neo colonialism in educational development aid
TRANSCRIPT
Wageningen University and Research centre – Department of Social Sciences
MSc Thesis Sociology of Development and Change
Neo-colonialism in educational development aid:
Perceptions of basic education teachers on the implementation of the BEQIP
in the Northern-region of Ghana.
May 2017
Master International Development Studies
Sociology of Development and Change
Author: Wiebe Smit
Supervisors: Dr. Stasja P. Koot Sociology of Development and Change
Ir. Hansje J. Eppink Education and Competence Studies
Thesis Code: SDC-80433
i
Executive summary
Educational development aid is provided on a global scale. In many of such aid programmes,
relations are constructed between Western-based donors and Southern recipients. Through these
relations, features of neo-colonialism can be locally experienced as Western donors often have a
powerful position as opposed to their receiving counterparts. Particular features of neo-colonialism
are Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance, which can be experienced by aid
receivers as a result of the implementation of educational aid programmes. The Basic Education
Quality Improvement Programme (BEQIP), a Western-based educational aid programme was
directed towards a change in the daily practice of basic education teachers in the Northern-region of
Ghana. The desired change, here, was directed towards the shift from a teacher-centred education
(TCE) approach towards a learner-centred education (LCE) approach. The active involvement of
learners during the lesson delivery forms a central theme in this teaching ideology. This thesis
analyses if and how the four neo-colonial features are experienced by basic education teachers in the
Northern-region of Ghana as a result of the implementation of the BEQIP. Based on the findings of
this research, it can be stated that neo-colonial features have been experienced by the target group
in the following ways: Western-centrism was experienced by the teachers mainly in terms of the
inexperience with how to implement the desired LCE approach in their daily practice. A sense of
dependency on the Western donor was shown by local actors in terms of academic knowledge and (a
range of) resources necessary for the implementation of the introduced teaching approach.
Regarding their agency, the target group expressed that their involvement in the programme caused
for increased capabilities and a sense of empowerment in their daily practice. Resistance, finally, was
shown in a variety of (mainly non-articulated) forms.
Keywords: educational development aid, learner-centred education, neo-colonialism, Western-
centrism, dependency, agency, resistance, Ghana.
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List of acronyms
BEQIP: Basic Education Quality Improvement Programme
CGD: Centre for Global Development
GES: Ghana Education Service
INSECS: In-service trainings
JHS: Junior high school
LCE: Learner-Centred Education
NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation
ODA: Overseas Development Administration
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PS: Primary school
SHS: Secondary High School
TCE: Teacher-centred education
TLM: Teaching and Learning Material
TTC: Teacher Trainer College
UN: United Nations
UvA: University of Amsterdam
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Acknowledgements
Although a large number of people supported me in various ways throughout my research, there are
a view I would like to thank in particular as these people have had a great influence on my work.
First, I would like to thank Dr. Stasja Koot and Ir. Hansje Eppink for their support, advice and feedback
throughout the long process of this thesis. As supervisors, they both provided helpful insights and
solutions on issues encountered during this process. Where Dr. Koot contributed with his expertise in
sociology, Ir. Eppink supported me with her expertise in education and educational aid. Next to my
supervisors, I would like to thank Mr. Frits Kruiswijk for introducing me to IBIS Ghana and in
particular to Mr. Johnson Naapi. Thereby, I am very grateful for the way in which Mr. Kruiswijk acted
in obtaining the required documents to enter the Republic of Ghana. Finally, I would like to express
my gratitude to Mr. Johnson Naapi. His support has been of vital importance for conducting
fieldwork in the Northern-region of Ghana. Without his guidance, my fieldwork would have been far
more challenging.
May 1st, 2017,
Wiebe Smit.
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Table of contents
Executive summary .................................................................................................................................. i
List of acronyms........................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. iii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 1
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Self-reflection ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2 – Education and the BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana ................................................ 8
The Basic Education Quality Improvement Programme ..................................................................... 8
What is education? .......................................................................................................................... 8
The learner-centred education approach ....................................................................................... 8
Active learning ................................................................................................................................. 9
Quality education ............................................................................................................................ 9
Implementation of the BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana .................................................. 10
Stakeholder analysis .......................................................................................................................... 12
Edukans ......................................................................................................................................... 12
IBIS Ghana & Savana Signatures .................................................................................................... 12
Basic education teachers ............................................................................................................... 13
Theoretical framework .......................................................................................................................... 14
Neo-colonialism ................................................................................................................................. 14
Western-centrism .......................................................................................................................... 15
Dependency ................................................................................................................................... 16
Agency ........................................................................................................................................... 17
Resistance ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Connecting neo-colonialism and its features .................................................................................... 19
Chapter 4 – Perceptions towards Western-centrism in the BEQIP ....................................................... 21
(Possible) implications of Western-centrism in aid ........................................................................... 21
Western-centrism in resource use and pedagogical concepts ......................................................... 22
Shifting towards ‘Western’ education? ............................................................................................. 23
Perceived Western-centred elements of the BEQIP ......................................................................... 24
Chapter 5 – Experiences of dependency as a result of the BEQIP ........................................................ 26
Applying dependency and power to the implementation of the BEQIP ........................................... 26
Experiences of dependency among stakeholders ............................................................................. 27
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Chapter 6 – Influences on teachers agencies from a local perspective ................................................ 30
Perceived changes in teacher agency ............................................................................................... 30
BEQIP’s influence on the perception of power ................................................................................. 32
Chapter 6 – Responses to the BEQIP: local acts of resistance .............................................................. 34
Lacking implementation .................................................................................................................... 34
Limited distribution ........................................................................................................................... 35
Distrusting the ‘other’ ....................................................................................................................... 35
The reintroduction of undesired practices ........................................................................................ 35
Manoeuvring within the learning centred education approach ....................................................... 36
Persisting traditional relations of force ............................................................................................. 36
Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 38
Interlinking features of neo-colonialism ........................................................................................... 38
Reviewing the neo-colonial features ................................................................................................. 39
The global debate on educational aid ............................................................................................... 40
Reflection on decisions & recommendations for future research .................................................... 41
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 43
References ............................................................................................................................................. 45
Appendix ................................................................................................................................................ 51
1
Introduction
“Education is one of our last resorts to get us out of poverty”
(Teacher at Yong-Dakpemyili Junior High School, Ghana, interview 18/10/2016)
In Ghana, 24.2% of the country’s population was situated under the national poverty line in 2012
(United Nations, 2013), accounting for a total of over six million (6,156,240) (World Population
Review, 2017) Ghanaians living in poverty. As there is a demographic imbalance in the country, the
rural population was more heavily affected than its urban counterpart; 10,6% of people living in
urban communities was living under the poverty line in 2012, whereas in rural communities 37,9%
was living under those conditions (United Nations, 2013). Many Western-based actors have been
engaged in development aid projects in order to fight poverty in these regions.
In the field of development aid, many initiatives are undertaken in which poverty eradication is one
of the central themes (Stewart, 2013). Within this field, a variety of approaches exists through which
this aim is attempted to be accomplished. Providing aid assistance in the field of education is one of
the approaches commonly applied by practitioners to attain poverty eradication (through an increase
in individual productivity and employability (Tilak, 2002)), and in its extension the development of a
particular (target) region (UNESCO, 1999; Lotz-Sisitka & Lupele, 2017). In the past decade an
increasing trend in expenses on education-related aid by OECD members can be distinguished
towards developing countries (OECD, 2015). The education sectors which are mainly targeted by the
OECD members are primary education, secondary education, higher education, vocational training,
teacher training, imputed student costs, education policy & administrative management, education
facilities & training, advanced technical & managerial training and basic life skills for youth & adults
(OECD, 2015). In Ghana, especially the sectors of primary education, imputed student costs and
higher education receive attention from the OECD members, with primary education claiming 21.80
million US$ in 2014, accounting for 43,6% of the total support that year (OECD, 2015). Although the
amounts of financial aid are impressive, one should not blindly regard these financial flows as
inherently positive.
Although development assistance, by many people, is perceived as a positive practice, questionable
aspects can be identified when relating development (programmes) to neo-colonialist thinking,
which is concerned with ongoing relations between Western and non-Western actors. McEwan
(2008) discusses several ways in which such connections can be identified. She first discusses the
spatiality of development. According to her, development interventions are underpinned by the way
in which the South is perceived and represented in the North. The North, here, is perceived as the
centre of development, whereas the South is seen as the receiver, the peripheral area in which the
policies and ideas originating from the North are implemented (McEwan, 2008). She thereby states
that this creation of two separate entities (the central North and peripheral South) should be
challenged as they have always been interconnected and mutually constituted. Representations, or
imagined geographies (Said, 1978), are the second way through which neo-colonial thinking can be
related to development aid. Here, perceptions, again, play a significant role in the ways in which the
global South is depicted in the minds of development practitioners. Since these images are often
simplified and distorted due to a lack of first-hand experiences, they tend to ignore the diversity,
dynamism and complexity of countries and populations situated in these regions (McEwan, 2008).
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Although the spatiality of development and imagined geographies are overlapping in the sense that
they are both directed towards a perceptual image of development regions, a distinction can be
made. The spatiality of development describes a geographical difference between the North and
South, whereas imagined geographies illustrate a generalisation of development regions as depicted
by actors in the North. Eurocentrism, or Western-centrism, is a third central element in development
according to McEwan. This way of thinking creates an imagined geography of the world in which
Europe and North America (the West) are perceived as the highest stages of global progress and
civilisation (McEwan, 2008). Once relating development processes in the global South to these
images of what ideal development contains, distorted perceptions on how and what to develop may
arise. Western-centrism, therefore, describes the different values that are allocated to the two
separated entities. A final example of how development and neo-colonialism are interlinked is
through the role of power (McEwan, 2008). Who are in charge of development projects and what are
their aims? Power in development aid implies that involved actors are potentially subjected to forms
of external power and influence and due to the existence of these forms may be lacking the ability to
act freely (Groves & Hinton, 2013). The latter strongly relates to the concepts of agency and
dependency, through which power and influence can be strongly exercised upon aid receivers.
Changes in their agency (and desired behaviour) can lead to perceived experiences of force among
these actors. Thereby, once external involvement accounts for a crucial factor in the development of
aid receivers, a dependency relation may occur between the donor- and receiving actors. With the
existence of a (dependency) relation between a Western donor and Southern recipients, indications
of neo-colonialism can be visible as dependency indicates an unevenly balanced (power) relationship
(Andrews & Okpanachi, 2012). As a result of local perceptions towards the existence of the
aforementioned features of neo-colonialism (Western-centrism, dependency and agency) in
development programmes, forms of resistance may appear among a targeted group of actors. In this
thesis, educational development aid, as part of the overarching field of development aid, is of
specific interest.
In Ghana (figure 1), inequalities between the North and the South are clearly visible in a range of
topics, education being one of them. Initiating discussions on the quality of education in the North
often results in comments on how education in this region contains significantly less quality than in
its Southern counterpart (pers. Interviews). In the early years of educational development the focus
of the Ghanaian government was on the Southern sectors, resulting in an education quality gap
which is currently still evident (Akyeampong et al., 2007). The determination for this focus was based
on population densities in different regions1. The three provinces in the Northern part of the country
(Northern-region, Upper East and Upper West) contained low population densities and therefore
received little focus in terms of education access improvement measures (Akyeampong et al., 2007).
Next to the issue of access, inequalities between the sectors are visible in topics as literacy rates,
junior high school (JHS) enrolment rates and the population percentage that never attend formal
education, although these are significantly worse in rural areas compared to urban ones, even within
the Northern provinces themselves (Akyeampong et al., 2007). Literacy rates in the Northern-region
(rural and urban combined) reveal rather low rates as formal sources indicate that in 2010 only
37.2% (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012) of the population in the Northern-region was considered to
1 Ghana is divided into ten regions: Western, Central, Greater Accra, Volta, Eastern, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo,
Northern, Upper East and Upper West. Source: geohive.com
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be literate, whilst Mr. Alhassan2 indicates that the current (2016) literacy rate lies around 39%. Due
to the imbalances in Ghana, externally originating
(education-related) NGOs are mainly attracted to
the Northern parts of the country (Mohan, 2002;
Mwakideu, 2016).
Edukans, a Dutch organisation in the field of
development aid, is one of many organisations
involved in educational aid projects in Ghana. The
organisation, in cooperation with education
specialists of the University of Amsterdam (UvA)
initiated a development programme focussed on
the improvement of quality in Ghana’s basic
education, which consists of primary school (PS)
and JHS. The BEQIP was aiming for a shift in
teaching methodology (Edukans, 2013); from
2013 onwards, workshops were provided to a
selected group of actors in the Northern-region of
Ghana aiming at the effectuation of learner-
centred education (LCE) in classrooms.
LCE is an educational approach where students
form the centre of the education delivery practice.
This approach is opposing the more traditional way of teaching, since in this type of education the
teacher for the centre of the education practice. Where teacher-centred education (TCE) emphasizes
on the reproduction of knowledge delivered by the teacher (often in the form of definitions), LCE
focuses on the construction of knowledge by students through the interaction with their
surroundings (De Kock et al., 2004). The shift from passive- to more active ways of learning was
expected by Edukans to result in enhancement of learning outcomes and an increase in transition
rates from primary- to secondary school (Edukans, 2013).
In order to indicate the significance of this research in contemporary developments, the role of
education in the development field should be elaborated on. Clive Harber (2014) discusses the
importance of education by stating that education is a key social institution through which significant
and positive changes can be made in the way societies and individuals behave and develop. The
scope of the BEQIP can make one wonder what effects the result of the programme might have for
involved teachers and learners. In the case of failure, teachers could fall back on prior teaching
approaches, or ‘primitive education’ as one of the teacher respondents indicated the previous
teaching approach to be. The children are positioned in a vulnerable situation by being subjects to an
experimental design for ‘new ways’ of education and they could face disadvantages while continuing
their academic career. On the other hand, however, if the BEQIP appears to be an advantageous
programme stimulating both teachers and pupils to improve the educational practice in the
Northern-region, an improved educational sector in Ghana could be realised.
2 Mr. Alhassan; BEQIP facilitator, Employee at the Ghana Education Service (GES), interview 27.
Figure 1. Provinces of Ghana
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As a key social institution, education is typically believed to be central to 1) the creation of a
‘modern’ nation state, 2) the development of ‘modern’ workers and families, and 3) a state’s modern
economic growth and international acceptance (Kendall, 2009). In addition, the Centre for Global
Development (CGD) identifies three similar functions of education in development. ‘Improving
health’ is the first role identified by the CGD. Education is perceived to prepare people to prevent
disease and to use health services more effectively. According to the CGD, (young) people who have
completed primary education are less than half as likely to contract HIV as those with little or no
schooling (Centre for Global Development, 2006). A second function identified by the CGD is an
increase in wages and economic growth. The positive relation between education and economic
growth is uncontroversial (Sjöström & Sjöström, 1982) as each additional year of schooling is
determined to increase wages with 10% in many poor countries, eventually contributing to economic
growth on a national level (Centre for Global Development, 2006). Finally, education is perceived to
contribute to democracy and political stability in the developing world, especially though the
familiarisation of people’s rights and the acquisition of the skills and knowledge necessary to exercise
these rights (Centre for Global Development, 2006).
