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Roger Pielke, Sr.,Department of Atmospheric Science,Fort Collins,CO 80523,USA.E-mail: pielkesr@gmail.com

KeywordsAtmospheric flows, Coastal breezes, Coastal thunderstorms, Land breezes, Mesoscale circulations, Mesoscale flows, Sea breezes, Windcirculations

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Title: ATM2Article Title/Article ID: Land and Sea Breezes/00199

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[AU1] Please provide the university name for the affiliation.

[AU2] Reference ‘Defant (1951)’ is cited in the text but not listed in the reference list. Pleasecheck.

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[AU4] Can you please verify the article title ‘Coastal Meteorology’ listed in ‘see also’ sectionand provide appropriate ones so that this appears the contents of this publication.

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a0005 Land and Sea BreezesR Pielke, Sr., Fort Collins, CO, USAAU1

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Synopsis

abspara0010 The physics of land and sea breezes are presented. This includes how they develop in calm conditions and the effect on thesemesoscale wind circulations under larger scale wind flow. This article discusses, for example, how light offshore large-scaleflow at the coast can amplify the magnitude of low wind convergence associated with a sea breeze, while a stronger wind canprevent the sea breeze from even developing. The reason that the land breeze is a shallower atmospheric feature is presented.

p0010 Of all mesoscale phenomena, sea and land breezes have beenthe most studied, both observationally and theoretically. Thisis undoubtedly a result of the geographically fixed nature ofthese phenomena (the location of land–water boundaries) aswell as the repetitive nature of the event. The sea breeze isdefined as occurring when the wind is onshore, whereas theland breeze occurs when the opposite flow exists. Detaileddiscussion of sea and land breezes is given in Simpson (1994,2007), with briefer discussions in Pielke (1984, 2000), Lin(2007), and Atkinson (1981). Sea and land breezes that occurin association with larger lakes are called lake and land breezes(e.g., Neumann and Mahrer, 1975). The leading edge of the seabreeze winds is called the sea breeze front. The first numericalmodel of the sea breeze was completed by Estoque (1961).

p0015 During the case of calm large-scale winds and in flat terrain,it is comparatively easy to describe the diurnal variations of thecoastal wind circulations. Defant (1951) presentedAU2 an excellentqualitative description for this condition, which is illustrated inFigure 1. The idealized sequence of events is as follows:

o0010 1. At some time in the early morning, the pressure surfacesbecome flat and no winds occur (e.g., at 0800 LST – perhapsan hour after sunrise).

o00152. Later in the morning, mass is mixed upward over land byturbulent mixing in the unstably stratified boundary layeras well as due to the expansion of the volume of air due toits heating, creating an offshore pressure gradient at somedistance above the ground (Tijm and van Delden, 1999;Nicholls and Pielke, 1994). Over water, the penetration ofsunlight and resultant distribution of radiative heatingwith depth and the ability of water to mix minimizesignificant heating of the surface (e.g., at 1100 LST). Thetemperature of the water is not important in determiningthe strength of the sea breeze, as long as the air above iswarmer than the water.

o00203. The resultant offshore movement of air above theground near the coast creates a low-pressure region at theground, and onshore winds (the sea breeze) develop(e.g., at 1300 LST).

o00254. The onshore winds transport cooler marine air over theland, thereby advecting the horizontal temperature gradientand, hence, the sea breeze inland. The distance the seabreeze travels inland depends most directly on the intensityof the total heat input to the air AU3(Pearson, 1973; Tijm et al.,1999; Neumann, 1977) and the latitude (Rotunno, 1983)(e.g., at 1600 LST).

f0010Figure 1 Schematic of the diurnal evolution of the sea and land breeze in the absence of synoptic flow. Reproduced from Pielke Sr., R.A., 1984.Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, second ed. Academic Press, p. 676.

Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences 2nd Edition, Volume n http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382225-3.00199-7 1

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o0030 5. As the sun sets, longwave radiational cooling becomesdominant over solar heating, and the local wind fieldremoves the horizontal temperature gradient. The pressuresurfaces again become horizontal (e.g., at 1900 LST).

o0035 6. As longwave cooling continues and compresses, the airnear the ground becomes denser and sinks. The resultantlowering of the pressure surfaces a short distance abovethe ground creates an onshore wind at that level (e.g., at2200 LST).

o0040 7. In response to the loss of mass above the surface over thewater, a pressure minimum develops at the ocean interfaceimmediately off the coast. The offshore wind that thendevelops near the surface is called the land breeze (e.g., at0100 LST).

o0045 8. The distance of offshore penetration of the land breezedepends on the amount of cooling over the land. Becausethe planetary boundary layer over land is stably stratified atnight and, therefore, vertical mixing is weaker and closer tothe ground, the land breeze is a shallower and weakerphenomenon than the daytime sea breeze.

p0060 There may even be a third, higher layer of flow associatedwith these local winds, which Tijm et al. (1999) refer to asa ‘return–return current’.

p0065 When the coastline is irregular, local regions of enhanced orweakened low-level convergence develop, as illustrated for thedaytime portion of the cycle in Figure 2. (Such zones of pref-erential convergence help explain the frequency of showers andthunderstorms in certain locations in south Florida during thesummer, as seen, for example, in Figure 3 and discussed inPielke et al., 1991.)

f0015Figure 2 Schematic of the influence of the coastline configuration ona sea breeze in the absence of large-scale flow. Reproduced from PielkeSr., R.A., 1984. Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, second ed.Academic Press, p. 676.

f0020 Figure 3 Radar echo coverage at 1501 EST 19 August 1971 as seen by the Miami WSR-57 10 cm radar. Reproduced from Pielke Sr., R.A., 1974.A three-dimensional numerical model of the sea breezes over south Florida. Mon. Weather Rev. 102, 115–139.

2 Land and Sea Breezes

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p0070 The evolution of the sea breeze is somewhat morecomplicated when a weak or moderate (i.e., e�6 m s�1) pre-vailing synoptic flow is included. For the two distinct situationsof comparatively cold water and comparatively warm waterrelative to land, a synoptic wind direction from the colder tothe warmer surface weakens the intensity of the local wind bydiminishing the horizontal temperature gradient. By contrast,when a prevailing larger scale flow of the same strength is fromthe warmer to the colder surface, if the synoptic wind speed isnot too strong, the temperature gradient is strengthened andthe subsequent local wind flow is stronger. An example of thiseffect is shown in Figures 4 and 5, where the sea breeze windconvergence is more clearly evident when the large-scale windis in the opposing direction from the sea breeze altered flow.

p0075 Examples of water that is warm relative to the landinclude the eastern sides of continents in the tropics andmidlatitudes at night and over coastal waters during a polaroutbreak. Situations with water that is cold relative to theadjacent land include the eastern sides of continents in thetropics and midlatitudes during sunny days, along the west

side of continents in which upwelling is occurring, as well asalong polar coastal areas in the summer. Fog and low stratusoften form over the relatively cold water in polar andupwelling ocean areas and move onshore associated with thesea breeze.

p0080The magnitude of the effect of a particular horizontaltemperature gradient can be estimated from existing observa-tional and numerical studies. It has been found that, in thetropics and midlatitudes, a horizontal gradient of less thanabout 10Wm�2 per 30 km has only a minor influence on localwind patterns. With a gradient of 100 W m�2 per 30 km,however, significant effects are discernible from the statisticalevaluation of observational data, whereas at 1000 W m�2 per30 km, the influence on local wind patterns is very pronouncedin case-by-case studies. With a nonzero large-scale wind, theheatingmust be greater inorder for a sea breeze todevelop.Usingobservational data, it has been shown that a sea breeze does notdevelop when the horizontal pressure gradient generated by thedifferential heating between land and adjacent water is insuffi-cient to overcome the kinetic energy of the large-scale flow.

f0025Figure 4 Horizontal wind at the 50 m level, 3, 5, 8, and 10 h after a simulated sunrise for a uniform synoptic southeast wind case over south Florida.Note how the shower pattern in Figure 3 closely corresponds to the shower pattern in Figure 3.AU5 Reproduced from Pielke Sr., R.A., 1974. Athree-dimensional numerical model of the sea breezes over south Florida. Mon. Weather Rev. 102, 115–139.

