neolithic passage graves as tiered cosmos
DESCRIPTION
A master's dissertation on the role of neurology in passage grave artTRANSCRIPT
Elizabeth A. McCormack University of Reading
MA Archaeology Archaeology Department
September 20, 2007
Passages:The Neolithic passage grave as tiered
cosmos
Dedicated to Russell Chaffee
All the gods, all the heavens, all the worlds, are within us.
Joseph Campbell
I am extremely grateful to the following people for their love and support: Mom, Dad, Suzanne and Kara McCormack of the McCormack clan; Steve Hempstead for laughing at just the right moments; Birdie and Nina for waiting; Steven Taylor, Alan Hartway, and Priscilla Inkpen of Naropa for their faith and encouragement; Julian Thomas for letting me come along; Colin Richards for the luxurious tent; Andrew Selkirk for being interested; Andy Johnson of Logaston Press, who has done more for me than he could ever possibly know; Miss Rita for sharing her Montgomery haven; Miss Jess for late-night chat-fests; Annette Baus for endless cups of coffee; Scott Walley for reading and critiquing looooooooooong excerpts; Lone Mountain Archaeology for giving me a job (!!!); the cast of Hollyoaks for easing the pain; all my wonderful classmates and friends at Reading University; and Linda Hulin, Rob Hosfield, Margaret Mathews, and especially Richard Bradley, Fay Stevens, Wendy Matthews, and Heinrich Härke for their kindness, patience, and generosity toward an American in the rain…
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Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................1 List of Figures ..............................................................................................................3 List of Tables ................................................................................................................3 Introduction .................................................................................................................4 Consciousness and the tiered cosmos......................................................................6
Introduction to Consciousness..............................................................................6 Overview of the Limbic System........................................................................6 Brain-wave Oscillations .....................................................................................6
Alpha:................................................................................................................7 Gamma: ............................................................................................................7 Theta: 4-8 Hz....................................................................................................7
Altered States of Consciousness ...........................................................................8 Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions ........................................8 Hallucination .......................................................................................................9 Extrasomatic Experience ....................................................................................9 Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States.......................................................9
The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos................................................................10 The 3-stage model .............................................................................................10
Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos ................................................................14 Association with ASC...........................................................................................14
Entoptics .............................................................................................................14 Neolithic Entoptics....................................................................................16
Audial Phenomena ...........................................................................................18 Drumming and Ritual ..................................................................................18 Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents ..............................................18
Standing Waves and Traveling Sound ..................................................19 Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance ..........................................................19
Music at the Graves?.....................................................................................20 Optical Effects in the Passage Graves ............................................................21
Neurology of flickering light.......................................................................21 Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?22 Conclusion .....................................................................................................23
Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?..........................................................24
Introduction: ......................................................................................................24 Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to elements of architecture ...................................................................................24
Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of the dead.................................................................................................................26
Newgrange.................................................................................................27 Knowth .......................................................................................................28 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................29 Knockmany ................................................................................................30 Fourknocks.................................................................................................30
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Loughcrew .................................................................................................30 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................31
Passage as vortex...........................................................................................32 Newgrange.................................................................................................33 Knowth .......................................................................................................35 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................35 Knockmany ................................................................................................36 Fourknocks.................................................................................................36 Loughcrew .................................................................................................37 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................38
Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead .............................39 Newgrange.................................................................................................40
Newgrange Summary...............................................................................42 Knowth .......................................................................................................43 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................45 Knockmany ................................................................................................47 Fourknocks.................................................................................................48 Loughcrew .................................................................................................50 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................52
Leaving the Tomb .........................................................................................53 Newgrange.................................................................................................54 Knowth .......................................................................................................54 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................55 Knockmany ................................................................................................55 Fourknocks:................................................................................................55 Loughcrew .................................................................................................55 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................58
Discussion: .....................................................................................................59 Artwork and composition................................................................................59
Motifs emphasize architectural elements ..................................................59 Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living..........................................................................................................................60
Complex motifs as traps...........................................................................62 Simple motifs as guides ...........................................................................63 Data and findings......................................................................................64
Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................70 Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................71 Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber .................................71 Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc. ................................................................................................72 Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting ......................74 Conclusion ...............................................................................................75
Discussion ......................................................................................................76 Conclusion and Discussion .....................................................................................77 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................81 Appendix....................................................................................................................88
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List of Figures Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs…………………… Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt……………………………………. Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone………………………………………… Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones ……………………………………………. Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage ……………………………………………… Figure 6: Newgrange L19 …………………………………………………… Figure 7: Knockmany C6 ……………………………………………………. Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber ………………………………………........... Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds ………………………………………….. Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z …………………………………….. Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab ……………………………….. Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials …………………... Figure 13: Knowth Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 …………………………. Figure 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds ………………………….. Figure 15 Barclodiad y Gawres Left recess back wall, Right rec. back wall … Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 …………………………………………. Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A ………………………………………………. Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 …………………………………………………… Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill ………………………………………………….. Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 …………………………………………………. Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone……………………………… Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 …………………………………………………... Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb ……………………... Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 …………………………………………………... Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 …………………………………………. Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 …………………………………………………... Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones…………………………….. Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs ………………………………………. Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 …………………………………………………. Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 ………………………………………………….. Figure 31: Areas A and B ……………………………………………………... Figure 32: Area C……………………………………………………………… Figure 33: Area D……………………………………………………………… Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area ……………………………………….. Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb ……………………………………………. Figure 36: Stones with low ci………………………………………………….. Figure 37: Stones with mid ci………………………………………………….. Figure 38: Stones with high ci…………………………………………………. Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 …………………………………………... Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions…………………………………...