Due to positive encounters with LCE in the Western world, the approach has been a recurrent theme
in education policies in the global South and has had donor support through different kinds of
development projects in this global region (Schweisfurth, 2011). However, issues, or barriers towards
the implementation of this approach in the developing world have been identified. In the practical
sense, issues may arise when the teacher’s capacity is limited, when teachers have not experienced
LCE themselves, when classroom resources are low and when the pupil-teacher ratios are high
(Schweisfurth, 2011). Edukans, drawing upon the literature of Pontefract and Hardman, identifies a
similar issue with LCE in the Northern-region since it states that teachers often tend to fall back to
the ways in which they were educated as a child (which in most cases in the TCE approach). Putting
the theory, learned during the BEQIP, into practice was therefore indicated to be one of several
issues (Edukans, 2013). According to Kendall (2009), a near-hegemonic, bureaucratic model of a
formal, Western-style of education defines and constitutes education for development in present
day development programmes. Especially the notion of the Western-style of education can be
debated; reflecting on the implementation of the BEQIP in the Northern-region could result in local
perceptions that the BEQIP is an attempt to reform education in this region to a Western image.
Thereby, the relation between involved (local, national and international) actors is a relevant topic in
the analysis of such implementations, as relations of dependency may be experienced by local actors.
Aiming for a shift in the behaviour and agency of a target group due to an intervention by Western
practitioners raises questions regarding features of neo-colonialism within the interaction as in these
relations the features of neo-colonialism might be locally experienced. In this thesis, this refers to the
degree to which the targeted actors experience features of neo-colonialism as a result of their
involvement the BEQIP.
By identifying perceptions associated with neo-colonialism among a variety of stakeholders in the
educational aid programme, this ethnographic research aspires to determine to what extent
associations of neo-colonialism are attached to the BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana. However,
solely reviewing features of neo-colonialism in this case is insufficient when pursuing to provide a
comprehensive discussion on its perceived impact on the community. A greater understanding of the
contents of the programme as well as the broader context in which the programme is implemented
is crucial for understanding the reasoning of involved actors. It is therefore that, next to an analysis
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centred on neo-colonialism, a background chapter is provided on the BEQIP and its main theories as
LCE and active learning (a specific teaching methodology of the LCE approach).
This thesis is structured as follows; following this introduction, a background chapter is included in
which the specific context is discussed. Here, a brief understanding of the BEQIP and its main
pedagogical theories is included which can later be related to locally perceived features of neo-
colonialism. Thereby, the stakeholders are introduced which are considered to be relevant for the
acquisition of information in this research. Following the background chapter, a theoretical
framework is provided in which the neo-colonial theory and its four relevant features are explained.
Thereafter, the four features (Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance) are discussed
in separate chapters in which the findings during field work are presented. Finally, a general
discussion and conclusion are provided. In the discussion, the ways in which the features can be
perceived as interlinked as well as the place of this research in the global discussion on education aid
are stressed. In the conclusion, a comprehensive answer is provided on the main question, which is
framed below.
The relevance of this research lies in its contribution to existing literature in the domain of
educational development aid. More specifically, it provides an insight in how process of Western-
centrism, dependency, agency and resistance are experienced and expressed by receiving actors in
this domain. As a result, this research provides insights in possible underlying reasons for successes
or failures in the BEQIP, which can be assimilated with existing literature.
In order to acquire a clear image on the experiences of neo-colonial features in the Northern-region
as a result of the BEQIP, the main research question is framed as:
How do neo-colonial features of Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance show in the
perceptions and behaviour of local actors as a result of the implementation of the BEQIP in the
Northern-region of Ghana?
The sub questions, formulated to provide an encompassing answer on the main question are
formulated as:
How do these four neo-colonial features relate to the field of educational development aid?
To what extent is Western-centrism experienced in both the contents and implementation
process of the BEQIP?
Has the programme caused for relations of dependency perceived by involved actors?
How do local actors perceive the BEQIP to influence their agency?
What forms of resistance to the BEQIP can be identified among local actors?
How do the four neo-colonial features relate to each other and to the global context of
educational aid?
Relating the concepts of Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance to the general
context of educational development aid provides an understanding of how these features are
connected to education, and more particular to educational development. Subsequently discussing
the four features individually, then, allows this research to determine context-based examples in
which these features are perceived by local actors in the BEQIP. Finally, by discussing how the neo-
colonial features are interrelated and connected to the global context of education aid, an
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understanding is provided on how these features occur in the contemporary field of and how this
type of aid is perceived at a global level. The methodology through which relevant data is gathered
during field work in order to provide answers on the aforementioned questions is presented in the
next paragraph.
Methodology In order to provide an encompassing answer on the main- and sub questions, a variety of methods
has been used to enhance data triangulation in this research. First, a literature study was performed
to include relevant theories and background information on the main topics of this thesis. This study
was facilitated by means of online databases as well as confidential reports of the involved
organisations. Both literature and video material were provided by the Edukans organisation in which
information was accessible on the set-up and aims of the BEQIP. Next to a literature (and video
material) study, (participant) observations have been performed both at participating primary- and
junior high schools in different communities of the Northern-region of Ghana. The observations were
conducted during the education practices of teachers in order to observe to what extent forms of
resistance to the BEQIP could be observed. Next to these observations, a 2-day BEQIP training was
attended in order to gain an understanding of how these trainings were provided and which training
activities were used. Finally, interviews with teachers at PS and JHS were conducted in order to
receive information about their individual perceptions on the BEQIP. The perceptions ranged from
topics of the contents and effects of the programme to the relation between the teachers and
facilitators. The latter topic has been included to identify possible perceptions towards relations of
dependency between the stakeholders as a result of the programme. Next to the BEQIP teachers,
interviews were conducted with teachers who had not been involved in the programme. These
respondents have been included as a control group. This population was believed to provide
information from a different point of view on the involvement of Western actors in educational
assistance, which could contribute to the overall picture on the BEQIP and educational development
programmes in this context. Apart from PS and JHS teachers, interviews were conducted with
programme facilitators of both IBIS Ghana, Savana Signatures (national organisations) and Edukans
(international organisation).
Method Amount
Observations: BEQIP workshop BEQIP teachers active in class Non-BEQIP teachers active in class Total
2
15 1
18
Interviews: BEQIP teachers Non-BEQIP teachers National organisations International organisations Total
15 9 3 2
29
Table 1. Methodology used during fieldwork.
7
These actors are considered as key-respondents as they possess in-depth information about the set-
up of the programme, the underlying ideologies and the general outcomes. The Interviews (Appendix
A) are used as means to find answers on specific elements of the main- and sub questions. By
interviewing both teachers and programme facilitators, a comprehensive view is provided on the
perceptions towards educational aid, and more specifically the BEQIP, from the perspectives of
various stakeholders. Table 1 depicts the methodologies applied during fieldwork.
Self-reflection As this research contains an ethnographic approach, the impact of the researcher on the outcomes
of interviews and observations should not be undermined. Access to the involved actors was
facilitated by IBIS Ghana in the Northern-region and in an indirect manner by the Edukans
organisation as well. Although it was clearly stressed to all respondents that this research was
conducted as an independent research, it is possible that (some of) the respondents still related the
researcher to the previously mentioned organisations. Thereby, being a white, Western researcher
introduced in the region by facilitating organisations of the programme could be considered as
sufficient motives for teachers to believe no (perceived) negative comments should be expressed
during interviews. Even though it is hard to estimate to what extent respondents indeed made this
connection, it should be taken into consideration that certain data is affected with results of
perceived socially desired answers. Social desirability, here, refers to “a tendency to respond to self-
report items in a manner that makes the respondent look good rather than to respond in an accurate
and truthful manner” (Holtgraves, 2004; p.161). Specifically, this entails that, for example, BEQIP
teachers indicate to have no negative connotations towards the programme or struggles with
implementing the programme in their classrooms, although in reality they might have. In Ghana,
respondents often provide answers they think the questioner is looking for (Akyeampong, 1997), and
therefore data triangulation in this research is of importance for achieving reliable data. The
observations of BEQIP teachers, therefore, also serve as reference materials to determine whether
the provided answers of teachers are reflected in their ways of teaching. Even though no hard
evidence can be provided once observations generate conflicting results as related to the interviews,
it is now possible to put the results in perspective.
Although the introduction to the respondents through the facilitating organisations could have
influenced the reliability of the data, it proved to be essential, as otherwise no access was granted to
the involved schools and contact information of involved teachers would have been hard to acquire.
The latter became explicitly clear in the stage of approaching non-BEQIP teachers, where
respondents were approached via contacts outside of IBIS Ghana. Although the schools were not
cooperating with this particular organisation, a letter of support was still requested, which was
carefully read by various head teachers. As the formal introduction was performed by acquaintances
of the head masters or teachers of the school itself, in combination with the letter of IBIS, it was
allowed to conduct interviews at the particular schools. Due to the importance of having the right
contacts, being associated with the involved organisations was a trade-off that had to be made in
order to be able to gain access to relevant actors.
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Chapter 2 – Education and the BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana
In order to provide an understanding of the context in which this thesis is situated, this chapter offers
elaborative information on the BEQIP and stakeholders relevant for this thesis.
The Basic Education Quality Improvement Programme The Basic Education Quality Improvement Program (BEQIP) is one of many development
programmes implemented in a Southern education system. The BEQIP, a 3-year programme with a
bottom-up approach, was introduced in the Northern-region in 2013 and was centred on a LCE
approach, opposing the traditional teacher-centred approach which is often related to the Ghanaian
education system (Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008; Edukans, 2013). The active involvement of
students was perceived by Edukans to account for improvements in the quality of education in the
region and, as a result of these improvements, higher percentages of students successfully passing
JHS. Before elaborating on the programme itself, first a brief discussion on the term ‘education’ is
provided. Thereby, the reoccurring concepts of LCE, active learning and quality education are
discussed.
What is education?
When analysing a development programme directed towards education, it is of importance to assure
a clear understanding about the theoretical context in which the programme is implemented. As
education entails a manifold of definitions and understandings a first objective is to define what is
understood as education and to indicate the specific type of education relevant for this research.
Education, here, refers to a hierarchically structured, chronologically sorted system in which learners
are educated and running from PS to higher education institutes (Gathumbi et al., 2015). Thereby,
the requirements of education are increasingly expressed in (national) curricula and tests which have
to be successfully completed before being able to continue with a successive form of education.
Since teaching is (one of) the major way(s) in which education is performed, defining what exactly is
understood as teaching is important for clarifying the line of thought of this research. Teaching, here,
is understood as an intense and complex activity, in which teachers attempt to achieve desirable
outcomes within specific contexts (Akyeampong et al., 2006). Contextual variability in teaching
practices, according to Akyeampong et al. (2006), is stressed to be highly important since effective
teaching is dependent on a couple of variables, as for instance students’ socio-economic and
psychological characteristics, grade levels and subject areas. The importance of contextuality, not
only in teaching, but also in education (aid) is stressed by Lauzon (2016), who states that how and
why particular educational strategies work in specific programmes not necessarily cause for
equivalent results in other contexts.
The learner-centred education approach
Two major distinctive approaches to education are identified by Kember (1997), who identifies the
teacher-centred / content orientated approach on the one hand, and on the other the learner-
centred/ learning orientated approach. Although these approaches are presented as two separate
teaching styles, reality shows that a mixture of both styles is often implemented during lesson
delivery. Lea et al. (2003) identify seven main characteristics on which a definition of LCE should be
based. First, education is reliant on active, rather than passive, learning strategies. This entails
strategies through which students are more involved during the education practice than solely
9
listening to a lecturing teacher. A second characteristic is the emphasis on deep learning, and even
more understanding of content. Deep learning, according to Chin and Brown (2000) relates to a
student’s intrinsic motivation and his/her interest in the contents of tasks. Thereby, it focuses on
understanding the meanings of learning materials and the attempts to relate different concepts to
each other (Chin & Brown, 2000). Reproducing knowledge is perceived to be a result of passive
learning, in which ‘gained knowledge’ is often echoed, rather than fully understood by students.
Thirdly, in the LCE approach, there is increased responsibility and accountability on the part of the
student, meaning that the involvement of the student is for a major part reliant on the willingness of
the student to be actively involved during the lesson delivery. The latter introduces the fourth
characteristic, which is framed as developing responsible and autonomous learners. The fifth and
sixth characteristics are slightly overlapping, since these describe the interdependence between
teacher and learner, and mutual respect within the teacher-pupil relationship. Teachers might be
restrained towards the implementation of the LCE approach, as the control (in terms of power or
force) they have over the (students in the) classroom might decrease, as compared to the LCE
approach. The last characteristic identified by Lea et al (2003) is the reflexive approach to the
teaching and learning process of both the teacher and the learner. Reflexivity can be used to
evaluate what was learned, whether predetermined objectives have been completed and whether
the teaching approach was beneficial (Lea et al., 2003).
Active learning
Active learning is the form of learning which is applied to implement the LCE approach in classrooms.
This concepts is defined as “anything that involves students in doing things and thinking about the
things they are doing” (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; p.19). This definition is based on a set of
characteristics with which active learning is generally associated. These characteristics are (1)
students are involved in more learning activities than listening, (2) less emphasis is placed on the
transmission of information and more on the development of students’ skills, (3) students are
engaged in activities as reading, writing and discussing, (4) students are involved in higher-order
thinking (analysis, synthesis and evaluation) rather than lower-order thinking (remembering,
understanding and applying), and (5) a greater emphasis is placed on students’ exploration of their
personal attitudes and values (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). An opposite methodology to active learning is
the passive learning approach. Passive learning, according to Ryan and Martens (1989), takes places
when students are in the role of receptacles of knowledge, which occurs when students do not
actively participate in the learning process. The active learning approach is based on a constructivist
perspective, which indicates that the main goals in the education context are reasoning, problem-
solving and critical-thinking skills; the active and reflective use of knowledge (Edukans, 2013). In this
perspective, the most important learning goal and educational objective is the learning process of
students itself (De Kock et al., 2004).
Quality education
As the improvement of quality education is the main aim of the BEQIP, the term ‘quality education’
should be clarified. UNICEF (2000) provides pieces of a uniform definition of quality education by
stating that it consists of 1) learners that are healthy; well-nourished, ready to participate to learn
and supported in learning by family members, 2) supportive environments, which are healthy, safe
and gender-protective as well as providing adequate resources and facilities, 3) relevant curricula and
materials for the acquisition of basic skills and knowledge, 4) processes in which teaching actors
perform learner-centred teaching approaches in well-managed classrooms and school, and 5)
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outcomes that comprise skills, knowledge and attitudes, and are linked to national goals for
education as well as participation in society (UNICEF, 2000). Although this approach extensively
describes the notion of quality education, a clear cut, universally accepted definition of this term is
non-existent (Tikly, 2010; Lotz-Sisitka & Lupele, 2017).