Land and Sea Breezes 3

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p0085 When the coastal terrain is hilly or mountainous, sea andland breezes interact with local winds that are created as a resultof the heating and cooling of this elevated terrain relative to theadjacent atmosphere at the same altitude. The sea breeze andupslope mountain flow that are created as the terrain is heatedduring the day, for example, can generate particularly strongonshore winds. However, the subsidence in the adjacentatmosphere caused by the upslope flow can inhibit the devel-opment of the sea breeze, resulting in an onshore wind that isless than the sum of the two winds. In addition, the intensity ofcombined local wind circulation tends to be less when theterrain slope is larger (Segal et al., 1983). Sea and land breezescan result in the accumulation of pollution as air recirculatesover industrial and urban areas (Eastman et al., 1995).

See also: Coastal Meteorology; 00216; 00217; 00235.AU4

Bibliography

Atkinson, B.W., 1981. Mesoscale Atmospheric Circulations. Academic Press. p. 495.Eastman, J.L., Pielke, R.A., Lyons, W.A., 1995. Comparison of lake-breeze model

simulations with tracer data. J. Appl. Meteorol. 34, 1398–1418.

Estoque, M.A., 1961. A theoretical investigation of the sea breeze. Q. J. R. Meteorol.Soc. 87, 136–146.

Lin, Y., 2007. Mesoscale Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.Neumann, J., 1977. On the rotation rate of the direction of sea and land breezes.

J. Atmos. Sci. 34, 1913–1917.Neumann, J., Mahrer, Y., 1975. A theoretical study of the lake and land breezes of

circular lakes. Mon. Weather Rev. 130, 474–485.Nicholls, M.E., Pielke Sr., R.A., 1994. Thermal compression waves. II. Mass

adjustment and vertical transfer of total energy. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 120,333–359.

Pielke Sr., R.A., 1974. A three-dimensional numerical model of the sea breezes oversouth Florida. Mon. Weather Rev. 102, 115–139. AU6

Pielke Sr, R.A., 1984, 2000. Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling, second ed.Academic Press. p. 676.

Pielke Sr., R.A., Song, A., Michaels, P.J., Lyons, W.A., Arritt, R.W., 1991.The predictability of sea breeze generated thunderstorms. Atmosphere 4,65–78.

Rotunno, R., 1983. On the linear theory of the land- and sea-breeze. J. Atmos. Sci.40, 1999–2005.

Segal, M., Mahrer, Y., Pielke, R.A., 1983. A study of meteorological patterns asso-ciated with a lake confined by mountains – the Dead Sea case. Q. J. R. Meteorol.Soc. 109, 549–564.

Simpson, J.E., 1994, 2007. Sea Breeze and Local Wind. Cambridge University Press,New York. p. 234.

Tijm, A.B.C., van Delden, A.J., 1999. The role of the sound waves in sea-breezeinitiation. Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 125, 1997–2018.

Tijm, A.B.C., van Delden, A.J., Holtslag, A.A.M., 1999. The inland penetration of seabreezes. Control Atmos. Phys. 72, 317–328.

f0030 Figure 5 Same as Figure 4, except for a uniform synoptic southwest wind. Reproduced from Pielke Sr., R.A., 1974. A three-dimensional numericalmodel of the sea breezes over south Florida. Mon. Weather Rev. 102, 115–139.

4 Land and Sea Breezes

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