17 26 27 28 32 34 36 40 41 42 43 43 44 44 46 47 49 49 50 51 51 52 54 55 56 56 57 58 58 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 75
List of Tables Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt …………………………………… Table 2: Elements of the passage ………………………………………………. Table 3: Elements of the chambers …………………………………………..... Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress ……………………………………..... Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb …………………………… Table 6: CI of hidden compositions ……………………………………………
31 39 53 58 66 73
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Introduction
The aim of this paper is to prove that the Neolithic passage graves under
consideration are reifications of the tiered cosmos. They exhibit many characteristics
in common including an association with Altered States of Consciousness, the
inclusion of several perceptual and physical realms, and the experience of movement
or a journey into the realm of the ancestors.
Passage tombs were in use in Britain and Ireland from the early fourth millennium
until some time in the third millennium (Dronfield 1996a, 37). Constructed of
megaliths, their design typically includes an entrance or portal often fronted by a
forecourt, a passage, and an inner chamber consisting of one or more cells. The entire
construction is generally surmounted by a cairn. This construction has been seen as an
iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos (Lewis Williams and Pearce 2005, 279).
The tiered cosmos is thought to be a perceptual manifestation of the neurologically
generated tunnel, 3-stages of ASC, and extrasomatic and other disorienting
experiences resulting from ASC (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87; Lewis-
Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86). As subjects move through the intensifying
spectrum of ASC they pass from an ordinary reality, move through the vortex/tunnel,
and arrive at an altered reality often featuring spirits and ancestors. These realms have
manifested in shamanism and many of the world’s religions as aspects of a tiered
cosmos comprising the realm of the living, the access route to, and the realm of the
dead.
The architectural areas of passage grave construction bear a striking resemblance to
those realms comprising the tiered cosmos. The realm of the living is represented by
the forecourt and entrance, the vortex by the passage, and the realm of the dead by the
chamber (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268).
In order to prove that the passage graves under consideration are iconographic
replicas of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a
sufficient number of characteristics are shared. These include: an association with
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ASC (inductive or reflective elements including the presence of entoptic motifs),
comparable internal locations, and similar functions in society.
We will look at Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I, L, T, U, and
Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, selected due to their
inclusion of megalithic art. To illustrate an association with ASC, we will examine
audial and optic phenomena in order to determine if these were utilized within the
tombs. We will examine the presence of entoptic motifs. Finally, we will demonstrate
that the realms of the tiered cosmos are physically manifested in the architecture.
We will then examine Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H, I, L, S, T, and U in
order to determine whether the artwork facilitates movement through the passage for
both the living and the deceased. Some of this will rely on Gell’s (1998) argument
that complex motifs serve as apotropaic devices, preventing the passage of the
observer. If it can be shown that there is artwork present in the tombs that is in
communication with the deceased, then the tomb, or at least the chamber, may be
thought of as a realm of the dead perceptually and physically separate from the land
of the living, or the outside world.
Rather than as a repository for human remains, Neolithic people may have perceived
the tomb as an alternate realm through which the ancestors moved and functioned
concurrently with the living community. This is a very similar concept to the
shamanic realm of the dead within the tiered cosmos. This may have been a very
important component of Neolithic ideology, facilitating social cohesion in a time of
economic change.
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Consciousness and the tiered cosmos
This section will give a general overview of the brain processes involved in Altered
States of Consciousness (ASC). The neurophysiological conditions brought about by
ASC induction may result in hallucination, states of religious awe and/or Absolute
Unitary Being (AUB) that effect the long-term consciousness of the individual,
including enhanced memory formation, associative learning, and social behaviour.
These are thought to be the origin of ritual practice and religion.
Introduction to Consciousness
Overview of the Limbic System
In cognitive processes related to spiritual and communal behaviour and
consciousness, the most active area of the brain is the Limbic system. The limbic
system is the most ancient part of the brain, providing the foundation for the brain's
evolution and development. It is located in the temporal lobe, connected to the
prefrontal cortex. It is responsible for monitoring and regulating emotion, orienting
the self in space, sexual and social behaviour, motivation, learning and memory,
internal homeostasis, and basic bodily needs such as hunger and thirst (Pare et al
2002, 306). It assigns emotional significance to stimuli. When an experience is
attached to a high emotional value, it is more successfully encoded as a memory
(Strange and Dolan 2004, 11454). The limbic system is also responsible for
homeostasis within the brain, regulating the quiescent and arousal reactions generated
by the autonomic nervous system (Joseph 1988, 633; Newberg et. al. 2001, 45). It
performs these functions partially via hormone secretion (a physical reward system)
(Newberg et al 2001, 45). Structures in the limbic system include the amygdala,
hippocampus, hypothalamus, septal nuclei, and cingulate gyrus (Wikipedia).
Brain-wave Oscillations
The gray matter of the brain is comprised of neurons (nerve cells) relaying
information in the form of electrical activity between one another. Adjoining,
interconnected neurons embedded within the same area of the brain comprise local
neural networks. (Russell, 1996; Nunez 2000, 372). Sets of neural networks comprise
areas such as the frontal lobes, the auditory cortex, etc.
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When neural networks fire electrical information in rhythm as a group, they are
described as oscillating synchronously (Wang et al 1987, 9467). These oscillations are
the dynamic processes responsible for cognitive processes such as memory, attention,
and consciousness (Nunez 2000, 3; Miltner et al 1999, 435). An EEG or MEG traces
the frequency (Hz) of electrical activity at the surface of the skull (Ward 2003). The
frequencies relating to ASC are as follows:
Alpha: 8-13 Hz.