Although quality education has inconsistent definitions, it is widely agreed upon that the relevance of
education is one of the core requirements for classifying education as qualitative. Where UNICEF
indicates the relevance of the curriculum and materials for acquiring basic skills and knowledge,
Tikley (2010) extends this notion with relevance related to the learning outcomes. In his view, the
learning outcomes should contribute to the well-being of students and to the sustainability of their
livelihoods (Tikly, 2010). Lotz-Sisitka and Lupele (2017) elaborate on this understanding by stating
that, for quality education to be relevant, it should contribute to socio-economic development as
well as other development goals, such as equality, controlling pandemics (as HIV/AIDS), social justice
and democracy.
Implementation of the BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana
The intervention programme focussed on educating teachers and teacher-trainers, on how to
introduce and implement active learning methods in the classroom. During (complimentary)
workshops, the components of the BEQIP were introduced and practiced by facilitators and
participating teachers in an education friendly environment. The introduced components of the
BEQIP were 1) concept building, 2) variety of learning activities & learning styles, 3) use of textbooks,
4) use of education material, 5) classroom management, 6) (student) encouragement and 7) time on
task (Edukans, 2013). Concept building entails the introduction of new concepts in the classroom.
The teachers are encouraged to provide real-life connections for the students to make it easier for
the students to understand newly introduced concepts. A variety of learning activities & learning
styles reflects upon the introduction of active learning, as alternative to the traditional way of
teaching. Akyeampong and Stephens (2002), in their research on the backgrounds of student
teachers, however encountered a strong support for the TCE approach as 86% of the student
teachers surveyed during their research indicated that the teaching of facts is the most important
task a teacher has. This belief is based on the tradition of knowledge transmission in Ghana
(Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002), in which the focus is centred on the transmission of abstract
knowledge from teacher to pupil (Tabulawa, 1997). The transfer of abstract knowledge is related to
‘half-learning’ (Lotz-Sisitka & Lupele, 2017), through which children are able to answer questions on
specific contents, although they do not fully understand what they are being asked, often because
these concepts have little connections with their daily lives and personal experiences (Lotz-Sisitka &
Lupele, 2017). In Ghana, such approaches are still commonly used in classrooms (Lotz-Sisitka &
Lupele, 2017). Edukans, however, aimed for a change in these teaching practices. The use of
textbooks relates to the most effective use of the available text books, whereas classroom
management is related to the regulation of (often crowded) classrooms which can be facilitated
through group work. Since active learning advocates for active participation of students, group work
is encouraged in order for all students to be able to be actively involved during lessons.
Encouragement is directed towards assessing student assignments in order to encourage students to
put effort in their school work. Time on task, finally, is directed towards keeping track of the time a
student is actively involved with a task (Edukans, 2013).
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In the BEQIP, knowledge construction is strongly related to the active involvement of learners in the
lesson delivery. According to Edukans (2013), many educators agree that the active participation of
learners is a better form of learning as compared to lecturing methods in which students solely
attend lessons by listening to the teacher (TCE). This theory is based on Dale’s ‘Cone of Experience’,
which provides a (simplistic) visualisation of how learners construct knowledge. According to this
cone, learners generally remember 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they
see, 50% of what they hear and see, 70% of what they say and write and 90% of what they do (Dale,
1969). Implementing practices of group work, discussions and drawing are specific examples of how
Edukans seeks to implement active learning methods in the classroom through the organisation of
the BEQIP. These examples all testify of the conviction that knowledge is constructed through the
actions of learners.
As the BEQIP was implemented to improve the performances of local teachers, the approach of the
programme can be problematized since one could wonder to what extent the local teachers are
willing to adjust their ways of teaching (a practice that by some individuals has been performed for
decades) because of the presence of an external, Western organisation. Not only the origin of the
particular organisation might form an obstacle for participants; the focal points of its facilitators and
the nature of the relation between these facilitators and the participating teachers might also cause
for reasons for participants not to attend the trainings and/or adopt the programme’s approach. It is
therefore of importance for this research to reveal the perceptions towards the improvement of the
quality of education from various stakeholders as well as the process through which this
improvement is attempted to be realised in the Northern-region. An important part of the
programme is its focus on the improvement of the quality of education by improving the quality of
teaching. Salifu and Agbenyega (2013) define quality teaching as “the use of disciplinary knowledge
with positive relationships with students in the classroom that lead to desirable learning outcomes”
(Salifu & Agbenyega, 2013; p.1). The positive relationship with students is reflected in the sense that
LCE discourages the exercise of (negative ways of) force, as for example physical punishments.
Desirable learning outcomes, in the BEQIP, are framed as outcomes that are locally relevant and
beneficial for learners. The use of disciplinary knowledge is not emphasized in the intervention
programme, as the focus is on the manner in which knowledge is transferred in the first place.
A main challenge identified by Edukans for introducing the LCE approach in the classroom is changing
the teacher practice; although the teacher training workshops advocated the implementation of the
LCE approach, they may be unlikely to be practiced or are not well understood, resulting in the
teachers educating their students in the same manner in which they were educated themselves
(Pontefract & Hardman, 2005). Nespor (1987) thereby points out that teachers’ classroom practices
have roots in their own schooling experiences. Particularly the interactions with their former
teachers result in values, perceptions and expectations of how teaching should be performed.
Putting theory into practice, therefore, forms the main challenge related to the quality improvement
of the BEQIP (Edukans, 2013).
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Stakeholder analysis Concerning the BEQIP, stakeholders for the acquisition of relevant data are identified on three
distinctive levels; the (international) donor organisation Edukans, the cooperating (national)
organisations IBIS Ghana and Savana Signatures, and targeted (local) basic education teachers. These
stakeholders were engaged in the programme and are therefore regarded to possess the relevant
information to analyse the BEQIP in a critical and reliable manner. This paragraph briefly introduces
these stakeholders.
Edukans
Edukans is a Dutch organisation and is involved in educational development programmes in order to
realise the development of school-going children in developing countries, as for instance Malawi,
Ethiopia and Rwanda and India (Edukans). It is Edukans’ vision to create a world in which every child
has the possibility to develop and become an adult with capacities to determine its own future
(Edukans). During the BEQIP, Edukans coopered with education specialists of the University of
Amsterdam, amongst them R. Sieswerda, founder of the Basic Education Quality Improvement
Programme. Edukans initiated the desired development of education in the Northern-region by
focussing on specific education methodologies. During the programme, Edukans sought to initiate a
shift in the education practice of local teachers, TTCs and circuit supervisors (government officials
responsible for the evaluation of teachers and used methodologies in education). It also financially
supported the programme and can therefore be recognized as the donor organisation. Around
300.000 Euros were invested in the three-year programme (Edukans, 2013). As donor organisation,
Edukans and its collaborators are likely to have control over the implementation process, as well as
over the contents of the programme. Next to Mrs. Sieswerda, Mr. Kruiswijk was approached as key
respondent as was a facilitator during the 3-year programme.
IBIS Ghana & Savana Signatures
On a national level, IBIS Ghana and Savana Signatures, both collaborating (Ghanaian) organisations of
Edukans, are identified. IBIS Ghana is a non-profit, non-governmental organisation (NGO) originating
from Denmark, although in Ghana currently directed by the country’s headquarters in Accra. In
Ghana, IBIS “is committed to support its partners to scale up advocacy for specific and measurable
change through development of organisational and thematic competencies” (IBIS, ; p.2). It is IBIS’
vision to create a world in which all people have equal access to quality education, influence and
resources (IBIS). IBIS is considered to be the most influential partner organisation of Edukans during
the BEQIP, as this organisation invited Edukans to implement the BEQIP in the Northern-region, and
therefore has been assigned to be responsible for the continuity of the programme in the area.
During fieldwork, Mr. Johnson was considered to be a key respondent from the IBIS organisation as
he was the leading facilitator from IBIS Ghana.
Savana Signatures is a Ghanaian organisation and, like IBIS Ghana, operational in the education
development field. Especially providing materials for ICT lessons and improving conditions for girls in
schools are focal points of this organisation (Savana Signatures). Both IBIS Ghana and Savana
Signatures have been gradually commissioned with carrying the responsibility of the BEQIP. These
organisations, in cooperation with Edukans, have implemented the educational development project
in TTC’s and provided teacher trainings in government buildings. During the teacher trainings,
facilitators of Edukans, IBIS Ghana and Savana Signatures provided workshops on how to use the
implemented methodology, as well as to evaluate the developments of involved teachers.
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Representing Savana Signatures, Mr. Alomey was considered to be a key respondent as he was the
facilitating representative of this organisation.
Basic education teachers
At the local level, teachers of both PS and JHS were the main focus of the BEQIP. These actors form
the most important stakeholders of this research since the programme is directed towards changing
their daily education practice. Whereas Edukans, IBIS Ghana and Savana Signatures have been
facilitating and determining the majority of the programme, the teachers were submissive to most of
its parts. It is, however, presented as a voluntary submissiveness, as (most of) the teachers are free in
participating in the programme. Through their (voluntary) participation, the teachers were
introduced to a different approach to teaching. During fieldwork, participating teachers of eight of
the participating schools were part of the research. Additionally to the teachers, Mr. Alhassan was
approached as he was a facilitating representative of the Ghana Education Service (GES).
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Theoretical framework
In order to provide a clear discussion on the implementation of the BEQIP within a sociological
perspective, the concept of neo-colonialism is adopted to create an analytical frame for this research.
In this chapter, the notion of neo-colonialism is clarified and the decision for including this concept
rather than related concepts is explained. Next to the overall theory of neo-colonialism, the features
of Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance are elaborated on as these have been
selected as four central neo-colonial features within the implementation of the intervention
programme. Although negative connotations are often linked to neo-colonialism, this theory and its
features are not regarded as inherently negative in this thesis. Western-centrism agency and
resistance possibly include topics that are positively received by local actors (through
empowerment), while simultaneously contributing to a neo-colonialist experience. In the general
discussion, provided at the end of the thesis, an extensive explanation is provided on how these
processes are interlinked, neo-colonial features.
Neo-colonialism In the aftermath of colonial times, a manifold of interlinked, although (slightly) different concepts
made their entrance in the field of sociology, neo-colonialism being one of these concepts. It was
Kwame Nkrumah (1966), first president of the liberated Republic of Ghana, to introduce the term of
neo-colonialism. He identified this stage of colonisation as the final and most dangerous form of
imperialism, since this type of colonialism meant power without responsibility for the practitioners
and exploitation without redress for the sufferers (Nkrumah, 1966). Neo-colonialism consists of
(politically) independent people of a developing region who are continuously bound to a Western
society though in some occasions voluntary relations and in others through necessity (Thomas &
Postlethwaite, 1984). The concept describes a situation in which formerly colonized countries,
although geographically and politically independent, continue to be culturally and economically
dependent on their former colonizers. The colonial system of domination continues as these former
colonizers endure to economically, culturally, financially, militarily and ideologically dominate these
regions (Wickens & Sandlin, 2007).
Neo-colonialism, rather than related theoretical concepts, forms the central focus of this research. In
order to create an understanding of why this concept is preferred over others, a brief discussion
about neo-colonialism and the theory of post-colonialism is provided. Main difference between the
neo-colonialism and post-colonialism is that the latter is concerned with the aftermath of an
encounter during colonial times, whilst the former is concerned with continuing encounters, even
after official independence of the formerly colonized country. Post-colonialism, here, is a concept
focusing on relations originating from colonial times, whereas neo-colonialism is open for identifying
new types of, or new colonial-like relations which do not necessarily originate from the colonial era.
One example for this statement, related to education, is the focus on a teacher-centred pedagogy
within the post-colonialist theory, which was the main type of pedagogy in Western societies during
colonial times. In contemporary times, however, this type of pedagogy is no longer the dominant
teaching methodology in the West and therefore focusing on this methodology in educational
development refers to the traditional relation between colonizers and colonized in the colonial area
rather than to contemporary forms of colonization. This also entails new types of relations as for
example between countries (or communities) and NGOs.
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Relating neo-colonialism to educational development results in a discussion on how Western actors
in the development field are applying a Western episteme for development. According to Nguyen et
al. (2009), educational neo-colonialism is shown in the ways in which Western paradigms tend to
shape and influence educational systems and the way of thinking in non-Western regions.
Problematizing dominant Western conceptions of quality education remains important in order to
provide space for alternative conceptions to emerge (Tikly, 2010), which may prove to be better
functioning in local contexts. A key question related to neo-colonialism in this research, therefore, is
whether local actors perceive the BEQIP to be hampering the possibilities of the local population to
develop education in a contextual and socio-cultural relevant way.
As neo-colonialism entails a broad range of concepts, four main features are identified through which
the case study of the BEQIP is analysed. As discussed in the introduction Western-centrism,
dependency, agency and resistance are highlighted as relevant neo-colonial features.
Western-centrism
Western-centrism refers to the practice of looking at the world from a Western perspective with a
perception (which can be constructed consciously or subconsciously) of superior Western culture,
knowledge and values at the expense of non-Westerns (Mgonja & Makombe, 2009). Thereby, It
implies a neglect of (geographical) diversity and the imposition of one ethnic group and its standards
over others (Andrews & Okpanachi, 2012). This concept can be related to neo-colonialism in
educational development aid since the perceived superiority of Western culture (whether conscious
or unconscious) is embedded in the ideology of aid programmes in this field, which can be reflected
in their pedagogical focus. Thereby, Western-centrism is perceived to have a colonializing character
as “it legitimizes Western cultural domination by indoctrinating non-Western societies into accepting
the superiority and universality of Western civilization” (In, 2006; p.119). Through those processes of
indoctrination and domination, according to In (2006), non-Western people have internalized that
same perception of Western superiority in worldviews, values and practices. Due to the perception
of Western superiority, non-Western communities are driven to processes of self-marginalization
and self-negation and are therefore not able to construct independent worldviews (In, 2006).
The LCE approach, which is included in educational aid programmes is considered to reflect norms of
a liberal Western subculture (Guthrie, 1990). Furthermore no causal relation was detected between
the implementation of learner centred teaching methodologies and an increase in the quality of
education in development countries (Guthrie, 1980). The specific liberal, Western, norms considered
by Guthrie (1990) are affective, moral and ideological values about a desirable psycho-sociological
set of characteristics for individuals and society as a whole. Simply phrased, Guthrie believed that the
implementation of LCE in the global South was mainly directed towards the spread of the Western
ideology about what society should look like. Although Guthrie does not elaborate on this idea, it
forms an interesting starting point in the discussion on how LCE, and in a broader context
educational development aid, can be perceived as a Westernisation process.
Implications with the implementation of LCE are discussed by O’Neill and McMahon (2005), to be the
resources needed to implement the learner centred methodology, a lack of the familiarity with the
term and the belief systems of the students and the education staff. Not only unfamiliarity with the
term can be considered an implication as confusion about terms used can also arise due to the use of
Western concepts. In the section on specific neo-colonial features in the BEQIP (page 21), the
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implication of the latter is elaborated on. As a specific example, Western-centrism occurs in
educational development aid in the form of textbook use (Anwaruddin, 2014), but next to this rather
clear form of Western influence in education aid, more subtle forms of Western-centrism can be
identified as the use of technical advisors on matters of education policies and a continuity of foreign
(often colonial-time) administrative models and curriculum implementation strategies in schools
(Altbach, 1995). Next to curriculum implementation strategies, the relevance of curricula in
education aid can be strongly Western influenced (Metzler, 2009). In these ways, the Western-
centrist approach towards education development limits the capacity of a country located in the
global South to develop (or implement) its own educational policies and priorities (Anwaruddin,
2014).
