at my university in 2007, I observedIssō instructing an ō -tsuzumi (hip drum) student to sing the sh ō ga ofthe dance “Sagariha.” The ō -tsuzumi student had been singing the sh ō gain a monotone voice, and Issō asked him to sing them according tothe n ō kan pitches. Since the student did not understand Issō’s instruc-tions, he continued to sing in a monotone voice, to which Issō asked a

n ō

kan student to play “Sagariha” on the n ō

kan while the student sangthe sh ō ga. Again, the ō -tsuzumi student continued to sing in a monotone

voice, ignoring (although not deliberately) the sounds produced bythe n ō kan. Issō stopped the student and demonstrated what he meantby singing the sh ō ga in pitch with the n ō kan. On his second attempt,the ō -tsuzumi student’s singing was unstable at first, while he searchedfor the pitches. Once he found the right pitches, he sang in completeunison with the n ō kan.

This must have been the ō -tsuzumi student’s first time being

asked to sing sh ō ga in relation to the n ō kan pitches, as most teachersdo not make such demands, or emphasize singing in pitch. This lessonattests to Issō’s sensitivity to the sound and colors of the n ō kan. Thisexample also shows that Issō does on occasion make some studentssing sh ō ga.

S H Ō GA Singing and Performance by Issō Yukihiro

Issō’s musicality and sh ō ga singing reflect his individual prefer-ences on tone and color, as demonstrated by the following two Westernstaff musical transcriptions. The two transcriptions are Issō’s singing

and performance of the “ground pattern” of the “Chū no Mai,” whichI introduced in the beginning of my paper. Figure 6 shows Issō’s sing-ing of the sh ō ga of the “ground pattern” (Issō Yukihiro 2006a). Figure 7shows a performance of the pattern played with a n ō kan (Issō Yukihiro2006b).2

Examining Issō’s two transcriptions, two points are evident: (1)he pays special attention to the pitches and intervals between the notes

when singing sh ō ga, and sings according to his n ō kan pitches; and (2)he uses sashi-yubi embellishment, which is an integral characteristic of

n ō

kan playing.First, his singing of sh ō ga in Figure 6, with pitches identical to


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his n ō kan pitches in Figure 7, clearly reflects his emphasis on timbre,colors, and sounds produced by the n ō kan. This also demonstratesthat sh ō ga singing reflects the actual performance style of the player,

as there are various ways of singing sh ō ga; for example, there are n ō kanmasters who sing in a monotone voice, or with little inflection. Oth-ers sing with inflections and pitches, taking into account the differ-

Figure 6. Transcription of singing sh ō ga from the ground pattern of the “Chū no Mai” by Issō Yukihiro (A = 440 Hz; written one octave higher than actualpitch for easier analysis). In Western music, the notational practice is to placethe quarter-tones and micro-tones to the left of the note, before the accidental(if present), as seen in Ben Johnston’s (b. 1926) works. For these transcrip-

tions, the notational practice from N ō gaku hayashi taikei (Gamō et al. 1973) isfollowed. (Transcription: M. Anno)


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ent intervals between the notes, but not necessarily in relation to theirn ō kan pitches. Still others, like Issō, match their sung sh ō ga pitches withthose played by their n ō kan.

The similarities of these transcriptions are not by chance; Issō uses the n ō kan ’s timbre, color, and sound, such as the brightness ordarkness of the instrument, to produce images most appropriate forthe scene in the n ō plays and enhance the ambiance on stage. This canbe demonstrated by analyzing his performances in traditional n ō plays.

For example, on 27 April 2006,3 Issō played a su-bayashi (instru-ments-only musical ensemble) of “Shishi” (Lion Dance) from the n ō

Figure 7. Transcription of performance from the ground pattern of the “Chū

no Mai” by Issō Yukihiro. (A = 440 Hz; actual n ō kan pitches are an octavehigher than the written pitches. Transcription: M. Anno)


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play Shakky ō (Stone Bridge). This su-bayashi, played by the four instru-ments, is dance music for the shishi, which is an auspicious, mythicalChinese “animal” or lion that reigns over all creatures (Gondō 2003:

130). In this animated and energetic dance, Issō’s use of embellish-ments and various other traditional and nontraditional techniques suchas meri-kari (adjustment of the pitch by rolling the mouth hole in andout, changing the angle of the air hitting the mouth hole) and fukikomi (an instantaneous burst of fast, strong air blown through the instru-ment, causing a shakuhachi -like white noise) were widespread. Alsoevident were techniques usually seen in modern flute playing, such ascircular breathing, cross-fingerings, and half-holing. In addition, newn ō kan techniques created by Issō himself were frequently used to bend

the pitches of the n ō

kan, which he calls “sliding benders” and “pitchbenders.” Moreover, his high notes were most piercing, since he playeda high-pitched n ō kan to reflect the excitement of the dance.

On the same day, the n ō play Teika was staged. Teika is a third-category play, full of weight and seriousness. It is a love story betweenFujiwara no Teika (Sadaie) and Shikishi Naishin nō. After their deaths,Teika becomes the vines encircling Shikishi’s tomb, and her ghost con-tinues to burn with passion for him. To express and support the story ofthis n ō play, Issō played a somber and darker colored n ō kan to portraythe gravity of the plot, with little use of embellishments.

The description of the n ō kan sounds are not representative ofthe tonal scales produced by the instrument, but of the color of thesounds produced, such as brightness or darkness. These differ accord-ing to each n ō kan because of the construction of the mouthpiece, body,and other varying factors.

In this way, Issō’s sensitivity to the sound and colors of the n ō kan,enhanced by his background in traditional and nontraditional Japa-nese music, is evident in his singing of the sh ō ga. I would argue thatIssō’s background in Western music and experience playing in ensem-ble contexts with other melodic instruments (where more precise into-

nation is a necessity) explains why there is such a close match of eachpitch in his singing of the sh ō ga and his playing of the same passages onthe n ō kan. It is rare to find a fue-kata (flutist) whose singing and perfor-mance matches so closely.

The second point illustrated in Isso’s transcriptions is the addi-tion of sashi-yubi embellishments on musical lines is prominent in theperformance transcription. This sort of embellishment is a commonperformance technique of the n ō kan, with detailed finger movementsand semi-improvisatory embellishments (Gamō 1989: 116). This orna-

mental technique, more intricate than the ry ū

teki court flute, gives varia-tions to the sound by (1) covering half the finger hole (or half-holing);


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(2) altering the angle of the lips (or air) on one note and changing thepitch; (3) instantly closing and opening an uncovered hole; and (4)instantly opening and closing a covered hole, also known as utsu (to

hit) (Yokomichi 1989: 324). All of the subtleties of these performancetechniques cannot be accurately transcribed on paper but need to beheard aurally.

Without going into further detailed musical analysis, it can beconcluded that Issō’s personal style and personal choices are apparentthrough his characteristic use of sashi-yubi to heighten the emotionalstate on stage. As mentioned earlier, Issō’s excessive use of sashi-yubiduring the performance of Shishi to sustain the lively mood of the play,as well as his minimal use of sashi-yubi to portray the gravity of the scene

in Teika, was effective.N ō kan players have individual styles of embellishments. By usingthese ornaments, the n ō kan player displays his or her interpretation ofthe n ō play, heightens the emotions on stage by coloring the scene, andshows creativity through the use of various n ō kan techniques and use ofn ō kan timbre and color. These embellishments are personal and distin-guish one player from another. The master does usually not teach themto the disciple; instead, the disciple must “steal” them through carefulobservation and listening to the master.

This type of coloring or creating the scene by the n ō kan has been

seen since Zeami’s time. According to Zeami’s Shud ō sho (Writings onthe Way of Learning), the flutist plays melodies by paralleling the sing-er’s pitches and movements while coloring the scenes (Takakuwa 2003:50-51; Omote and Kato 1974: 237). Therefore, the n ō kan player sup-ports and enhances the movements on stage, which influences—one

would surmise—the performance and ambiance on stage. This con-tinues to be true today, and when the shite-kata is able to find a n ō kanplayer who can complement his or her movements, dance, and modeof expression, an artistically strong and emotionally sensitive stage isproduced for the performers and audience.