Alpha frequencies are linked to distraction-suppression function (Jensen et al 2002).
Alpha waves appear to suppress cortical activity in areas of the brain that are not
being used to focus on stimuli (Ward 2003). Musicians listening to music, meditators,
and cannabis users under the influence of cannabis also exhibit increased alpha
activity related to intense concentration (Ward 2003; Corby et al 1978, 575).
Gamma: 30-70 Hz.
Gamma oscillations are always found during synchronous oscillations across brain
areas and in conjunction with other frequencies (Lutz et al 2004, 16370). They are
thought to be instrumental in communication between global neural networks and as
such are crucial to processing multiple stimuli, forming memory, language, and
associative learning (Llinas and Pare 1991, 533; Miltner et al 1999, 434).
Theta: 4-8 Hz
Theta frequencies are linked to the encoding and retrieval of working and long-term
memory, especially during states of emotional arousal (Pare et al 2002, 314, Peterson
2007, 217). Thus, amygdala and hippocampal theta frequencies facilitate
consolidation of emotionally arousing memories (Pare et al 2002, 310; Strange and
Dolan 2004, 11456).
Theta states are also directly related to hallucinatory, dream-like images experienced
in hypnogogic states (the twilight state between sleep and wakefulness), certain types
of meditation, especially visualization meditations, and hypnosis (Wallace 1970,
1753, Budzynski 1977).
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Altered States of Consciousness
Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions
ASC is related to alterations of brain systems associated with the regulation of
consciousness, arousal and selective attention (Vaitl et al 2005, 115). During normal,
waking states, everyday consciousness and subjective reality depends upon
continuous neural processes. According to Vaitl (2005, 117), this requires “intact
brain tissue, metabolic homeostasis, a moderate level of arousal, a balanced interplay
of inhibitory and excitatory networks, and midrange environmental conditions. As
soon as one of these prerequisites for reliable assembly formation is lacking,
alterations of consciousness are likely to occur."
An interruption or breakdown of gamma activity results in a breakdown of the
connectivity between neural networks, causing cell assemblies to operate as
functionally independent units. This may be a basis for altered states of consciousness
(Vaitl et al 2005, 116). If gamma frequencies occur in conjunction with theta
frequencies, vivid imagery and hallucination will result.
ASC occurs in many situations, may be induced by a number of different causes, and
manifests itself in a variety of ways, ranging from mild dissociative to deep
hallucinatory states. ASC inductors include psychotropic substances, meditation,
hypnosis, physical disorders, rhythmic stimuli, dance, sensory deprivation, sensory
homogenization, and sensory overload. ASC may also be induced by any number of
spontaneously occurring events such as daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming, and near
death experience (Vaitl et al 2005, 111).
ASC may also be caused by the depletion of Carbon Dioxide (Vaitl et al 2005, 104).
Confinement to small places may result in hypercapnia, which involves a rise in
Carbon Dioxide. Hypercapnia may be causative to near-death experiences such as
body detachment and perception of being drawn toward a bright light (Vaitl et al
2005, 105). This may be relevant to the experience of being in a chambered tomb,
particularly if a fire is alight within the space, further increasing Carbon dioxide levels
in proportion to oxygen levels within the tomb.
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Hallucination
Siegal (1977, 132) defines hallucination as "A false sensory perception in the absence
of an actual external stimulus." Characteristic of hallucination are magnified emotion
and a breakdown of self-other boundaries. As a result, visual and audial hallucinations
are perceived as originating from outside the body. A sense that one's own self is
outside the body is also a common perception. Magnified emotions in conjunction
with theta states cause the subject to perceive and remember this experience as
profound. This may be related to the formation of religious belief. MRI readings
indicate that brain activities taking place during hallucination occur in the limbic
system and visual cortex (Vaitl et al 2005, 113).
The breakdown in gamma activity causes the subject to be unable to process
perceived stimuli in an ordinary manner, and therefore the brain provides alternative
explanations or understandings of these stimuli (a tree branch is matched to a memory
template of a serpent and is therefore perceived as such) (Vaitl et al 2005, 212).
Extrasomatic Experience
A common occurrence of ASC is the out-of-body experience. This experience is seen
again and again in shamanic and other rituals, manifesting as flying, ascension and
traveling to alternate spatial dimensions. The part of the brain that is responsible for
extrasomatic action – movement through the environment based on ocular and
somatomotor function – is disrupted (Vaitl et al 2005,113). Previc (2006, 510)
postulates that hallucinations, like dreams, represent "the triumph of the extrapersonal
systems over the body-oriented or peripersonal systems." The hippocampus is thought
to be the source of specific hallucinations such as the visualizations of astral
projection or seeing oneself floating above the body (Joseph 1998, 2000). Some
patients report not only floating, but of being embraced by a light and taken to a vast
realm of fantastic proportions where they are given access to knowledge of the nature
of life and death” (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515).
Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States
The autonomic nervous system maintains equilibrium in the body through the
alternating interactions of the quiescent (parasympathetic) and arousal (sympathetic)
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subsystems. In altered states of consciousness, both systems are pushed beyond
mundane activity. When neural input is depressed (quiescent), as with sensory
deprivation, the limbic system, in an attempt to maintain equilibrium, enhances neural
flow (arousal), causing hyperawareness of stimuli. When neural input is intensified
due to increased stimulation, the limbic system inhibits neural flow.