Dependency
Dependency entails a wide range of insights and therefore the particular type(s) of dependency
relevant to this thesis should be clarified in order for this concept to be of use for this research. A
first relevant type of dependency is identified as academic dependency. Academic dependency is
defined as “a condition in which the knowledge production of certain … communities is
conditioned by the development and growth of knowledge of other … communities to which the
former is subjected” (Alatas, 2014; p.285). According to Alatas (2014), relations of academic
dependency are constructed when one (developing) community can only develop as a reflection on
the development of another (academic powerful) community. Andrews and Okpanachi (2012) add
that academic dependency is founded in unequal (power) relations and therefore refers to unequal
structures in which knowledge is constructed and circulating in the global system. This rather
abstract explanation of academic dependency can be clarified with a concrete example as academic
dependency can occur when educational development programmes tend to develop communities
through academic approaches originating from ‘their’ developed world. In this sense, the developing
community can only develop by implementing similar pedagogical approaches as used in their
developed counterparts. Andrews and Okpanachi (2012) review this process as epistemic oppression
which, according to them, results in academic dependency in the sense that the individual’s inability
to make knowledge claims leads to the dependency on already established knowledge.
Next to academic dependency, aid dependency is recognized as a relevant form of dependency in
this thesis. Aid dependency, as defined by Bräutigam and Knack (2004), is a situation in which a
government is not able to perform core functions such as the delivery of basic public services,
without foreign aid funding and foreign expertise. A challenge regarding aid dependency, specifically
in the Ghanaian education context is identified by Akyeampong (2004) in terms of sustainability. He
refers specifically to alternative routes of basic education which are often introduced by NGOs or
other donor funds, which are often short-term initiatives and do not connect well to the formal
education system (Devarajan & Reinikka, 2003). Thereby, schools engaged in such initiatives are
often unable to engage in productive collaborations with local authorities regarding the acquisition
of financial means in order for the continuation of the initiative (Akyeampong, 2004). Next to short-
term initiatives, relations of dependency occur in the field of educational development aid when aid-
receivers apply for economic aid (loans). In these occasions, development countries are required to
make concessions with their donors and take action as opted by, or favourable to the interests of the
aid agencies although these actions may be potentially harmful to their own educational
development (Nguyen et al., 2009).
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Kendall (2009) identifies issues regarding the vocabulary and concepts used in the international
development arena as they represent, reflect or even (re)create underlying tensions of authority and
power. If the development practitioners indeed make use of such concepts, their authoritarian
behaviour could result in a dependency relation as they possess the knowledge and power to
determine the contents of development programmes whilst the receivers are subjected to it. It is
therefore, that Rottenburg et al. (2009) state that for an intervention to lead to sustained
development rather than sustained dependency, the receiving actors should contribute to the
intervention process.
Relations of dependency can be applied to the concept of neo-colonialism, as through such relations
strong influence can be exercised upon receiving communities. These influences, then, can be based
on economic, cultural, financial, military or ideological values. As the BEQIP is precisely the type of
(short-term) intervention described by Akyeampong (2004), the concept of (aid) dependency can be
related to the development programme. Thereby, as the BEQIP is a Western-based intervention
programme focussed on educational reform, academic dependency is applicable to this case.
Agency
Agency, according to Giddens (1984):
Refers not to the intentions people have in doing things but to their capability of doing those
things in the first place … Agency concerns events of which an individual is the perpetrator, in
the sense that the individual could, at any phase in a given sequence of conduct, have acted
differently. Whatever happened would not have happened if that individual had not
intervened (p. 9).
Stecklov et al. (2008) elaborate on this definition by conceptualizing agency as the ability of an
individual to act independently and to bring about change. By conceptualizing agency in this way,
they go one step beyond Giddens’ definition as they grant more focus towards the functional (agency
can be used to bring about change) rather than to the descriptive aspect (agency describes the
capabilities of people) of agency. In education, this concept is strongly related to the notion of self-
agency, which refers to a sense of ownership and autonomy people have towards their education
(Kusano et al., 2016). Agency in this thesis is considered to be the capability and power of local
teachers to apply, or not to apply the LCE approach (and more practically active learning techniques)
in their classrooms. The focus on local teachers, here, is based on the target group of the BEQIP and
one of the stakeholders of this research, namely the basic education teachers in the Northern-region
of Ghana. The power of these teachers is included as this strongly relates to the autonomy teachers
perceive to have in their classrooms. The decision whether to adopt the LCE approach or not
resonates with the ability of the teachers to bring about change in their daily lives and is strongly
related to the autonomy teachers experience in their schools. It is not this thesis’ intention to state
that increased abilities or a higher sense of autonomy inevitably results in a higher amount of
teachers adopting the LCE approach. These two outcomes, however, can contribute to the decision
making of teachers whether LCE is beneficial for their education or not.
Lasky (2005), in her article on teacher- identity and agency, stresses the necessity of examining
individual action in a way in which priority is granted to social contexts and cultural tools which
shape the construction of human beliefs, values and ways of acting. Individual beliefs and the ways in
which individuals think and act, she continues, are shaped by social, cultural, and historical
18
structures, which are reflected (specifically in an educational reform context) in policy mandates,
curricula guidelines and state standards (Lasky, 2005). Next to a function in the sustainability of
teaching and learning activities, educational reform is perceived by Lasky as a mediating system that
affects teacher identity, while also creating the conditions for teachers in schools to perform their
educational practice. “Agency is thus affected by reform in part as it comes into interaction with
teacher identity” (Lasky, 2005; p.900). Although teachers are active agents in the reform process,
their actions are influenced by the structural elements of their education setting in terms of available
resources, norms & values of their schools and externally mandated policies (Lasky, 2005).
Since Nguyen et al. (2009) consider educational neo-colonialism to show in the ways in which
Western paradigms tend to influence the ways of thinking in non-Western regions, agency, in this
thesis, is considered to be a feature of neo-colonialism as the intervention of the BEQIP consists of an
ideological shift in the education practice. Within Western paradigms of aid programmes, a focus on
agency is visible once such programmes consist of capability trainings, which tend to focus on the
introduction of capabilities that are deemed essential for a lesson delivery. The ideology behind what
is considered as essential can differ between contexts and therefore the local recognition of how
relevant the included capabilities in externally initiated intervention programmes are plays a
significant role in the determination of how an influence on agency is perceived from a local
perspective (source). Once particular capabilities are locally deemed as irrelevant, however included
in aid programmes, a sense of submission may be experienced among affected actors. The ways in
which submission to ideological reform is experienced by local actors, through a perceived supply of
irrelevant capabilities, forms the specific topic through which agency and neo-colonialism are
connected in this thesis. In educational development programmes, a change in agency is occasionally
the focus of interventions in which such programmes set rules and guidelines for the receivers to
follow in order to achieve this change. Agency, related to the BEQIP focuses on the ways in which
the BEQIP accounts for a perceived change in the capability of participating teachers to implement
teaching methodologies of their choice in their classrooms as well as the power to make their own
decisions while external actors are providing new knowledge and practices. Focusing on the
capability of teachers is of importance, especially related to the implementation of LCE in the
development context, as teacher capability is often the limitation to the successes of such
implementations (Schweisfurth, 2011).
Resistance
Resistance, as a rather general term, entails differing understandings based on the context in which it
is applied. Hollander and Einwohner (2004) identify two core elements of which the use of the term
resistance in most literature exists, which are the elements of action and opposition (Hollander &
Einwohner, 2004). According to Hollander and Einwohner, action indicates that resistance not only is
a quality or a state of being of an actor, but it involves forms of active behaviour, which can be
expressed verbally, physically or cognitively. Opposition indicates that this active behaviour is
directed to something or someone based on disagreement. Placing the concept in a sociological
framework, this research defines resistance as acts or patterns of action within ongoing processes of
negotiation between different agents of resistance, between agents of resistance and agents of
power, and between those two parties and different observers (Johansson & Vinthagen, 2016).
According to Johansson and Vinthagen, researchers who tend to contribute to the creation of truths
about resistance with the use of scientific discourses can be perceived as such observers. Resistance,
in this perspective is not inherently negative as it is perceived as a process of negotiation rather than
19
a destructive act. Placing the concept of resistance in a pedagogical framework, the definition of
Kindred (1999) is used:
As a form of acute attention, resistance, despite the negative style of its expression, is a
purposive entry into a dialogic and potentially exploratory process. Although it is an act of
self-preservation in the least, it can also be a move toward empowerment. Most important,
though, it is a developmental act within a process of cognitive and cultural change. Although
resistance is most often considered sign of disengagement, it can in fact be a form, as well as
a signal, of intense involvement and learning. In the simultaneity of negation and expression,
it is an active dialogue between the contested past and the unwritten future, between
practice and possibility (p. 218).
In this definition, a few aspects should be highlighted as they are of particular relevance for this
research. The perception of resistance as an exploratory process is relevant as the individual, in this
case, shows an understanding of the contemporary process as not being definitive as room for
(potential) development is recognized by the individual. This, then, can be related to Kindred’s
comment on resistance as a possible move towards empowerment. The recognition of cognitive and
cultural change is of relevance as change, in this research, is perceived as a potential initiator for
resistance. In development programmes, and in particular the BEQIP, forms of resistance are
perceived to provide visible results of disagreement between aid practitioners and receivers, which
(possibly) testifies of a neo-colonial perception towards the aid programme from a local perspective.
Resistance in aid, however, rarely takes the form of an overtly collective action, even if the receivers
possess the power to do so (Crewe & Harrison, 1998). It is often exercised in hidden or non-
articulated forms of resistance as for instance by creating space for manoeuvre between the policies
and rules determined by the donor (Baaz, 2005). It is therefore of importance to look into subtle
forms of resistance in development programmes rather than to only looking at large collective
demonstrations. Resistance, according to Nguyen et al. (2009), is essential for non-Western cultures
in order to not become re-colonized by Western actors. In the analysis on the BEQIP, sings of
resistance towards the programme are perceived as negative as forms of resistance indicate that
receiving actors are in disagreement with the ways in which the programme (or moreover its
facilitators) attempts to establish quality education in their region. Here, the resistance of actors
themselves (the action) is not perceived as negative, but rather the particular aspects of the
programme which are the cause of their resistance. Resistance has a strong relation with the
previously discussed concepts of neo-colonialism (Western-centrism, dependency and agency) as
these are all possible causes for resistance to occur.
Connecting neo-colonialism and its features Neo-colonialism, in this thesis, is described as a continuous relation between developing regions and
Western societies (Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984). Within this continuous relation, forms of
dependency can occur as the development of aid receivers is often reliant on this relation. Both
forms of academic- and aid dependency can originate from these interactions. Within these
continuous relations, Wickens and Sandlin (2007) identify various forms of domination to emerge.
Through this domination, forms of Western-centrism can be exercised by Western practitioners. In
such practices, the Western ideologies on (in the case of the BEQIP) education are reflected in
intervention programmes to which aid receivers can be subjected. Although aid receivers are active
agents, they can be subjected as a result of dependency, as previously discussed. In these occasions
20
Western-centred ideologies are often easier accepted by recipients due to their dependency on aid.
In the field of education aid, neo-colonialism is manifested in the implementations of Western
paradigms which tend to influence educational systems (Nguyen et al., 2009). As teacher’s
capabilities are strongly related to the educational systems in which they are active, agency can be
related to the spread of Western paradigms in educational aid. The Western paradigm, then, can
result in changes in teachers’ agency, depending on the ideology’s compatibility within the local
education context as well as on the willingness of local teachers to adopt the Western ideology in
their teaching methods.
As a result of these three features of neo-colonialism, resistance among recipients can arise.
Resistance, in this thesis regarded as an exploratory process through which actors can attempt to
empower themselves and as a developmental act within a process of cognitive and cultural change
(Kindred, 1999), is identified in various ways as responses to the neo-colonial features. Forms of
resistance were examined mainly through interviews with facilitating actors and personal
observations, rather than through interviews with local teachers. Reason for this approach is the
limited amount of data that was provided in most interviews with the local teachers. Possible
explanations for the minimal verbal expression of resistance among the teachers can be related to
the hidden or non-articulated forms in which resistance is often expressed (Baaz, 2005) and
therefore not identified by teachers as a form of resistance. Yet another argument, as discussed by
Akyeampong (1997) in his research on Ghanaian teacher trainings, is that teachers in Ghana often
provide answers they think the questioner is looking for. Therefore, it is possible that respondent
teachers in this research (intentionally) withheld comments related to resistance as they assumed
such comments were not desired by the researcher.
21
Chapter 4 – Perceptions towards Western-centrism in the BEQIP
The BEQIP, centred on the improvement of the quality of education in Northern Ghana, in the
following chapters is analysed not by its result, but by the perceptions of (local) participants about its
contents and implementation process. The determination of how neo-colonial features are visible in
the programme is derived from the analysis on its contents and implementation process as perceived
by the local actors, and as those features can occur in very subtle forms, personally observed
features during fieldwork are added.
The aim of this chapter is to provide an answer on the question to what extent is Western-centrism
experienced by local teachers in the Northern-region regarding both the contents and
implementation process of the BEQIP. In the theoretical framework Western-centrism was defined as
the practice of looking at the world from a Western perspective with a perception of superior
Western culture, knowledge and values at the expense of non-Westerns (Mgonja & Makombe,
2009). Thereby, Western-centrism is regarded to imply a neglect of (geographical) diversity and an
imposition of one ethnic group and its standards over others (Andrews & Okpanachi, 2012). In order
to apply this theoretical explanation to the BEQIP, the degree to which the programme was
perceived by the Ghanaian actors to present Western culture, values and knowledge as dominant is
discussed in this chapter. First, however, implications regarding the inclusion of Western-centrism in
aid programmes are discussed since these implications are probable causes for local actors to
experience Western-centred approaches in aid programmes.
(Possible) implications of Western-centrism in aid Main implications regarding the implementation of specifically LCE in non-Western contexts,
according to O’Neill and McMahon (2005) are the resources needed, a lack of familiarity with the
term and the belief systems of the students and the education staff. Thereby, Metzler (2009) stresses
the relevance of curricula included in educational intervention programme often to be an implication
as well as these not always focus on the contextuality of education. Thereby criticism has been raised
about the inclusion of LCE in aid programmes.
The particular pedagogy, according to Tabaluwa (2003), is an ideological outlook, or worldview, with
the intent to aid the development of a particular (sometimes preferred) kind of society. It is in this
sense, he states, that these developments should be viewed as presenting a process of
Westernisation, which is disguised in ways of quality teaching and learning methods. The
Westernisation process, here, not only refers to the adaptation of the Western style of education,
but also a process of democratisation (adopting the Western political system) is stated to be part of
the introduction of LCE by aid agencies:
Citizens who have been exposed to learning styles which require the questioning of
assumptions, empirical styles of studying and the exploration of alternatives are seen as
likely to have more chance of participating fruitfully in a pluralistic political process than
those who have not (Overseas Development Administration, 1994; p.3).