The flute is an extension of the voice, as my K ō school ko-tsuzumi master, Sowa Masahiro (b. 1948), explains in relation to hina-matsuri dolls (Sowa 2007). Hina-matsuri, which is translated as the Doll Festi-

val, or Girls’ Day, is held annually on the third of March, to pray forthe girls’ growth and happiness. A platform is covered with red clothcalled hina-m ō sen, and the first tier is occupied by the emperor andempress dolls. Two tiers down from them are the five musician dollsknown as the gonin-bayashi (five musicians). Beginning from the right,the musicians are the utai (chant[er]), fue (flute), ko-tsuzumi, ō -tsu-

zumi, and taiko drums. The ensemble is ver y similar both in terms ofinstrumentation and in arrangement to the n ō gaku-bayashi n ō musical


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146 Anno

ensemble. According to Sowa, this order is very important, for the utai (chant[er]) sings using his body, specifically his voice, which comes outof his mouth. Next, the fue uses his mouth and fingers to play the instru-

ment, but the main source for the sound production is still from themouth. To the left of the fue is the ko-tsuzumi drum, which is placed onthe right shoulder, held by the left hand, and struck with the right hand.Thus, the sound is produced farther away from the mouth and body.The ō -tsuzumi drum is placed near the left hip, held by the left hand,and struck with the right hand. Finally, the taiko is placed on a stand andplayed with two sticks called bachi, without direct contact by the player.

As the instrumentalists are seated farther away from the singer,the techniques used to produce sound likewise move farther away from

the voice and body. Thus, Sowa hypothesizes that the fue, situated nextto the utai, is probably most like the human voice. Its main source ofsound production is from the mouth, and a “throat” (nodo) was possiblyinserted to give it a more humanlike quality. Thus, the n ō kan often par-allels the function of the utai when creating and coloring the scene.

Conclusion

It is through oral transmission that these “nonsense” syllablestake life and convey the musical interpretation and other complexnuances to the disciples. By means of sh ō ga, many unwritten and unspo-

ken musical aspects are revealed, opening a new world of music in play-ing the n ō kan. However, in Issō’s “aural transmission,” he instills withinthe students the sounds of the n ō kan, and uses sh ō ga to correct andinstruct the students, and does not use them as a basis of his teaching.

If transmitted orally, they can reveal secret techniques of the mas-ter, such as embellishments, and interpretation of the text and move-ments on stage. However, Issō’s transmission is at times unique, whenhe considers the background and musicality of the disciples, allowingsome of his disciples to access his techniques and musical interpreta-tion through his creative teaching style.

Issō’s teaching style allows some students to excel quickly, but without a firm foundation in sh ō ga, they may depend heavily on theirears and finger memory in performances as well as technology (record-ing) to learn. This type of teaching is facilitated by the use of mod-ern technology and available audio and visual compendia. Hence, it isimportant to realize that Issō’s performance and teaching have shapedand will continue to affect his disciples’ playing and understanding ofsh ō ga, which may impact and change the future performances of n ō .N ō kan teaching, as well as all aspects of n ō , is a living art form and con-

tinues to change with the times.


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Furthermore, while sh ō ga enable the transmission of musicalityfrom the master to the disciple, they also act as an adhesive by keepingthe ensemble together in a performance. They allow communication

and formation of a common language within the performance group,and the ability to bring the group together for just one rehearsal with-out appointing a director or conductor. It is the knowledge of sh ō ga thatreveals the secrets of this comprehensive theatre imbued with music,theatre, and literature.

NOTES

1. I am a graduate student in Musicology at the Tokyo University of

the Arts. In addition to my musicology courses, I have been allowed to takeprivate lessons on the n ō instruments. This opportunity has enabled me toform a relationship with the students studying n ō and watch their lessons.

2. Readers are reminded that the actual pitches of the n ō kan soundan octave higher than the written pitches, and the notes that fall betweenpitches (i.e., quarter-tones, micro-tones) are indicated with upward or downward arrows to the right side of the pitch, following the pattern from N ō gakuhayashi taikei (Gamō et al. 1973). Where I found the note higher or lower thana quarter-tone, I have indicated this with a double arrow. Moreover, I havetranscribed the embellishments of Issō with upward stems, with slashes run-

ning through them. In addition, the transcription of Issō

’s singing of sh ō

ga isan octave higher than his actual singing. For easier comparison, I have tran-scribed his voice in treble clef, making it the same octave as the written n ō kan. This is not unusual, since the n ō kan does not have a standard or absolute pitch,allowing the n ō kan player to sing the sh ō ga at any comfortable pitch level.