When either the quiescent or the arousal system is maximally stimulated, a "spillover
effect" occurs, causing stimulation of the other, normally antagonistic, system
(Newberg et al 2001, 41). For example, in meditation and slow chant, quiescent
activity can result in feelings of peace and unity, but when quiescent activity reaches
optimum levels, a rush of energy may occur. "Someone who experiences this state
while concentrating upon some object – a candle for example, or a cross – may feel as
if he were being absorbed into that object" (Newberg et al 2001, 41). Similarly, peak
arousal states may cause a surge in quiescent systems. For example, someone engaged
in energetic dancing or singing may experience an ecstatic rush of energy, attention
and intention that ultimately becomes a state of trancelike bliss (Newberg et al 2001,
42).
Newberg et al (2001, 42) hypothesize that ritual could lead to the maximal discharge
of both systems, causing hallucinations, mystical visions, or a state of Absolute
Unitary Being (AUB). This is the ‘unitary experience’ in which there is no perceived
separation between spirits/gods/ancestors/spiritual realms, the universe, conspecifics
and the self. This is the primary goal of religious ritual (Newberg et. al. 2001, 87).
The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos
The tiered cosmos as a function of the neurologically-generated tunnel together with
the 3 stages of ASC and extrasomatic experience is thought to be at the root of
shamanism and later spiritual practices (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87;
Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86).
The 3-stage model
Drawing on the work of Siegel (1977; cf Siegel and Jarvik 1975), Lewis-Williams and
Dowson (1988) postulate that the experience of altered states of consciousness occurs
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in 3 stages (although not all subjects experience all three). The stages should be
thought of as cumulative, each stage building on the last.
Stage 1: Upon entering ASC, the subject experiences geometric visual precepts
generated within the eye and optic system (Siegal 1977, 132). Images may include
lattices, parallel lines, circles, and dots. These may be experienced as "animated,
luminous percepts that fragment, replicate, reduplicate and rotate in the field of
vision" (Blundell 1998, 10). These images are not culturally biased as they arise from
the structure of the nervous system (Siegel 1977, 132-4).
Stage 2: As the subject moves deeper into ASC, geometric images are interpreted,
becoming elaborated into iconic forms (Horowitz 1975: 177, 178, 181). Geometric
motifs are cognitively matched against a store of experience or mental template. If a
‘fit’ is affected, the image is recognized as an iconic image (e.g. a meandering line is
recognized as a serpent) (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 203).
Stage 3: In this stage the subject is drawn into the hallucination, perceiving it as real.
Visual imagery is iconic, based almost entirely on cultural bias. These may involve
more than the visual sense. The subject often interacts with the hallucinated images.
Entoptic motifs may persist, often providing a backdrop against which iconic imagery
is projected (Siegel 1977, 134).
Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988, 204) report a tunnel or vortex experience
occurring between stages. Horowitz (1975, 178) describes this as the transition
between the perception of entoptics and the manipulation of these into iconics.
Laboratory subjects reported that the vortex or rotating tunnel seems to surround them
(Horowitz 1975, 178). The sides or walls of the vortex may be marked by entoptic
motifs, particularly a lattice of squares similar to television screens (Lewis-Williams
and Dowson 1988, 204). The first iconic hallucinations appear as images on these
‘screens,’ eventually superseding the vortex as entoptics transform to iconic images
and the subject becomes immersed in Stage 3 hallucination (Siegel and Jarvik 1975,
127, 143; Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204).
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The tunnel/vortex experience may be attributable to the V5 area of the visual cortex in
which moving visual stimuli are analyzed in order that the subject may navigate
through her environment (Dronfield 1996a, 40). Motion processing in V5 is carried
out via response to four basic motion types: expansion/contraction; rotation; spiraling;
and translation (linear motion). ASC may precipitate the spontaneous firing of V5
neurons. These neurons process the entoptic motifs occurring in the first stage of
ASC, resulting in a moving, rotating, spiraling tunnel. This area may also be
responsible for spiral motif (Dronfield 1996a, 40).
The idea that the vortex is an access route to another realm is supported by the
perception that the subject leaves the body during ASC. During ASC, theta:gamma
states affect the limbic and bodily orientation systems, and is experienced as
extrasomatic, hyperquiescent and/or hyperarousal states (Vaitl et al 2005, 212). This
occurs in conjunction with the spontaneous firing of the V5 area during ASC,
resulting in the combined experience of a tunnel and a sense of traveling outside of
the body. This may be responsible for the subject’s perception that she is traveling
through the tunnel to another realm. Additionally, in this state, the subject is more
liable to accept as reality the perceptions that s/he is able to traverse alternate realms
where s/he is able to interact with otherworldly beings (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et.
al. 2001, 87).
The tunnel/vortex experience is crucial to the understanding of shamanism and the
tiered cosmos, which may have implications as to the origins of religion in general.
The tiered cosmos is characterized by the perception that reality can be divided into
realms: e.g., the realm of the living, and the realm of the dead. As subjects move
through the intensifying spectrum of ASC, they pass from an ordinary reality, through
the vortex/tunnel, and arrive at an alternate reality featuring iconic imagery which the
subject perceives as real. Often a bright light is associated with the end of the tunnel,
enhancing the perception that it is the entrance to a sacred realm (Lewis-Williams and
Dowson 1988, 204). Often the subject interacts with spirits or deceased loved ones
while in deep ASC, emphasizing the perception that the altered reality is the realm of
the dead (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515). Lewis-Williams (2002, 145) suspects
that the tunnel experience is the origin of the common belief that an underground
passage leads to a subterranean realm of the dead.