The pluralistic political process, as discussed by the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) can
be referred to as the stimulation of a liberal democracy, a free-market economy and the promotion
of competitive capitalism (Tabulawa, 2003). In short, LCE is believed to play a major role in the
22
spread of ‘Western’ ideologies, both educationally and politically. As the LCE methodology is the
major focus of the BEQIP, it is of interest to ascertain the perceptions of local teachers towards the
programme, especially their views on the ways in which the programme relates to their life world.
Thereby, cultural issues regarding the perceptions towards the ‘new’ educational approach can be
discussed. It might occur that teachers in a development region, as the Northern-region, are
unwilling to adopt LCE since they might perceive it as a Western way of teaching and not fitting
within their own (Ghanaian) culture (Schweisfurth, 2011).
Although the BEQIP was identified by Ghanaian participants to be an undisputedly Western
programme, little associations with Western superiority were made when discussing the contents of
the programme. In response to questions whether the BEQIP was perceived to implement a Western
style of education, rather than to make improvements to Ghanaian education, the respondents
unanimously replied the BEQIP to be concerned with the latter. Mainly due to the focus on local
(Ghanaian) education materials during workshops, the teachers identified the BEQIP to focus on an
improvement of their prior ways of teaching. In terms of implementation, some participants declared
education in the Western world to be superior over the Ghanaian education system. They however
did not feel dominated or forced by the intervention programme to adopt this style of education.
Western-centrism in resource use and pedagogical concepts During classroom observations and interviews with participating teachers, challenges directed
towards the resources and familiarity of LCE were detected. As the BEQIP was solely directed
towards public (government) schools, resources formed a main struggle. Whereas Mrs. Sieswerda,
founder of the BEQIP, mentioned that TLMs required for the implementation of active learning (as a
practical form of LCE), are available around every school, which with a creative use by teachers
indeed is true, still a shortage of, for example, textbooks is a reality in such environments. As
textbook use is one of the nine main topics of the BEQIP, this can be regarded as a challenge.
Although the focus on textbook use can be regarded as Western centred (since a shortage of such
books is prevalent in the region), the focus on these resources was not considered by participating
teachers to reflect a Western ideology of education. Reason for this perception is the use of
textbooks originating from the participating schools during the BEQIP workshops. Participating
teachers (and schools) were requested to send these resources prior to the onset of the workshops.
By using these textbooks, the workshops were delivered within a local context and with high
relevance for the (national) curriculum. Most of the respondents expressed a positive attitude
towards this approach as they could directly implement the learned methods in their lesson delivery.
Next to textbooks, implications with resources regarding multimedia use in daily lesson delivery were
observed during the BEQIP workshop itself. This workshop was solely organised by Ghanaian actors
and therefore Edukans cannot be charged with being Western-centred around this topic. The
Ghanaian facilitators, however, focused heavily on an education tool which can be regarded to
originate from a Western-centred view of education; the use of laptops during lesson delivery. This is
remarkable, as they are considered to be aware of the scarcity of laptop possession among the
participating teachers. The focus on laptop use in education can be qualified as a Western-centred
focus on education practices due to their scarcity, however in this instance performed by non-
Western actors. Thereby, the focus on (online) multimedia use (through the aid of laptops and
computers) is regarded as Western-centred as most of the participating schools had limited access to
computers in the first place, not to mention their accessibility to internet services. In this case, the
23
provision of workshops on multimedia use for lesson delivery seems a rather Western-centrist
perception to what is relevant in education.
Next to Western-centrism in resource-use during the educational development programme, the neo-
colonial feature is apparent in the terminology use by (especially) the Western facilitators. As a
practical implementation of the learner centred education approach, active learning was introduced
to the Ghanaian participants. This implementation, however, caused for confusion among the
participants, not because of its contents, but because of its name. In Ghana, the teaching
methodology knows as active learning in Western contexts is known under the term participatory
learning. Confusion arose among the participants as most of the contents which were discussed by
the facilitators were familiar to them, however due to the different terminology; they were uncertain
whether the same methodology was implied. It was Mr. Johnson, facilitator from the IBIS Ghana
organisation, who had to clarify that indeed the active- and participatory teaching methodologies
were similar, if not the same. Holding on to the term ‘active-’ rather than ‘participatory’-learning
testifies of a Western-centrist stance of the BEQIP in terms of terminology use.
Shifting towards ‘Western’ education? Above, signs of lacking resources and confusion about the terminology have been identified. In this
section, differences in belief systems of participating teachers and the Western-based facilitator are
investigated. Here, it is of interest to determine whether these actors differ in the way they perceive
the BEQIP to be appropriate for implementation in the local context. The learning by doing theory
suggests that knowledge is constructed through active involvement of a student in deductive
teaching methods, however, do local teachers agree with this approach on knowledge construction?
In traditional Ghanaian education, knowledge was commonly constructed through ‘rote-learning’
(Nudzor et al., 2015; Boso & Gross, 2016) in which the memorization of information through the
repetition of definitions and ‘facts’ was perceived as most efficient way of knowledge construction
(Adekunle et al., 2015). In this approach to knowledge construction, the teacher forms the centre of
the education practice and learners are expected to not question his/her authority (Schweisfurth,
2011). Within this authoritarian relationship, students are left with little opportunity to be actively
engaged in the lesson (Mtika & Gates, 2010). Ampiah (2008) identifies that in Ghana, the
constructivist-based approach to teaching is not very popular among teachers as the learner-centred
approach does not resonate well with the Ghanaian basic school curricula (Ampiah, 2006). On the
other hand, however, colonial education resulted in an imposition of a devalued identity and feelings
of inferiority among colonized societies (Stanton-Salazar, 2001). According to Stanton-Salazar (2001),
these results lead to a continuation of the colonization process, even after official independence of
the colonized state. This aspect of neo-colonialism is regarded to be a possible indicator for Western-
centrism as feelings of inferiority and devaluated identity could form the foundation for the
acceptance of Western-based ideologies among participating teachers. The question, now, is how
the BEQIP teachers perceive the active learning methods, and thereby the curriculum included in the
BEQIP, to fit within their educational environment.
A reoccurring comment from Ghanaian respondents was that the learner centred approach, included
in the BEQIP, was not all that new to them as most of the practical methods of active (participatory)
learning were (in theory) familiar among them as these practices were already included in national
education policies. On the other hand, however, most respondents also indicated that before the
implementation of the programme not many of those methodologies were implemented during their
24
lesson delivery. Within their teacher-centred, lecturing-like lessons only questioning and answering
(Q&A) was applied in order to involve the learners. Explanation for these contradicting comments
was later provided by Ms. Sieswerda, however, are solely provided once these countries (attempt to)
include the learner-centred education approach within their national policies on education. This
causes for a dichotomy in the analysis of Western-centrist perceptions on the BEQIP among
participating teachers, as they do not perceive the programme as Western-centred since its approach
is already included in their national policies. On the other hand, however, the World Bank has been
identified to create policies around a Western liberal framework (Williams & Young, 1994). Since the
World Bank requests development countries to include the LCE approach in their education policies
in order to receive subsidies, can the education approach therefore not be perceived as inherently
Western-centred? The reasoning that the Ghanaian government solely included the LCE approach in
order to receive subsidies could account for a possible explanation for the lacking implementation of
the active learning method in Northern-region classrooms. Here, the determination to adopt the LCE
approach is externally stimulated, rather than a result from intrinsic motivations to change (or
improve) the education system.
Perceived Western-centred elements of the BEQIP Relating Western-centrism to specific components to the curriculum of the BEQIP, the elements of
group work, the provision of- and receiving feedback, time management and the eradication of
physical punishment are analysed. Group work is included in the programme in order to stimulate
students to participate actively as well as an effective classroom management technique (Edukans,
2013). A difference, however, between classrooms in Western societies and those in the Northern-
region is the amount of students. Respondents indicated that not always group work is implemented
as groups would consist of 8 or more students, resulting in inefficient collaboration, as all 8 students
would not be able not participate actively during assignments. As a result, only up to 4 students
would perform the assignment whereas the other 4 would not actively participate, and therefore not
‘learn’ from the assignment. Dividing the students in smaller groups was indicated as not possible as
most classrooms did not provide sufficient space for more groups to work separately. Therefore,
focussing on group work as one of the main topics in the delivery of active learning in classrooms can
be perceived as Western-centred. The dependence to the physical classroom is more restrictive in
countries as Ghana than in most Western regions as the natural environment is often considered by
teachers to be unsuitable for lesson delivery.
Receiving and delivering (constructive) feedback is considered a second Western-related component
of the BEQIP, where especially neutrally receiving feedback and being constructive rather than
destructive were new to most participants. Using video-analysis (video recordings) as a tool for
feedback was new to all participating teachers. Although using video recording by most respondents
was perceived as positive, receiving feedback in general was less appreciated. The latter, however, is
strongly related to the destructive nature of feedback delivery which had been experienced by most
of the teachers. Due to this (negative) characteristic of feedback, many participants were reluctant to
this particular aspect of the programme. However, after workshops on constructive feedback a
number of participants valued the Western style of feedback as highly useful.
Time management during the education practice is considered as a Western feature, as the
perception of time already holds cultural differences between the Western facilitators and local
participants. From personal experience, it is fair to state that most basic education teachers in the
25
Northern-region consider time to be less binding to the education practice than most of their
Western counterparts. However, a large number of respondents indicated that time is their main
struggle in the implementation of active learning methodologies in the classroom. A two-fold
explanation is provided on this issue; first, in most schools, courses are divided in clusters of 35
minutes which is a lower amount of time than in most basic schools in Western societies. Thereby,
inexperience with the implementation of active learning methods occasionally resulted in little topics
of the curricula covered in a particular time-slot. An extreme example of the struggle with efficiently
implementing active learning methods was observed in a class in which a teacher committed 15
minutes to rearrange desks in order for the learners to engage in group work. Attempting to focus
heavily on active learning methods under such conditions (time constraints and unexperienced
teachers) is undermining the quality of education as it is not (yet) compatible with local education
practices.
Finally, the eradication of physical punishing (caning) students reflects a Western-centred ideology
on disciplining students for misbehaving in the classroom. Corporal punishment of learners in
Western societies has been a controversial issue (Gershoff & Bitensky, 2007), whereas in Ghanaian
beliefs and values, this type of disciplining children is considered a normal practice (Agbenyega,
2006). During the BEQIP, the facilitators not only focused on teaching methodologies but also on
classroom management and teacher-pupil relations. The eradication of caning in classrooms has
been one of the themes discussed and encouraged by the facilitators. As a results, a number of
participants indicated that because of the BEQIP they did no longer use the cane in order to discipline
their students, although the non-BEQIP colleagues in their schools not always followed their
example. Including the eradication of corporal punishment as a parameter of the improvement of
education quality was regarded as Western-centred since there is a contradiction between Western-
and local ideology on the position of corporal punishment in the delivery of quality education.
26
Chapter 5 – Experiences of dependency as a result of the BEQIP
As the BEQIP was organised by a variety of non-profit organisations, the organisation of the
programme can be framed as what Guo and Acar (2005) describe as non-profit collaboration. In their
understanding, this type of collaboration is defined as an event in which different non-profit
organisations are involved in order to cope with problems by joint effort, decision making, sharing of
resources and ownership of the final product or service. Through this type of collaboration,
interdependence among involved actors arises, as the BEQIP can only succeed once they all
contribute (Guo & Acar, 2005). These relations can take the form of unequal structures, in which a
certain group of actors are more dependent than others. The main aim of this chapter is to provide
an answer on the question of how the BEQIP has caused for relations of dependency as perceived by
the stakeholders involved in the programme.
Applying dependency and power to the implementation of the BEQIP The presence of a Western organisation in the role of donor and facilitator of the programme allows
for an analysis based upon power and dependency in the relations between the involved actors.
First, the relation between the international actor (Edukans) and the national- and local actors (IBIS,
Savana Signatures and basic school teachers) is discussed. In order to distinguish whether the
relation is based upon power and / or dependency, both these concepts should be defined to later
apply them to the BEQIP. The dependence of an actor A upon actor B (Dab) first, is proportional to
actor A’s ‘motivational’ investment (the determination of A that is it worth to invest in something) in
goals which are mediated by actor B, and second, proportional to the probability of actor A to reach
these goals outside of the relation between actor A and B (Emerson, 1962). The lower the probability
of reaching those goals outside of the described relation, the higher the dependency of actor A upon
actor B in meeting its goals and therefore the higher the power of actor B over actor A (Pba = Dab).
Specifying actors and goals related to the case of the BEQIP, the goal can be specified as ‘increasing
education quality in the Northern-region’. Actor(s) A, in the relation between the facilitators, are IBIS
and Savana Signatures. Actor B, in this case, is identified as Edukans. The dependency of IBIS and
Savana Signatures upon Edukans, then, is proportional to the determination of IBIS and Savana
Signatures that it is beneficial to enter into a relation with Edukans in order to attain an increase in
the quality of education in the Northern-region, as well as to the probability of reaching the same
goal outside of the relation with Edukans.
According to Emerson (1962), the notion of power should be included as a potential influence in the
relation between two actors when the dependence of one of the actors is the basis of the power of
the other. Since Edukans was approached by IBIS in order to reach their goal, it can be stated that, in
the specific case of the BEQIP, the dependency of IBIS on the involvement of Edukans forms the basis
of their relation. The concept of power, which should be included based on the described relation,
can be defined as: the power of actor A over actor B (Pab) is the amount of resistance of actor B
which can (potentially) be overcome by actor A (Emerson, 1962). In this theory, actor A can be
identified as Edukans and actor B as the national organisations. Whereas the previous example
consist of a singular dependence relation (actor A and B), it gets more complex when analysing the
relationship including the local actors (actor C). As the local teachers are dependent on the national
organisations for their involvement in the workshops, which, in their turn, are dependent on the
involvement of the international organisation in order to organise the workshops in the first place, a
27
Edukans - Financial donor - Theoretical & practical knowledge
National Organisations - Infrastructure - Distribution of programme (nationally)
Local teachers - Performance - Distribution of programme (locally)
circular dependence relation exists. In figure 1, this relation is depicted, showing how the involved
actors are connected and which type of power they (can) exercise within this relationship. Although
these relations in reality are more complex, by depicting the relations as is shown in figure 2, the
relations between the actors are clearly depicted as well as their functions through which they can
exercise their power. These functions refer to the ways in which the actors are contributing in
accomplishing the collective goal(s). Edukans, the donor organisation, possesses power as they
provide the financial support to carry out the programme as well as the provision of (scientific)
knowledge. The national organisations provide physical as well as social infrastructures which are
essential in the organisational set-up of the workshops. Physical infrastructure, here, refers to
accommodations for both the participants and workshops whereas social infrastructure refers to
social contacts the organisations possess through which participants can be recruited. Next to
infrastructure, the organisations fulfil an important function in the sustainability of the programme,
as they are expected to sustain the programme in the absence of Edukans. Local teachers have the
function of exercising, or performing, the knowledge provided by Edukans. Thereby, the teachers
have a function in the distribution of the programme on a local scale.
