NATURE OF NATURE OF ARGUMENTARGUMENT

What is argument?What is argument?

Monty Python Monty Python sketch: “I’d like to sketch: “I’d like to have an argument”have an argument”

definitiondefinition

““Argumentation is a form of instrumental Argumentation is a form of instrumental communication relying on reasoning and communication relying on reasoning and proof to influence belief or behavior proof to influence belief or behavior through the use of spoken or written through the use of spoken or written messages” (Rybacki & Rybacki, 2008, p. messages” (Rybacki & Rybacki, 2008, p. 3).3).

“…“…a form of instrumental a form of instrumental communication…”communication…”

arguing is usually a arguing is usually a means to an endmeans to an end, , not the end itselfnot the end itself

other types of interactions have other types of interactions have terminal value, e.g., the conversation terminal value, e.g., the conversation isis the goal.the goal.

“…“…relying on reasoning relying on reasoning and proof…”and proof…”

the essence of argument is the essence of argument is reason-givingreason-giving

an arguer can’t simply make an an arguer can’t simply make an assertion; she or he must offer a assertion; she or he must offer a reason or proofreason or proof

“…“…to influence belief or to influence belief or behavior…”behavior…”

arguing is a form of influence or arguing is a form of influence or persuasion persuasion

emphasis is on emphasis is on rationalrational rather than rather than emotional appealsemotional appeals

emphasis is on emphasis is on centralcentral rather than rather than peripheral processingperipheral processing

central versus peripheral central versus peripheral processingprocessing Central processing: Central processing:

actively thinking about actively thinking about ideas and processing ideas and processing available informationavailable information reflective, analytical reflective, analytical

decision makingdecision making reading product reviewsreading product reviews looking up consumer looking up consumer

ratingsratings seeking out objective, seeking out objective,

expert opinionsexpert opinions

Peripheral processing: Peripheral processing: using mental shortcuts, using mental shortcuts, “heuristic” cues.“heuristic” cues. habitual, reflexive habitual, reflexive

decision makingdecision making relying on celebrity relying on celebrity

endorsementsendorsements giving in to brand giving in to brand

loyaltyloyalty basing a decision on basing a decision on

“bells and whistles”“bells and whistles”

focus is on disagreementfocus is on disagreement

Arguing focuses on Arguing focuses on disagreement, disagreement, controversycontroversy people usually only argue people usually only argue

if one of them is uncertain if one of them is uncertain of the outcomeof the outcome

if a conclusion is certain, if a conclusion is certain, inescapable, there is no inescapable, there is no need to argueneed to argue

argument is audience-argument is audience-centeredcentered

arguing is audience-centeredarguing is audience-centered we fashion arguments with specific listeners we fashion arguments with specific listeners

in mindin mind effective arguments are geared to the effective arguments are geared to the

receiver’s frame of referencereceiver’s frame of reference an argument that appeals to one audience an argument that appeals to one audience

may not appeal to anothermay not appeal to another

argumentation is argumentation is probabilisticprobabilistic

arguing is always “iffy” because there arguing is always “iffy” because there is no guarantee the other person(s) will is no guarantee the other person(s) will agreeagree

in argument, success is usually a in argument, success is usually a matter of degreematter of degree

the other person might convince us the other person might convince us insteadinstead

argument is rule-argument is rule-governedgoverned

Conventions for arguing Conventions for arguing are based on formal and are based on formal and informal rulesinformal rules formal rules in legal formal rules in legal

argument: admissibility of argument: admissibility of evidence, exclusionary ruleevidence, exclusionary rule

formal rules in social formal rules in social science argument: p < .05 science argument: p < .05 level of significance, scale level of significance, scale reliability, replicationreliability, replication

NFL challenges and instant NFL challenges and instant replayreplay

Informal rules in Informal rules in everyday argumenteveryday argument turn-taking, turn-taking,

interruptionsinterruptions fairnessfairness requirements for requirements for

evidenceevidence ad hominem ad hominem

attacksattacks availability availability

conditioncondition

Rhetorical perspective:Rhetorical perspective: views arguments as being audience-views arguments as being audience-

centeredcentered arguing is strategic: arguments must be arguing is strategic: arguments must be

adapted to the listener’s frame of referenceadapted to the listener’s frame of reference

• standards for evaluating arguments are standards for evaluating arguments are person-specific, situation dependentperson-specific, situation dependent

Three perspectives of Three perspectives of argumentargument

Three perspectives-Three perspectives-continuedcontinued

Dialectical perspective:Dialectical perspective: views argument as a back and forth, give and views argument as a back and forth, give and

take processtake process arguments are multilateral, they evolve, change, arguments are multilateral, they evolve, change,

and develop over timeand develop over time involves testing arguments in the “marketplace involves testing arguments in the “marketplace

of ideas,” assumes the strongest arguments will of ideas,” assumes the strongest arguments will prevailprevail

Three perspectivesThree perspectives

Logical perspective:Logical perspective: presumes there are objective, universal presumes there are objective, universal

standards for evaluating argumentsstandards for evaluating arguments arguments are unilateral, complete, self-arguments are unilateral, complete, self-

containedcontained based upon formal logic, standards for based upon formal logic, standards for

determining validity/invaliditydetermining validity/invalidity

Ethical standards for Ethical standards for argumentargument

Teleological ethics: focuses on Teleological ethics: focuses on consequencesconsequences the outcome is what mattersthe outcome is what matters

greatest good for the greatest numbergreatest good for the greatest number

example: lying is sometimes necessary example: lying is sometimes necessary and even desirable, abortion is justified and even desirable, abortion is justified under certain circumstancesunder certain circumstances

Ethical standards for Ethical standards for argumentargument

Deontological ethics: based on moral Deontological ethics: based on moral absolutesabsolutes

principles don’t change due to situations, principles don’t change due to situations, circumstancescircumstances

based on a priori moral standardsbased on a priori moral standards

example: torture is morally wrong, abortion is example: torture is morally wrong, abortion is murder, eating meat is immoralmurder, eating meat is immoral

Ethical standards for Ethical standards for arguingarguing

Clarity:Clarity: making arguments clear and making arguments clear and concise, avoiding purposeful ambiguityconcise, avoiding purposeful ambiguity

Honesty:Honesty: being candid, not relying on being candid, not relying on deceit, distortion, misrepresentationdeceit, distortion, misrepresentation

Efficiency:Efficiency: involving the audience, making involving the audience, making the form and content of the argument the form and content of the argument effectiveeffective

Relevance:Relevance: adapting arguments to the adapting arguments to the listener’s frame of referencelistener’s frame of reference

Pro-social view of Pro-social view of argumentargument

Arguing is a key ingredient in decision Arguing is a key ingredient in decision making and problem solvingmaking and problem solving

Arguing gets issues out in the open; lets Arguing gets issues out in the open; lets people know where they standpeople know where they stand

Arguing is a peaceful means of conflict Arguing is a peaceful means of conflict resolutionresolution