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The notion of tunnels as interfaces between dimensions of reality is present in myths
and beliefs associated with shamanic practice (Dronfield 1996a, 39). Dronfield
(1996a, 39-45) cites several ethnographic examples of tunnels as access routes to the
dead. These include San, Bwiti, Tukano, Huichol, and others. Furst (1972, 150)
relates a Huichol myth in which the shaman accompanies the Huichol children on a
journey to the land of the Great Mother and ancestral gods. The peyote deer deity
allows them access by holding back the clouds while “the bird-children fly quickly
through the passage” (Furst 1972, 150).
This tiered cosmos is the realm of the shaman or spiritual practitioner, one who acts as
a go-between for the living community and the ancestors or spirits. A shaman,
according to Michael Harner (1973, xi) is "a man or a woman who is in direct contact
with the spirit world through a trance state." This is accomplished by the over-riding
feature of Shamanism, which is its association with ASC. The shaman induces a
trance state, or ASC, using hallucinogenic drugs or other methods. This facilitates
access to the tiered cosmos via the tunnel/vortex and 3 stages of ASC, providing the
opportunity for interactions with the supernatural (Harner 1973, xii).
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Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos
Lewis Williams and Pearce (2005, 279) argue that Neolithic passage graves were an
iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos. The world of the living is represented most
often by a forecourt at the entrance to the tomb, where ceremonies could be viewed by
the larger community. Most of the public would never venture past the entrance stone
demarcating the boundary between outside/inside. The authors contend that passages
were perceived as routes between the realms of the cosmos, through which the
decedent, accompanied by celebrants, would travel to the land of the dead. The
chambers, with deposits of human remains, may have been perceived as the land of
the dead (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268).
In order to prove that passage graves are iconographic replicas of the neurologically-
generated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a sufficient number of characteristics
are shared. These include: an association with ASC (the presence of entoptic motifs
and other inductive or reflective elements), an association with the dead, and
comparable internal locations.
Association with ASC
Entoptics
A similarity between entoptic motifs and British, Irish, and Breton Neolithic
megalithic art has been noted by several archaeologists (e.g., Bradley 1989; Patton
1990; Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b; Hodgson 2001; Lewis-Williams and Pearce
2005). If these megalithic motifs could be confidently shown to be entoptic, then an
association between Neolithic spiritual practices and ASC could be inferred.
Siegal (1977, 132) noticed in anthropological reports that the hallucinogen-inspired
art of many peoples often contains constants in form, colour and movement (Siegal
1977, 138). These are generated by the optic and nervous systems and comprise a set
of motifs known as entoptic (Siegal and Jarvik 1975, 81-104)
In 1988, Lewis-Williams and Thomas Dowson published the seminal paper on the
neuropsychological model of art interpretation based on entoptics. Theirs was a two-
pronged approach, applying neuropsychology to ethnographic accounts and
15
interpretations of the art. Neuropsychological research explains form of motifs, while
ethnography may help explain the meaning (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 201).
The authors proposed a model comprising 6 entoptic form types, 7 principles
governing their perception, and 3 stages of the progression of ASC. They applied this
model to 3 artistic traditions known ethnographically to be shamanic (Tukano, Coso
Range and San). This was then applied to Upper Palaeolithic, western European art
(Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 202).
The six entoptic categories are present to differing proportions in Coso, Tukano and
San art (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 205). The second and third components
of the model, the principles of perception (in which images are integrated,
superimposed, juxtaposed, fragmented and reduplicated with one another) and the
three-stages of ASC (see above), were found to apply to Coso, Tukano and San
artwork. This is evidence to the authors that the art has shamanic origins. They
conclude that artwork bearing these characteristics can, in the absence of ethnographic
material, be considered to have shamanic origins.
Lewis-Williams and Dowson's primary critic is Bednarik (1990, 78). Of particular
contention is the link between shamanism and phosphenes/entoptics. Bednarik points
out that although all humans use phosphenes daily, "that does not make us shamans!"
(Bednarik 1990, 79). Bahn has the same criticism (Bahn 1988:217).
Hodgson (2000) counters this critique by suggesting a neurological association
between mark-making and ASC. Human visual perception is facilitated by two
primary systems. The more primitive magno system organizes the visual world by
detecting and interpreting lines distinguishing individual objects from one another.
This enables an animal to navigate through its environment, catch prey, and avoid
predators (Hodgson 2000, 868). The perception of lines, outlines, and form would
have been critical for survival and, over time, specifically selected for. The production
and repetition of geometric shapes may be a fundamental propensity in humans that is
rewarded with pleasurable feelings of “of mastery, security, and relief from anxiety"
promoting the development of important survival skills. Importantly, Hodgson (2000,
868) goes on to say that this reward system may facilitate ASC. “Engagement in a
visually creative act is said to produce a hyperreality experience akin to that produced
16
by trance or drug inducement in that the artist is in a state of focused awareness
detached from the outside world.” The same effect is produced by focusing intently
on an entoptic motif. This strengthens the argument for a neurological affiliation with
the production of geometric motifs.
Neolithic Entoptics
Bradley (1989) and Patton (1990) suggest an application of Lewis-Williams and
Dowson’s model to the Irish, British, and Breton passage graves. Patton points out
that culturally significant iconic motifs appear against a background of entoptics. This
relates to stage 2 and 3 of Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s model (Patton, 1990, 556).