3. Yukihiro, Mansai, Hirotada: N ō gaku genzai-kei ( Yukihiro, Mansai, Hiro-tada: N ō gaku Today), performed by Issō Yukihiro, Nomura Mansai, Kamei Hiro-tada, Hōshō Nōgaku-do, Tokyo, Japan on 27 April 2006 (Issō Yukihiro 2006b).

REFERENCES

Emmert, Richard. 2009. Personal e-mail, August 2.Gamō Satoaki. 1989. “Sashi-yubi.” In Nihon ongaku daijiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese Music).

Supervised by Hirano Kenji, Kamisangō Y ūsuke, and Gamō Satoaki.Tokyo: Heibonsha.

Gamō Satoaki, Hata Hisashi, Nishino Haruo, and Matsumoto Yasushi. 1973. N ō gaku hayashi taikei (System of N ō gaku Musical Ensemble). Records

and Record Booklet, supervised by Komparu Sōemon and Masuda

Shō

zō

. Tokyo: Victor.


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148 Anno

Gondō Yoshikazu. 2003. N ō gaku tech ō (N ō gaku Notebook). Tokyo: Nōgaku Shorin.Hughes, David W. 2000.

“No Nonsense: The Logic and Power of Acoustic-Iconic MnemonicSystems.” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 9 (2): 93–120.

Issō Matarokurō. 1936a. Iss ō -ry ū sh ō ga-sh ū ( J ō -maki) (Issō School Sh ō ga Book [Top Volume]).

Tokyo: Wanya Shoten.———. 1936b. Iss ō -ry ū sh ō ga-sh ū (Ge-maki) (Issō School Sh ō ga Book [Bottom Volume]).

Tokyo: Wanya Shoten.Issō Yukihiro. 2006a. Mini-disc sound recording by author. Tokyo University of the Arts,

Tokyo, Japan, 12 October.———. 2006b. Yukihiro, Mansai, Hirotada: N ō gaku Genzai-kei ( Yukihiro, Mansai, Hiro-

tada: N ō gaku Today) [Performance]. Hōshō Nōgaku-dō, Tokyo, Japan,27 April.

Matsui Akira. 2009. Personal interview by Judy Halebsky and Mariko Anno, Tokyo, Japan,

23 May.Morikawa Sōkichi, ed. 1930. Iss ō -ry ū fue yubitsuke-sh ū (Issō School Fingering Book). Tokyo: Wanya

Shoten.

Morita Toki. 2006. “Nōkan no ongaku-gihō kenky ū: Shōga kara mita tay ōsē” (A Study of

N ō kan Musical Techniques: Analysis of Sh ō ga and Its Changes throughHistory). PhD diss., Tokyo University of the Arts.

Nishino Haruo and Hata Hisashi, eds. 2006. N ō -Ky ō gen jiten (N ō -Ky ō gen Encyclopedia). New Revised Edition. Tokyo:

Heibonsha.Omote Akira. 1978. “Nō no rekishi (The History of N ō ).” Edited by Takahashi Y ō ji. Betsu-

satsu taiy ō 25 (Winter): 61–77.

Omote Akira and Kato Shū

ichi. 1974. Zeami Zenchiku. Nihon shisō taikei 24. Tokyo: Iwanami.Sowa Masahiro 2007. Personal interview. Tokyo, 1 July.Takakuwa Izumi. 2003. N ō no hayashi to enshutsu (N ō Musical Ensemble to Production). Tokyo:

Ongaku no Tomosha. Yokomichi Mario. 1989. “Nōkan.” In Nihon ongaku daijiten (Encyclopedia of Japanese Music).

Supervised by Hirano Kenji, Kamisangō Y ūsuke, and Gamō Satoaki.Tokyo: Heibonsha.

na..kan (nakan flute) and oral transmission cohesion and musicality

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