In figure 2, a circular relationship
between the three stakeholders is
depicted, instead of a hierarchical one.
Reason for this depiction is the
interdependency the three stakeholders
have for making the BEQIP a success.
Edukans, for example, is dependent on
the local organisations as these possess
local knowledge about education and the
interaction with local teachers. Thereby,
the national organisations are more
familiar with cultural values present in
local education practises. Furthermore,
both Edukans and the national organisations
are dependent on the involvement of local teachers as these are the actors performing the
pedagogical approach in the local context. Once local teachers decide not to involve LCE in their
classroom practice, the initial goal of the national organisations and Edukans will not be reached.
Experiences of dependency among stakeholders Although the term ‘dependent’ has not been directly mentioned to respondents, several ways in
which mutual dependencies occurred in the programme were clearly indicated. In order to identify
all types of dependency, all one-sided relations are discussed in the following order:
Edukans National organisations
Edukans & National organisations Local teachers
National organisations & local teachers Edukans
Local teachers National organisations
The international facilitator (Edukans) expressed dependency on national organisations mainly in
cultural, infrastructural, and sustainable terms. Since the international facilitator was not first-hand
Figure 2. Dependency between actors and actor functions.
28
familiar with the local education context, the national organisations were able to anticipate on
cultural differences before the programme commenced. In infrastructural terms, Edukans was
dependent on the national organisations for workshop accommodations and transportation. As
these facilities were provided by the national organisations, the international facilitators were
capable of spreading knowledge and delivering workshops in different areas in the Northern-region.
Finally, Edukans is dependent on the national organisations in terms of sustainability. As the
programme continued in the region, Edukans shifted the responsibility to the national organisations.
In this sense, Edukans is dependent on the national organisation for the continuation (sustainability)
of the programme in the Northern-region. Thereby the national organisations are essential in
maintaining the motivation of teachers to not fall back on their prior teaching methods.
In line with the previous dependency relation, Edukans expressed dependence on local teachers in
order to sustain (or extend) the educational approach in the Northern-region. In the end, the local
teachers are responsible for the implementation of the active learning methods in their classrooms
and in this way increase the quality of education. Thereby, the teachers have been requested to
organise in-service trainings (INSECS) in which the participating teachers pass on the knowledge
gained in the BEQIP to colleagues. Through these INSECS, both Edukans and the national
organisations are dependent on the local teachers in terms of the diffusion of active learning in the
Northern-region. As the diffusion of active learning is the single way in which the national
organisations are dependent on local teachers, this dependency relation is merged in this section.
National organisations expressed dependency on Edukans in terms of finance and knowledge.
Financially dependency was caused by the reality that Edukans was the donor organisation in the
BEQIP. Without their financial support, the programme could not have been executed. Next to
financial dependency, the national facilitators expressed dependency on Edukans in terms of
knowledge as the international facilitators had specific knowledge about the concepts introduced
during workshops, and more importantly, knowledge on how to implement these concepts in the
education practice. Knowledge on implementation is crucial as most Ghanaian educators lack this
particular ability. In this respect, dependency of the local teachers on Edukans can be merged in this
section as dependency on finances and knowledge were expressed by these respondents to be the
main forms of dependency. Finances, here, refer to the provision of, for example, TLMs in
participating schools, whereas knowledge, again, refers to the implementation of concepts. Next to
these types of dependency, one additional, personally perceived interesting, perception on their
reliability was indicated by teachers, namely their dependency on modernisation. According to a
number of teachers, the Western type of education is more advanced and could assist them to move
away from the “primitive way of teaching” (interview 3).
Finally, basic education teachers expressed forms of dependency on the national organisation in
similar ways as towards Edukans, as the provision of resources was mentioned to be depending on
the willingness of the national organisations to deliver these to the participating schools. An example
is the construction of ‘computer labs’ at the participating schools, which was performed by Savana
Signatures. These labs are essential for the teachers to deliver ‘relevant’ ICT lessons, which are
included in the national curriculum. Before the programme, ICT lessons were mainly delivered by
drawings on the blackboard and theoretical explanations, rather than with practical experiences.
Next to the provision of resources, the teachers indicated to be dependent on the national
organisations in terms of involvement with the programme. As the programme was showing positive
29
results in participating schools, other schools applied to take part of the programme as well.
However, due to the limited (financial) capacities of the programme, not many other schools could
be included. One of the control schools, however, was allowed to take of the programme.
Dependency was therefore experienced in the relation with the national organisations in order to
take part in the programme in the first place.
The results discussed above can be related to the concepts of academic- and aid dependency as
described in the theoretical framework. Academic dependency, here, can be related to the
knowledge on how to implement teaching methods from the LCE approach. As Edukans possessed
this particular ‘resource’, both the national organisations and basic education teachers were
dependent on this resource in terms of knowledge acquisition. Aid dependency, then, was
experienced by the national organisations and teachers especially in terms of funding. Teachers
indicated to experience resource deficiencies in their schools as they are unable to buy necessary
teaching materials for their lesson delivery. An example of limited accessibility to teaching materials,
observed at one of the participating schools, was an ICT lesson in which the teacher was compelled
to draw a computer mouse on the board in order to show it to the students as there was no ‘real’
example available in the school (figure 3). Thereby, the national organisations are no longer able to
provide workshops for the teachers as the funding of Edukans has ended. This is experienced by the
teachers as a major setback as they deemed the workshops as essential for sustaining and
developing their teaching skills. Next to
academic and aid dependency, which were
mainly experienced by the Ghanaian actors,
dependency in terms of sustainability were
expressed by Edukans. Although a continued
existence of the BEQIP is not necessarily
essential for Edukans itself, it is (logically)
strongly desired that the BEQIP will remain
influential in the Northern-region. In order
for the programme to sustain, Edukans is
reliant of the efforts of the national
organisations and local teachers to maintain
as well as spread the ideology of the
programme.
Implications with dependency, as indicated in the theoretical framework, can be related, amongst
others, to sustainability in the BEQIP. Implications with sustainability, here, are related to the
willingness of local authorities to support the programme in their districts. Although the facilitating
actors of the BEQIP attempted to include government officials in their intervention programme, the
lacking support of the authorities was a reoccurring theme among participating teachers. Explanation
for the lacking support is the frequent shifts of government officials within and between districts.
Due to these shifts, participating schools receive supervision from officials that are unfamiliar with
LCE and do not support this approach. In this sense, the involved actors are not only dependent on
each other’s involvement; they all are reliant on the acceptability of the Ghanaian authorities
towards the introduced teaching approach.
Figure 3. Drawing of a computer mouse and its functions during an ICT lesson.
30
Chapter 6 – Influences on teachers agencies from a local perspective
Agency, as related to the BEQIP, is concerned with the capability and power of local teachers to apply
or not to apply the LCE approach in their classrooms. During field work, questions were raised to
what extent the teachers felt they gained the freedom and knowledge to implement active learning
techniques effectively in their daily practice as a result of their involvement in the BEQIP. Underlying
reason behind these questions was the way in which a possible change in behaviour was perceived
by local teachers. The desired change, as introduced in the BEQIP, was directed from the prior
dominant (lecturing) teaching method to a more learner centred approach. The lecturing method is
the practical implementation of the teacher-centred education approach and in this sense not
corresponding with the aims of the BEQIP. In the programme, Edukans aimed at changing the
teachers’ daily practice through capacity building (Edukans, 2013). Capacity is considered to be ability
of people and the society as a whole to manage their affairs successfully (OECD, 2006). Capacity
building, then, refers to a process in which these abilities are trained (with the aim of improvement),
based on a preconceived design (OECD, 2006). Specific techniques through which capacity building is
pursued in the BEQIP are digital video recordings (of teacher during their education practice),
analysing observation methods, development of education materials and peer to peer support.
Embedded in Edukans’ goals3, traces of neo-colonialism can be identified as the terminology used in
the goal description as ‘changing’ and ‘moving to’ testify of an intervention in the behaviour of the
target group. As this intervention is founded on predominantly western ideologies, neo-colonialism is
an appropriate frame for analysing the (changing) agencies of the targeted individuals. Specifically
the relevance of the capabilities introduced as well as the extent to which force is experienced as a
result of the implementation of the learner-centred education approach are central in the analysis of
agency in the BEQIP. Thereby, the changing role of the teacher in the classroom is discussed as the
teachers are perceived to experience a deprived sense of power in the classroom as not them but the
students are the centre of the education practice.
Perceived changes in teacher agency As teacher capability forms an important aspect in the agency of teachers in the BEQIP, the
perception of local teachers on the relevance of the BEQIP to their agency is discussed. As a starting
point, the capability of teachers to implement active learning methods in their lesson delivery is
analysed. Here, the relevance of the LCE approach as well as the relevance of the concepts discussed
in the BEQIP are of importance. As discussed in the chapter on Western-centrism, according to most
teachers the methodologies discussed in the workshops were not new, as most of these
methodologies were already part of the Ghanaian education policy. The majority of the teachers,
however, indicated that the focus on their capabilities was shifted; from knowledge, to experience.
The shift in focus was perceived as relevant by most teachers as Ghanaian education initially was
centred on the lecturing method, which was indicated to be less efficient than active learning. In
TTCs, student teachers were educated to teach with a learner centred approach, using a
‘participatory’ method, but were mainly taught in a lecturing way; they lack an example of how to
implement the teaching methods. Most of the participating teachers indicated that as a result of the
BEQIP their agency was improved. Not only did their agency improve due to the knowledge on how
3 The approach of the BEQIP is framed as: ‘the project supports teachers to move to a learner-centred
approach, and ‘changing the existing educational practice’.
31
to implement particular teaching methods, but for the untrained participating teachers, their
involvement intrinsically improved their agency as they considered themselves to be trained teachers
due to the certificates handed out to them by Edukans after concluding the programme. The
perception of most participants to possess the capabilities for efficiently implementing the LCE
approach in their lesson delivery is questioned by Mr. Kruiswijk, as he identifies the use of ‘container
concepts4’ in the consideration of teachers’ capabilities. He provides the example in which most
teachers indicated to him to possess the capability of organising group work in their lessons,
although many of them, according to Mr. Kruiswijk, only possess these capabilities to the extent of
their definition, rather than their implementation. However, as this thesis is concerned with the
perceived agency of participating teachers, it can be stated that the participating teachers perceived
an improved agency regarding their capabilities to deliver LCE.
In the Northern-region, BEQIP teachers indicated to have experienced increased capabilities due to
their involvement in the intervention programme. Both in practical and ideological terms the
improvement of capabilities was discussed by these actors. In terms of practical capabilities, a variety
of teaching skills was mentioned to be gained as a result of the BEQIP. Most prominent among these
skills are the inclusion of ICT during the lesson delivery and the (preparation and) use of teaching and
learning materials. The (proper) use of tools as PowerPoint and multimedia are perceived by the
teachers as relevant capabilities and are framed as ICT tools. TLM use, thereby, has accounted for a
capability improvement as these materials are perceived as useful tools for the knowledge
transmission to their pupils. In line with knowledge transmission, the introduction of student
activities as writing, presenting and visualising have been discussed to have improved teacher
capabilities in the classroom. A number of teachers indicated to have experienced more effective
knowledge transmission towards learners while implementing these activities during lessons.
Although the inclusion of energisers was mentioned by only a few teachers, this capability asset was
personally observed to have positive effects on the teacher-pupil relation and, therefore, on
knowledge transmission, as most pupils are more willing to exert more effort into understanding
lessons from teachers with which they have a positive relation (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2011).
Due to the inclusion of energising exercises before and during lessons, students were seemingly
more willing to actively participate during the education practice. The teachers that made use of this
asset indicated that it increased their capability as the application of the LCE approach was perceived
to be more effective once students are more willing to get involved. Finally, in terms of practical
capabilities, the inclusion of the local environment is perceived to greatly increase teacher capability
as teaching resources, in all forms, are scarce in the Northern-region. Due to practical examples of
how to involve the local environment in lesson delivery, teachers indicated that their capability of
delivering LCE greatly improved. A practical example of how the local environment is now being
included by teachers in the Northern-region is provided in figure 4, in which a JHS teacher visualizes
water pollution during a lesson on the environment. This teacher added sand to a bowl of water in
order to show the students what water pollution can look like. Due to the inclusion of LCE in the
national education policies, the BEQIP was considered by a number of the participating teachers as a
useful ‘add-on’ to their previously gained knowledge at TTCs5. In this sense the focus on the
4 Translated from the Dutch ‘container begrippen’.
5 The framing of the BEQIP as an ‘add-on’ was only expressed by teachers who were enrolled at a TTC before
becoming a teacher.
32
performance, rather than on the
theories of teaching was considered
as an encompassing improvement of
the teacher’s capabilities.
In terms of ideological capability
improvement, the BEQIP is perceived
by teachers to have improved their
agency as they indicate that LCE is
perceived to have more positive
education outcomes than by using the
TCE approach. These outcomes are
experienced in improved test results
and child involvement during the
lesson delivery. Thereby, a majority of
teachers indicated to have improved
as teachers in general due to their training in the BEQIP. Next to the positive experiences in results
and personal improvement, the conviction to implement the LCE approach arose as teachers
experienced this type of education delivery to be less exhaustive as it takes them less effort to
deliver lessons and at the same time this approach is recognized to be more beneficial for the
students’ learning process. However, not only for the participating teachers the LCE approach was
considered to be beneficial; BEQIP teachers indicated that their colleagues were able improve their
(ideological) capabilities as well which resulted in certain schools to the adaptation of LCE teaching
methods by non-BEQIP teachers.
BEQIP’s influence on the perception of power Next to teacher capability, the power of teachers is strongly related to their agency. “Power depends
on structural position in a field of connections to other agents as well as actor capabilities…” (Kahler,
2015; p.4). The concept of power, here, is considered to play an important role in two ways; first, the
sense of power teachers have for being able to decide whether or not to apply the LCE approach in
their classrooms, and second the sense of power teachers have as related to their students. The
freedom teachers experience to implement the LCE approach in their classrooms can be considered a
form of power as it is in these actions the teachers show their position in the field of connections
with the facilitators of the BEQIP. The degree to which force originating from the national- and
international organisations is experienced by the teachers is therefore involved in the perception of
teacher agency in this paragraph.
In terms of force, generally a little degree of pressure was experienced by the teachers in their daily
practice as they perceived the actions of the facilitating organisation as encouraging and advising,
rather than enforcing. This perception can be explained by the ways in which Edukans operated
during the programme as this facilitator limited the amount of visits to the participating schools to
twice a year. It was because of this approach that the local teachers experienced little force as they
perceived to have the freedom and time to implement the LCE approach in their classrooms. Thereby
teachers expressed to be able to have an influence during the provided workshops which resulted in
a sense of ownership of the programme, which intrinsically reduced the sense of enforcement
among the teachers.
Figure 4. Inclusion of local environment by a JHS teacher.
33
As the power relation between teacher and pupil inevitably changes in the shift from teacher-
centred- to learner-centred education the perceptions of how power can be exercised was discussed
during interviews with involved teachers. The role of the teacher, here, forms an interesting
discussion as this role shifts from the ‘centre of knowledge’ to a more guiding role. Most of the
participating teachers, however, did not experience to be giving up their power, but rather reshape it
to their (and their student’s) advantage as they do not experience to feel less powerful towards the
leaners. This reshaped power is now expressed in the positive relations between teacher and pupil as
opposed to the previous sense of power which was expressed in force and dominance of the
teachers in the classroom.