Bradley cautions that although none of these arts can prove Lewis-Williams and
Dowson’s case completely, there can be some light shed on some of the problems of
interpretation, making their study a particularly persuasive one (Bradley 1989, 73).
In 1993, Lewis-Williams and Dowson proposed an application of their model to
megalithic art and its relationship to the tiered cosmos. Lewis-Williams and Dowson
note that the placement of a body in a chambered tomb directly reflects the tiered
cosmos generated during ASC. They argue that the placement of entoptic motifs at
specific locations within the tombs emphasizes the association with specific
components of ASC (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1993, 60-61).
The six entoptic types identified by Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988) were
selected from the range of motifs established by neurologists and psychologists (e.g.
Kluver 1942; Knoll and Kluger 1959; Horowitz 1965). They are:
1. basic grid, development in lattice and expanding hexagonal pattern
2. sets of parallel lines
3. dots and short flecks
4. zigzag lines crossing field of vision
5. nested catenary curves
6. filigrees or thin, meandering lines
17
Dronfield (1996b) argues that Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s six entoptic forms are
not reliable markers of ASC. He contends that their analysis failed to include and test
against non-subjectively derived art (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He conducted his own
investigation, comparing motifs from three groups: one which engages in ASC, one
which occasionally engages in ASC, and one which does not. He confirmed that of
Lewis-Williams and Dowson’s six entoptic types, five (lattice, parallel line, dot,
zigzag, arc) are undiagnostic of ASC (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He was able to
determine motifs which can be confidently labeled as diagnostic endogenous. 7 motifs
were found whose presence confirms ASC and endogenous images. Figure 1 shows
Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic endogenous motifs.
Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs (Dronfield 1995) When he applied this model to Neolithic passage graves in the U.K. and Ireland
(1995), he found that endogenous diagnostic types made up a large percentage of the
motifs found therein. He concludes with approximately 80% confidence – "that Irish
passage-tomb art is fundamentally similar to (as opposed to merely resembling) arts
derived from endogenous subjective vision, and fundamentally dissimilar to arts not
18
so derived. Therefore, we can confidently conclude that Irish passage-tomb art was
itself derived from endogenous visual phenomena" (Dronfield 1995, 545).
The motifs in the passage graves of Britain and Ireland are shown to be entoptic, and
therefore associated with ASC, although it is not here suggested that ASC or
shamanism per se was being practiced at the tombs.
Audial Phenomena
Drumming and Ritual
Audial phenomena are associated with ASC. If the presence of audial phenomena can
be shown at the tombs, this suggests a further association with ASC.
Ethnographically, sound has been found to be closely associated with ritual (e.g.
Jackson 1968). Repetitive drumbeats, as well as some sounds with certain qualities
such as very low frequencies, may be inductive to transcendental states in which
communication with spirits and travel to other realms becomes possible (Watson
2001, 187). Extended drumming is a common inductive element to trance states and
ASC.
Winkelman (1986) conducted a cross-cultural survey of 47 societies and reported that
at least one shamanic practitioner in each community took part in ASC induced by
auditory driving. 3-6 Hz are the most frequently reported rhythmic frequencies
associated with shamanic rituals. These produce a theta-state in shamans and listeners
resulting in ASC. Practitioners as far removed as Azande witch-doctors (Evans-
Pritchard 1976, 76) and snake-handling Christians of the U.S. Appalachian mountains
(Kane, 1974, 295) use drumming, chant, and rhythmic dance to enter trance and speak
with the spirits.
Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents
Rhythms have been proven by scientists to effect brainwave frequencies of limbic
system processes. This is based on sonic entrainment in which two or more rhythmic
cycles become synchronized to each other over a period of time (Neher 1962).
19
Neher considers alpha and theta brainwaves as necessary precursors to trance states
(cf. Ward 2003). He asked if these could be induced by auditory driving, and found
that alpha and theta frequencies associated with shaman-journey experiences
including changes in time sense and body image, enhanced imagery, tunnel
experiences, dissociation from the body, hallucination, absolute unitary states, and
states of religious awe can be induced by monotonous drumming (Ward 2003;
Newburgh; et. al. 2001, 86; Vaitl et al 2005, 107). Ethnographic evidence suggests a
predominance of theta frequency in ritual drumming (Jilek 1982, 337; Maas and
Strubelt 2003).
Standing Waves and Traveling Sound
In an ethnographic study of Chukchee shamen, it was found that in a crowded,
confined room, the shaman is able to direct his voice and drum sounds to different
parts of the room. The source of the sounds is lost, the song and drum shifting around
the room seemingly on their own (Watson 2001, 186). This is accomplished through
the use of standing waves. Standing waves are acoustic phenomena caused by the
reflection of sound waves between solid walls producing zones of low or high
intensity of sound as waves either cancel or combine. This phenomenon is certain to
occur during any auditory event taking place at the passage graves, as the walls reflect
sound waves (Watson and Keating 1998, 325). Speech becomes distorted to the point
of becoming unintelligible or unrecognizable as human, and can appear to emanate
from the body of the listener (Watson 2001, 186).
Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance
Helmholtz Resonance is an acoustic effect boosting the volume of a frequency
(blowing a particular frequency across the mouth of a glass bottle produces Helmholtz
resonance). The structure of a passage grave, with its constricted passage opening into
a central chamber potentially mirrors this effect (Watson 2001, 187).