Based on their perceptions towards their (resource and ideological) capabilities and power, teachers
have experienced, and are still experiencing, an increase in their agency as a result of the BEQIP.
However, as most respondents indicated these positive changes to their agency, it is remarkable that
during participant observations, relatively low (quality) implementation of active learning methods
were detected. Question, now, is what the underlying causes for these developments are. The next
chapter discusses forms of resistance among participating actors of the BEQIP.
34
Chapter 6 – Responses to the BEQIP: local acts of resistance
Although the demand for educational reform originated from actors in the Northern-region of
Ghana, forms of resistance can still occur as a response to the way in which this reform is delivered
to them. This paragraph identifies ways in which both local teachers and national organisations
exercise forms of resistance towards the BEQIP. Resistance as active, oppositional behaviour among
basic education teachers can be strongly related to the statement above regarding the number of
teachers not exercising any active learning methods in their lesson delivery during observations at
basic schools.
Lacking implementation As resistance is a concept which can entail a wide range of actions, different forms of resistance are
discussed in this paragraph. A first way in which resistance is exercised by teachers is by not
implementing the active learning methods during their lessons. This is perceived as resistance as it is
a (conscious) action opposing their desired behaviour, namely the implementation of active learning
methods during the lesson delivery. As this form of resistance has been observed during a number of
visits, underlying reasons have been discussed with involved actors. The three distinctive arguments
for teachers to resist the implementing of the active learning methodology are classified as teacher
motivation, financial issues and a conflicting curriculum. As active learning was introduced to, and
exercised with the participating teachers in a stimulating environment (during workshops),
encountering the tough education environment once returning to their schools caused for a decrease
in the motivation of teachers to actually apply the learned methods. Thereby, these teachers often
do not receive support (in terms of knowledge distribution) from their head masters or supervising
government officials, which motivates them to fall back to their prior, more teacher-centred ways of
teaching. Next to being unsupportive, government officials occasionally also indirectly cause for a
lacking motivation among teachers, as the teachers become “too relaxed” (interview 16) once they
are not being monitored by the officials. Mr. Alhassan, facilitator of the BEQIP from the GES,
reinforces this statement as he indicated that teachers were reluctant to implement active learning
in their school as he did not visit the school to monitor them. A final reason for teachers to reject the
implementation of the LCE approach is because, according to them, it requires much preparation
(time). Not all teachers were motivated to spend much time on lesson preparation and therefore
decided to fall back on teacher-centred education. A second motivation for teachers to give up on
the new teaching method is related to financial issues in acquiring essential materials (TLMs) for the
lesson delivery. Although these actors have been informed on the importance of these materials in
the particular teaching approach, and thereby the positive effects the method can have for education
results, a number of the participants were not willing to invest their own financial means into to
acquisition of these materials. Without these materials, then, teachers decided to fall back on their
prior teaching method. Finally, the Ghanaian national curriculum is conflicting with the possibilities
for teachers to implement active learning during their lessons as the curriculum demands the
teachers to cover a broad range of topics within a relatively short period of time. As teachers
expressed issues regarding the time the implementation of active learning occupies, they moved
away from the teaching method in order to cover the curriculum.
35
Limited distribution Whereas the BEQIP was supposed to gradually expand its impact as a result of INSECS at schools and
the implementation at TTC’s, stagnation in its expansion was observed by involved actors. One
reason for this stagnation, as discussed by participating teachers, is the resistance of non-BEQIP
teachers to attend INSECS. These teachers often do not see the necessity for the learner centred
education approach. Especially teachers of older generations were not accepting the ‘new’ way of
teaching. Resistance, as a concept consisting of action and opposition, is easily applied to this
stagnation process, as non-interested teacher clearly perform actions of opposition against the
distribution of the LCE approach. Whether underlying processes of self-empowerment or self-
preservation, as discussed by Kindred (1999), are at the foundation of these actions cannot be
ascertained. However, among the non-BEQIP teachers (included as control group) a number of
respondents referred towards more ‘traditional’ perceptions towards teaching in terms of their role
in the classroom as well as to teacher-pupil relations. In their understanding, teachers ought to
perform as authoritarian and powerful actor in the classroom in order to keep the learners in line.
This perception is strongly contrasting the education approach as opted in the BEQIP. Therefore, it is
possible that teachers that tend to relate more to the traditional teaching approach are unwilling to
shift their daily practices towards LCE as they do not agree with the changes in their role and relation
with their students.
Distrusting the ‘other’ General distrust in the (Western) facilitators is yet another form of (non-articulated) resistance
among teachers in the BEQIP. The origin of distrust among participating teachers in the BEQIP is
founded on general distrust of ‘the whites’. Especially during the initial stages of the programme
participants were concerned about the motives of the Western practitioners. Distrust, here, was
expressed in a variety of expectations by the participating teachers. As a first example, teachers were
afraid they would be forced to learn methods which would be disadvantageous for them. Others
expressed distrust in in the sense that they were ‘put’ together for the benefit of the facilitators. It
was believed that the facilitating actors received money and were not willing to use these means for
the benefit of the teachers. One of the respondents quoted his peers who stated that “these people
are cheating us, they will get plenty of money for the programme and when we come to the training,
they will give us nothing” (interview 11). However, as the programme progressed, the degree of
distrust decreased as the teachers noticed the motivation and dedication of the facilitators to deliver
the programme to the benefit of the participants. The expression of distrust to peer participants,
here, is perceived as a form of resistance as it is a hidden or non-articulated form of opposing action.
The reintroduction of undesired practices The eradication of corporal punishment (as discussed on page 26) is not only applicable to the
analysis of the BEQIP as a topic of Western-centrism, as it also initiated resistance. In some schools,
the eradication of physical punishment was not sustained. At one of the participating schools, it was
indicated that after a one-month trial without the use of the cane, desertion rates rose with
approximately 30%:
...Here in Africa, we are strong headed. So we don’t correct each other with words. We
correct each other with strong actions. If you say the word, the child won’t change. You have
to add action. So they [facilitators] were always trying to encourage us not to use the whip.
But us, as much as we tried not to use the whip, we see the children not listening to us ... We
36
tried a whole term not to use the cane, but that was when we experienced more students
running to home (Interview 11).
Banning the caning practice from the school apparently gave rise to motivations for children to
prematurely leave the school as other forms of punishment were not as deterrent as caning. After
the failure of the one-month trial, the punishing technique was re-introduced at the school. This is a
form of resistance as this is an action opposing the aims of the Western ideology (the eradication of
corporal punishment). Thereby, the reintroduction is perceived as the creation of a space of
manoeuvre (Baaz, 2005), as the school is willing to participate in the programme, however with the
exception of this particular aspect. Creations of spaces of manoeuvre have been detected, next to
the reintroduction of caning, in the transmission of knowledge and in teacher-pupil relations as well,
as here elements of the TCE approach were clearly observable during teaching practices of
participating teachers.
Manoeuvring within the learning centred education approach In such practices, often characteristics of rote learning were observed as the main approach towards
knowledge transmission from teacher to learner. Since rote learning has been discussed as being
strongly related to the TCE approach (p. 24), the continuing performance of this teaching technique
is considered as a form of resistance, since teachers are displaying an attempt to fit features of TCE
within the desired LCE approach. In this sense, teachers are creating spaces for manoeuvre to display
their personal convictions towards knowledge transmission within a LCE frame. Although it was
stressed before that a mixture in the application of the LCE and TCE approach are often visible in
education practices, this particular observation is perceived as resistance as the creation of this space
in which traces of rote learning are clearly visible, as it is an opposing action towards the desired,
constructive approach towards knowledge transmission (which are displayed in the theories of active
learning and learning by doing). A number of teachers in the Northern-region displayed this type of
resistance by focussing on the repetition and memorization of definitions during their lesson
delivery. During these lessons students were expected to be able to replicate definitions of certain
concepts rather than formulating a personally invented explanation of what those concepts entailed.
Whereas in the BEQIP the application of more active ways of learning have been promoted by its
facilitators, these teachers showed to rather ‘fall back’ on the prior ways of teaching. Although this
form of resistance is strongly related to the agency of local teachers (as they display the power to not
implement particular parts of the BEQIP), it is discussed in this chapter as during interviews teachers
did not express any causes for deciding not to implement more constructive approaches towards
learning. As the previous chapter is concerned with the question of how local teachers perceive the
BEQIP to have influenced their agency, solely displaying this particular form of resistance without
specifically indicated causes for their refusal is regarded to be a form of resistance rather than a
perception towards agency and therefore discussed here.
Persisting traditional relations of force A final form of resistance observed in the daily education delivery of local teachers is concerned with
the teacher-pupil relation. Specifically the ways in which the teachers presented themselves to and
communicated with the learners showed resistance towards the desired relation as argued in the
BEQIP. In the LCE approach, teachers and pupils are considered to be mutually responsible for the
lesson efficiency and in order to optimize this efficiency, mutual respect should be shown in the
teacher-pupil relation. Improving teacher-pupil relations can have positive effects for the learner as
37
positive teacher-pupil relations have shown to contribute to learners social skills and stimulate their
academic performance (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2011). Thereby, teachers who implement more
learner-centred practices (for example the inclusion of students in decision-making or showing an
understanding of induvial differences between students) in such positive relations are more likely to
generate a higher motivation in their students than teachers who do not implement such practices
(Daniels & Perry, 2003). During some lessons, however, teachers showed less positive pupil-teacher
relations as they used force as the main driver of their relation with their pupils. Force, here, was
expressed in the use of their voice, the attitude towards the learners and the ways of ‘correcting’
them. Practical examples of displaying force by teachers ranges from subtle expressions by talking
with a deeper voice to more extreme from by openly shaming students in the classroom that do not
perform well. Although the initial intention by the teachers was to stimulate the learners to do better
next time, other, more constructive ways of interaction could have been applied by these teachers.
38
Discussion
Although the neo-colonial features have been discussed as separate phenomena throughout this
thesis, the interconnectedness of them should be discussed as during fieldwork strong connections
between these concepts were detected. After elaborating on the interconnections, a clarification is
provided on how the main features of neo-colonialism are perceived to influence (educational)
development in the region, both from a personal- and a local perspective. Subsequently, various
perceptions in the contemporary discussion on the position of education aid at the global level are
presented, allowing this thesis to place this intervention programme within the broader field of
educational development aid. As a final part of this discussion a brief reflection on the steps taken
during this thesis and recommendations for similar researches is provided.
Interlinking features of neo-colonialism Resistance is the most obvious example in terms of interconnectedness as the features of Western-
centrism, dependency and agency can all account for local motivations to express forms of
resistance. Desired shifts in agency, for example, can lead to forms of resistance especially once a
particular shift is perceived by receiving actors to create ‘negative’ agency (Osborn et al., 1997). As
this shift is perceived to be disadvantageous by the local community, resistance can occur which can
differ in scope and magnitude. As for locally perceived issues related to agency, experiences of
Western-centrism and dependency can account for resistance against educational intervention
programmes. Western-centred connotations towards such programmes, although generally
perceived as positive in the BEQIP, can result in resistance as Western-centred concepts may not in
all instances fit well within the local education system (which can be identified as implication of
Western-centrism). In this thesis, the eradication of physical punishment was mentioned as Western-
centred element causing for resistance among local teachers. Dependency caused for resistance in
the BEQIP in terms of limited implementation of teaching methods related to the LCE approach. Due
to a perceived aid dependency (in terms of finances), a number of teachers selectively applied
learner centred education methods during their lesson delivery as they stated that too little teaching
materials were available to them. Resistance is therefore considered to be a consequence of locally
perceived elements of Western-centrism, dependency and agency in the BEQIP.
The remaining features, however, are mutually connected in different ways. Western-centrism and
dependency are interlinked with regard to academic dependency. Where educational intervention
programmes are often founded on Western-centred ideologies, non-Western regions subjected to
such programmes are highly dependent on the extent to which these ideologies are tailored in a way
that they are applicable in the local education context. Thereby, in situations in which required
knowledge for understanding an intervention programme exceeds the knowledge of receiving actors,
these receivers are highly dependent on the skills and willingness of Western practitioners to
properly transmit their knowledge to them. Regarding aid dependency, Western-centrism is
expressed in terms of the materials that are necessary for implementing Western (LCE inspired)
education programmes.
Western-centrism is linked to shifts in agency as the capabilities that are focused on by Western
practitioners in intervention programmes are often perceived to be beneficial from a Western
perspective. Therefore, such programmes can be perceived from local perspectives to reflect
Western dominance as the focus on capabilities not necessarily resonates with the ideology of
39
receivers. Dominance can be experienced by receivers in terms of power as well in terms of the
freedom they receive from Western practitioners to implement (for example) the LCE approach in
their classrooms. Here, the degree in which facilitating actors monitor the implementation of the
teaching approach plays an important role.
As agency is regarded to be the capabilities and power of teachers to apply the LCE approach in their
classrooms, obtaining relevant capabilities depends on the involvement of facilitators, which often
possess the knowledge to deliver (or train) these capabilities. Next to academic dependency,
dependency in aid can be related to agency as teachers are often financially dependent on acquiring
teaching and learning materials necessary for their lesson delivery. Whereas the acquisition of
capabilities required for the desired shift can be linked to academic dependency, dependency for the
eventual implementation of LCE is related to aid dependency as funding is often essential for
receivers in educational aid to execute the desired shift.
Reviewing the neo-colonial features In order to clarify the position of this thesis in terms of the concepts used, the neo-colonial features
can be regarded as neutral rather than inherently negative. Whereas these concepts often possess
critical connotations, the concepts can occasionally be considered to have positive outcomes (agency
is excluded from this particular discussion as this concept in general holds neutral, rather than critical
connotations to it). Regarding resistance, Johansson and Vinthagen (2016) discuss positive features
as they perceive resistance to be an act of negotiation, through which people are able to negate
about what is most beneficial for their development. Western-centrism is identified as an act of
looking at the world from a Western perspective in which Western values, knowledge and culture are
perceived to be superior to those of non-Western regions (Mgonja & Makombe, 2009). In
educational aid, Western-centrism legitimizes Western dominance by presenting itself to non-
Western regions as universal and superior (In, 2006). In the analysis of the BEQIP, the involvement of
the LCE approach was perceived by teachers to reflect a Western-centred ideology on education.
These stakeholders individually reproduced the image of superior Western education in their
personal understanding of quality education as they referred to learner-centred education methods
in their characterization of what quality education entails. This characterization was predominantly
based on personal experiences with teaching in which a comparison was often made between the
pre-BEQIP and post-BEQIP era. In nearly all cases, the post-BEQIP era was perceived to better reflect
quality education, which, in a way, implies conformity of Western superiority in educational
development among basic education teachers in the Northern-region. Providing a similar discussion
on relations of dependency is mainly led through the inclusion of how these relations are perceived
by aid-receivers. Through interactions with local teachers, an understanding was gained on why such
relations are locally perceived as predominantly beneficial, as in their understanding these relations
are crucial for development as a large amount of necessitated resources emanate from these
interactions. It is therefore that these relations can be related to considerations of empowerment
and development instead of oppression and submissiveness. In this perspective, dependency is thus
perceived to hold positive features in local perspectives. However, as issues with sustainability in
relations of dependency are experienced, these interactions can be better perceived as neutral
rather than positive (or negative).