Watson and Keating (1999, 325) performed tests at several passage graves and found
that repetitive drumming produced Helmholtz resonance. Larger tombs such as
Newgrange and Knowth were found to have lower resonant frequencies of 1-2 Hz,
requiring a slower drum-beat to evoke Helmholtz Resonance. Tombs having similar
20
internal volumes will have similar frequencies despite differences in their layout
(Watson and Keating 1999, 325). Devereux and Jahn (1996) suggest that deep male
chanting could have resulted in Helmholtz resonance at Newgrange. Low frequencies
such as would have been needed to produce the resonance at Newgrange, and
amplified thus, can even result in trembling or shaking of the structure (Watson &
Keating 2000, 261).
Although such frequencies cannot be heard by human ears, they are capable of
producing physiological effects that transcend the usual range of experience and may
be described as supernatural (Watson 2001, 187). Symptoms include dizziness,
headaches, pressure, extreme vibration and imbalance, feelings of ascent and
modifications to breathing and pulse rate (Watson and Keating 1999, 333).
Music at the Graves?
Watson claims that passage graves provide an ideal environment to create auditory
illusions (2001, 186). Inside the passage and the chambers, the structure of space and
quality of construction materials effect sounds, creating unusual audial phenomena
(Bradley, pers. comm.). The passage graves were probably not built specifically to
provide a space for these phenomena, but their effects would have enhanced the
magical qualities of these monuments (Watson 2001, 188).
There has been no archaeological evidence for drumming or the use of other musical
instruments at the passage graves under consideration. Based on internal area of the
tombs, it seems likely that any rhythms used would have been on the low, slow side.
There is not much room for whirling or other highly energetic trance dances, except
possibly at Fourknocks, which has a fairly good-sized central chamber with a high
corbelled roof. It seems to this author as if low, slow beats would have been utilized,
along with chanting or other vocalizations, possibly in conjunction with optic stimuli
such as a fire or small flame, inducing a mesmerizing, hypnotic alpha/theta state.
It’s possible that rhythmic events of a more energetic nature could have taken place at
the entrance to the tomb. At a crucial moment, upon entering trance state, the
21
practitioner could disappear into the darkness of the tomb in order to communicate
with the spirits on behalf of the community.
Sonic phenomena may have been perceived by listeners as originating in another
realm, and would have reified the multi-tiered cosmos in a very credible way. In
addition, the sounds themselves could have facilitated intercosmic travel via induction
of altered consciousness.
Optical Effects in the Passage Graves
Inside the enclosed space of the passage grave, any artificial light would be distorted
by the uneven surface of stones and cast flickering shadows over the artwork.
Flickering light at 8-12 Hz has been shown to have psychoactive properties (Putz; et
al. 2006, 167).
Flicker-frequency depends on several factors including temperature, oxygen flow, and
fuel source (wax, oil, wood, etc.). Application to the passage graves is necessarily
speculative in the absence of archaeologically proven light sources. In any case, the
unusual light would contribute to conditions of alternating neural flow resulting in
ASC, deafferented orientation of the self and AUB.
Neurology of flickering light
Photic (light) stimulation causes entrainment at certain frequencies and induces visual
imagery, dream-states, relaxation, euphoria, hyperquiescent and hyperarousal states.
These occur most frequently with theta and alpha frequencies (Richardson and
McAndrew, 1990, 381; Williams et al 1975, 520).
The natural flicker frequency is approximately 10 Hz for a burner diameter of
approximately 1 cm (Zhang and Megaridis, 1998). This is in the alpha frequency
range, facilitating a state of calm and relaxation (Corby et al 1978, 575). Air currents,
fuel source and size of burning surface and wick all effect the combustion flicker
frequency (Huang et al 1999, 733). In a closed or enclosed space, air flow will be very
low. This will cause a decrease in flicker frequency to theta (4-8 Hz), facilitating
22
visions, dreamstates, hypnosis and hypnagogia (Wallace 1970, 1753, Budzynski
1977).
Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?
There is a paucity of evidence for any fuel use in Irish Neolithic passage graves
beyond charcoal. If it is assumed that artwork in the passage graves was meant to be
visible to the living humans inside, it seems likely that they were lit.
Among the graves studied, Barclodiad y Gawres yields the most dramatic evidence of
artificial light. A hearth measuring 3’ in diameter and 6” thick was found in the main
chamber, filled with wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Apparently, a wood
fire was lit and allowed to burn until it became ash with embedded fragments of
flowing charcoal. Charcoal was also found in tiny amounts in the passage and among
the cremations in the recesses (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16).
Knowth, Newgrange, Knockmany, and all of the cairns at Loughcrew yielded
evidence of charcoal, but only in association with cremations (Eogan 1986, 42;
O’Kelly 1982, 105; Collins 1960, 5; Conwell 1864, 46; Conwell 1866, 372).
Fourknocks yielded a small amount (flecks) of charcoal in the central chamber
(Hartnett 1957, 201).
In summary, Fourknocks yielded the only charcoal separate from cremations, and
Barclodiad y Gawres yielded the only evidence of a discrete hearth area. This does
not necessarily preclude the existence of hearths or pure charcoal deposits inside the
other monuments, as most of them were disturbed. In the case of cremated bone, there
is no way to tell if the charcoal mixed with those deposits is a result of the cremation
(which would have taken place at a separate location) or of a burning event taking
place inside the tomb.