40
The global debate on educational aid As a response to the 1990 Jomtien conference on Education for All, at which a call was made for
universal primary education, the international donor community endorsed projects around
education in the global South (Riddell, 1999). As a response to this phenomenon, many studies have
been conducted in order to gain insights in the results of these projects. Heneveld and Craig (1996),
Szirmai (2005) and Asiedu (2014) present pro-education aid perspectives, as their researches on the
relation between education aid and economic growth demonstrate a positive causality, especially
when investing in primary education in Sub-Saharan African countries. Next to economic growth,
significant contribution to achieving universal primary education has been identified by Asiedu as a
direct result of education aid. Barnett (2011) elaborates the significance of educational aid in the
primary education sector by stating that these early investments have positive effects on, amongst
others, student cognition, social-emotional development and school progress. Babaci-Wilhite (2016)
perceives a positive role for education development aid, as, according to her, paradigm shifts in
national education policies are essential for African development. These paradigm shifts are
presumably dependent on the implementation of Western ideologies in African education policies
and therefore education aid can play a major role in such implementation processes.
Although this research generally limits its focus on the involvement of Western actors in educational
aid programmes, non-Western led education aid is a (relatively new) development that requires
consideration in this discussion. Yuan (2013) presents Chinese-driven educational aid as different
form Western or Japanese aid styles. Although acknowledging this difference, she states that
Chinese-led aid can equally contribute to education development as long as it builds on the
foundations of mutuality, equal benefits and self-reliant development. Yuan, here, discusses the
positive relation of development aid and education, however, from a Chinese, rather than Western
perspective.
A moderately positive perception to educational aid is presented by Alleki (2013), who states that
although aiming for education for all through educational aid is an honourable goal, it should not
ignore crucial questions as to what kinds of labour markets and what types of societies education is
directed in receiving regions. In this respect, the curricula of educational aid programmes should take
into account such questions and be flexible in the sense that they can be tailored to the interests of
recipient actors in order to be of value for developing regions. In line with this reasoning Packer
(2013) elaborates on externally initiated development programmes, although in a more critical
manner. She states that such aid programmes, no matter how participatory in their implementation
fail to offer development solutions that can be implemented locally. Through this interaction, she
states, continuous relations of dependency exist on external knowledge (framed as academic
dependency in this thesis) of how to execute the particular programme in order to address their local
needs. As a result of the dependency relation, the outcome of aid programmes may not reflect the
particular needs of the local population. She therefore advocates for projects that result from the
innovation and experimentation of a target population as the most advantageous approach for
educational aid.
Strongly opposing educational aid, Geo-JaJa (2013) frames the supremacy of neoliberalism as cause
for education, and educational aid, to turn into a practice of disempowerment. He presents
educational aid (as a process that should be considered a transformational development) as
subordinate to “the corporatization and internationalization of education” (Geo-JaJa, 2013; p.177).
41
According to him, teachers are reduced to deskilled ‘robots’ in these processes, as they do not have
control over what they teach in the classroom.
Above, various perspectives on education aid at the global level are presented in which a variation in
the position towards this topic is clearly visible among academics. Whereas educational aid in one
perspective is considered to have a causal relation with economic growth and increased student
numbers, an opposition perspective considers education aid to be a practice of disempowerment.
Mediating between these positions is the perspective that education aid can have positive effects
once it is implemented with a strong focus on the recipient’s needs. From outside this debate non-
Western academics enter the discussion by reviewing non-Western education aid programmes as
differing, although equally as beneficial as those initiated by Western actors.
Based on this discussion, the BEQIP can be reviewed in order to determine how the programme
relates to the varying perspectives on education aid at the global level. The programme strongly
relates to the Western type of education aid as the programme was initiated by a Western-based
organisation and was founded on ideologies that resonate well with the delivery of education in the
Western world. Based on these ideologies, a paradigm shift (form predominantly TCE to a LCE
approach) was included in order to accomplish the main goal, namely the improvement of education
quality in the Northern-region of Ghana. However, due to experiences with education aid in non-
Western regions, facilitators of the BEQIP indicated that no straightforward correlation exists
between education aid and development. It was therefore advocated by these facilitators that a
focus on the local context was of main importance for the BEQIP to improve the quality of education.
Local teachers shared this vision as they indicated that educational intervention programmes can
only succeed once a strong focus is dedicated to the context in which the education practise is
performed. Although the importance of contextuality was stressed by local teachers, a sense of
internationalization of education in educational aid was recognized by these actors as most of the
programme’s elements were considered to be Western. Internationalization, however, was
considered by most teachers as beneficial as being able to provide education in a Western way (by
including LCE) was strongly related to being a quality teacher. In a way this conviction could be
perceived as a process of becoming a deskilled ‘robot’ as teachers are subjecting themselves to
unfamiliar practices of teaching since the provision of this type of education was not delivered to
them at TTC’s, which creates a form of dependency on the information that is delivered to them
during the programme. During lesson delivery, however, a number of teachers presented localized
ways in which the LCE approach can be implemented in education, show a (possible) form of
resilience to becoming a deskilled actor. Based on this reflection, it can be stated that the BEQIP
possessed elements of most of the perspectives present in the global debate on educational aid.
Based on the strong focus the facilitators directed towards the local context in order for the BEQIP to
succeed, the BEQIP is perceived to primarily relate to the context-based perspective for education
aid to have a positive effect.
Reflection on decisions & recommendations for future research Based on the fieldwork that was conducted in the Northern-region, results have been gathered and
linked to the theoretical concepts determined relevant for this thesis. The decisions made during
various stages of this research have had a significant impact on the acquired results as the
determination of the analytical scope inevitably leads to a certain filter through which the data is
analysed. Thereby, the (sub-) regions in which fieldwork is conducted could have considerable
42
influences on the outcomes of comparable studies. Most of the data used in this thesis originates
from actors operational in urban regions which may have resulted in a certain bias towards particular
aspects of the research. Where Western-centrism forms a central feature in this thesis, actors in
urban areas (in particular Tamale6) might provide different insights in the involvement of Western
actors compared to respondents in rural areas. In order to gain a non-biased picture on the way in
which Western-centrism is experienced by local teachers, more rural-based teachers should have
been included. Thereby, more visits to the participating schools could have been conducted to gain a
more realistic view of how education is delivered in these schools. As most schools were visited for
one or two days, most of the observations can be regarded as snapshots of how education is
delivered at participating schools and therefore it could be beneficial for similar studies to
repetitively observe teachers.
In order to construct a theoretical foundation for this thesis, many literature sources have been
consulted regarding topics as educational aid, neo-colonialism, Western-centrism, dependency,
agency and resistance. During the composition of this foundation, specific topics were more
challenging to cover than others. Indicating the relation between neo-colonialism and educational
aid was particularly challenging as this specific relation is not yet extensively discussed by academics.
Colonial-like relations in educational aid are often associated with the post-colonial theory rather
than with the related neo-colonial alternative. Thereby, the limited provision of literature that does
exist on the relation between education aid and neo-colonialism is predominantly directed towards
regions outside of the African continent. Next to limited availability of literature on the previously
discussed relation, only few academics have been focussing on educational aid and educational
development in Ghana, and more specifically the Northern-region, resulting in a form of dependency
on the interpretations and findings of a limited number of academics in order to retrieve information
about these processes in the region of interest. Even less literature on educational aid programmes
with a main focus on teacher trainings were found during the literature review as most of these
programmes focus on different aspects of educational aid (as for example through the provision of
teaching materials or improvements in infrastructure). As information on the aforementioned topics
have been difficult to acquire during this research, it would be beneficial for the field of educational
aid if more research would be conducted with a similar approach as this thesis. More research
towards these topics, then, could contribute to an improvement in the outcomes of educational aid
interventions in developmental regions.
6 Tamale is the capital of the Northern-region province of Ghana and has is often regarded as the ‘NGO capital’
of Ghana.
43
Conclusion
By analysing perceptions of stakeholders regarding Western-centrism, dependency, agency and
resistance, this research aims to show to what extent features of neo-colonialism are experienced by
local teachers in the Basic Education Improvement Programme in the Northern-region of Ghana. In
this chapter, an answer is provided on the main question, which is framed as:
How do neo-colonial features of Western-centrism, dependency, agency and resistance show
in the perceptions and behaviour of local actors as a result of the implementation of the
BEQIP in the Northern-region of Ghana?
The learner-centred education approach possesses a dominant role in the discussion on perceived
neo-colonialist features among Ghanaian stakeholders as a result of the implementation of the
BEQIP. Based on results acquired during fieldwork it can be stated that Western-centrism is identified
in the perceptions of local actors in terms of unfamiliarity of certain included concepts (concept
building, time-on task and feedback) and in the implementation of the LCE approach in their daily
practice. Thereby, Western-centrism is reflected in the general perception towards (quality)
education among local teachers as they stress the Western type of education to be superior over
traditional Ghanaian teaching approaches.
Academic- and aid dependency is shown in the perceptions of teachers as two major types of
dependency in order to implement LCE in the Northern-region. Academic dependency, here, relates
to the practical knowledge of how to implement the LCE approach (e.g. active learning) in the daily
practice of teachers. Aid dependency is identified by local actors as they stated to be dependent on
resources as finances and materials for being able to continue the BEQIP in the Northern-region.
Local actors show a predominantly positive stance towards the influences of the BEQIP on their
agency. The programme is considered by them to have enhanced their capabilities and power to
decide whether to apply or not to apply the LCE approach in their classrooms.
Resistance is shown in a variety of (often non-articulated) ways among local actors. Lacking
implementation and distribution in the form of INSECS of the LCE approach, general distrust towards
facilitators and the reintroduction of undesired practices and former teaching methods are the main
themes through which resistance has been shown in the behaviour of participating teachers.
Based on the results presented above, it can be stated that the four neo-colonial features have been
experienced and expressed by participating teachers during, or as a response to the BEQIP. Whereas
neo-colonialism can hold negative connotations, in general the presence of neo-colonial features was
expressed to be beneficial by the teachers; the focus on a Western-centred teaching approach was
considered to be more beneficial than a focus on traditional Ghanaian teaching methods, the
(dependency) relations constructed in the BEQIP were perceived to be crucial for the acquisition of
relevant knowledge and resources, and the capabilities included in the programme were recognized
to be contributing to the improvement of education quality in the region. In the theoretical
framework the question was raised whether local actors perceive the BEQIP to be hampering the
possibilities of the local population to develop education in a contextual and socio-cultural relevant
way. The existence of a variety of acts of resistance among teachers, as responses to the BEQIP,
indicates that particular elements of the programme have been considered as hampering their
44
possibilities to optimally develop education In the Northern-region. The acts of resistance can be
considered as acts of negotiation in which teachers seek room for manoeuvre in which they are able
to develop education by tailoring the BEQIP in a contextual and socio-cultural relevant way.
In the introduction the importance of education was stressed by framing it as a key social institution
through which significant changes can be made in the ways individuals and societies behave and
develop (Harber, 2014), and therefore the ways in which education is attempted to be improved with
the support of external actors plays an important role in the discussion on how educational
intervention programmes can support or hamper development. The BEQIP provides an example of
how local actors can experience external programmes to influence education and development in
their local context. In their perspectives the BEQIP supported development through the
improvement of education quality by training local teachers on how to implement the LCE approach
in their classrooms. Although local actors experienced that the external facilitators were operating
from a Western episteme and features of neo-colonialism were related to the programme, the
contextual relevance of the programme was considered to be high. This shows that in educational
development aid Western ideologies can support the development of non-Western regions as long
as these ideologies conform to the interests of local actors. Since neo-colonial features in this
research predominantly arose from the involvement of external (Western) actors, it is imaginable
that similar intervention programmes result in identical neo-colonial experiences among local actors.
Once this causality is acknowledged by practitioners in the field of education aid, a better
understanding can be created on why particular elements of intervention programmes do or do not
result in the desired or expected outcomes. Based on this understanding, then, generally successful
elements can be conserved whereas elements that generally fail can be adapted and improved,
which can eventually support an increase in the successes of educational aid in developing regions.
45
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Appendix
Interviews
Table 2. List of interviews.
Number Description Date
Interview 1 Darul-Hardis Junior High School teacher 21/09/2016
Interview 2 Darul-Hardis Junior High School teacher 22/09/2016
Interview 3 Nyohini Presby Junior High School teacher1 29/09/2016
Interview 4 Nyohini Presby Junior High School teacher2 29/09/2016
Interview 5 Yilonayili Angelican Junior High School teacher 10/10/2016
Interview 6 Yilonayili Angelican Junior High School teacher 11/10/2016
Interview 7 Yong-Dakpemyili Junior High School teacher1 18/10/2016
Interview 8 Yong-Dakpemyili Junior High School teacher2 18/10/2016
Interview 9 Kanvilli Presby Junior High School teacher 20/10/2016
Interview 10 Kanvilli Presby Junior High School teacher 21/10/2016
Interview 11 Yoo R/C Junior High School teacher 27/10/2016
Interview 12 Pong-Tamale M/A Primary School teacher1 08/11/2016
Interview 13 Pong-Tamale M/A Primary School teacher2 08/11/2016
Interview 14 Salaga Presby Junior High School teacher1 18/11/2016
Interview 15 Salaga Presby Junior High School teacher2 * 18/11/2016
Interview 16 Salaga Presby Junior High School teacher3 18/11/2016
Interview 17 Catholic Primary School teacher1* 05/12/2016
Interview 18 Catholic Primary School teacher2* 05/12/2016
Interview 19 Catholic Junior High School teacher* 05/12/2016
Interview 20 Islamic Junior High School teacher* 05/12/2016
Interview 21 Islamic Primary School teacher* 05/12/2016
Interview 22 Wayamba R/C Junior High School teacher1* 06/12/2016
Interview 23 Wayamba R/C Junior High School teacher2* 06/12/2016
Interview 24 Wayamba R/C Primary School teacher* 06/12/2016
Interview 25 Johnson Naapi – programme facilitator IBIS 23/11/2016
Interview 26 Adomey Raphael – programme facilitator Savana Signatures / technical support
29/11/2016
Interview 27 Alhassan Seibu – programme facilitator Ghana Education Service (GES) / ICT trainer
15/12/2016
Interview 28 Frits Kruiswijk – programme facilitator Edukans 26/01/2017
Interview 29 Ries Sieswerda – founder BEQIP & programme facilitator University of Amsterdam
08/02/2017
N.B. At schools on which two interviews were conducted on the same day, the ‘1’ and ‘2’ distinguish
the specific teachers.
*Control group teachers.
52
Table 3. Interview sheet BEQIP teachers.
53
54
Table 4. Interview sheet non-BEQIP teachers
55
Table 5. Interview sheet national organisation facilitators.
56
57
Table 6. Interview sheet international organisation facilitators.
58