Pearce (2004, abstract) suggests the use of charcoal as a fuel in its own right; the
charcoal found in cairns may be the remnants of the fuel supply used in rites. The
smoke from a charcoal fire is mush less dense than that from a wood fire, and the
event would have been sustainable in the closed atmosphere of the monument. It’s
23
also possible that herbs were thrown on charcoal embers as a form of incense or to
induce ASC. There may be evidence for the use of Henbane smoke in the Balfarg
cairns of Scotland (Schenk 1956).
Another possibility for artificial light source is the oil lamp. There has been no
evidence of these at the passage graves under consideration, however, and very little
evidence of domestic use from this time in this area. Additionally, oil lamps create a
great deal of soot, and the tomb walls would most likely bear some residue of this
activity (Allen 1888, 82). According to Allen (1888, 83), a “rude, unglazed
earthenware lamp, shallow, and with a snout to support a wick, was found some time
ago among prehistoric remains near Portstewart.” He claims these lamps date to the
Neolithic. Miners at Grimes Graves hollowed cup-shaped impressions in the chalk
and used them as oil lamps. Soot stains remain in the galleries, attesting to this use
(Greenwell 1870, 429), though this use may have taken place later than the Neolithic.
A further possibility for artificial lighting is the rush candle. According to Allen
(1888, 82), rushes were dipped in wax and used as candles. These were efficient and
economical (Boyle 2002). Again, there is no evidence for rush-candle use in the
passage graves under consideration. There is no wax, soot, oily residue, or industrial
remains reported in any of the original excavation reports.
There is ethnographic evidence for the ritual use of light and fire. The combined use
of several inductive elements is often observed. Nganasan shamans of Siberia,
Tukano shamans in South America, Azande witch doctors in Africa, and Catholic
priests in Boston use fire, rhythm, chant and orchestrated movement (Basilov 1990,
13; Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 11; Evans-Pritchard 1976, 76, personal observation).
Conclusion
Although there is no archaeological evidence at the graves in question, the artwork
suggests that some artificial light source must have been used. These would have
contributed to ASC in the closed environments of the tombs. Alpha and theta
frequencies emitted by natural fires would have entrained observers’ brainwaves to
those frequencies, resulting in tranquility, meditative states, hypnosis, dreamstates and
24
hypnagogia, vivid imagery, mystical states, and AUB (Williams and West 1975, 520).
Flicker frequency has also been found to entrain to rhythmic sound waves (Johns
Hopkins University Department of Physics and Astronomy Website). Any rhythmic
sonic events taking place in the tomb would cause entrainment of the artificial light
source’s flicker frequency, increasing attention and other cognitive processes leading
to ASC (Neher 1962). Additionally, the oxygen depletion caused by the fire in the
enclosed space contributes to hallucination and extrasomatic experience (Vaitl et al
2005, 105). Finally, the unusual atmosphere created by fire and the presence of
entoptic imagery, human remains and enclosed space enhances the sense of other-
worldliness, emphasizing the tiered cosmos.
Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a
reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?
Introduction:
Richard Bradley (pers. comm.) remarked that undecorated passage graves were
present in Britain and Ireland prior to those decorated with entoptic motifs. If the
appearance of entoptic motifs is seen as marking the induction of ASC at Neolithic
passage graves, then the association of passage graves and ASC may be called into
question. While it is not here argued that passage graves were sites of Neolithic
shamanism, it is suggested that the origin of their architectural design is firmly rooted
in ASC and the tiered cosmos. The later addition of entoptic motifs may reflect the
intensification of ASC at the tombs.
Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to
elements of architecture
The experience of moving through elements of the tiered cosmos during altered states
is of primary importance here, and will be shown to reflect the architectural elements
of the passage graves.
First, upon changes in theta and gamma processes in the limbic system brought about
by one or many inductive elements, the subject begins to experience a distortion of
25
reality, witnessing geometric shapes, etc., gradually disengaging from ordinary
reality. Next, the subject sees and then moves through a vortex, often rotating, and
often with a bright light at its center or end, producing a belief in the subject that s/he
is moving toward an extra-ordinary place. The subject then enters deep ASC,
experiencing vivid multi-sensory hallucinations (Siegel and Jarvik 1975, 127, 143;
Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204). It is widely reported that
subjects interact with spirits or deceased loved ones while in deep ASC, emphasizing
the perception that the altered reality is the realm of the dead (Reichel-Dolmatoff
1978, 13). Finally the subject returns to ordinary reality. This is hazardous. In
shamanic contexts, it is possible for the subject to get caught in the land of the dead
(Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow her/him back to the land of the living
(Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be avoided.
Four locales, each with its own associated activity, may be distinguished within the
experience of ASC.
o The border between ordinary and non-ordinary reality across which the subject
moves as s/he goes deeper into ASC;
o The vortex leading to non-ordinary reality through which the subject moves;
o Non-ordinary reality, in which the subject meets and communicates with
beings, often ancestral or deceased loved ones; and
o The movement or passage back to ordinary reality.
These four locales with their specific activities are reflected in the passage graves:
o The border between outside and inside, through which the celebrant leaves the
world of the living and enters the realm of the dead.
o The vortex leading to the realm of the dead through which the celebrant
moves, carrying the deceased with her/him;
o The land of the dead in which the celebrant deposits the deceased; and
o The movement or passage back to the land of the living.
We will examine the architecture at the following passage graves: Newgrange,
Knowth, Knockmany, Fourknocks, and Loughcrew cairns F, H, I, L, S, T, and U in
26
Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales in order to determine if the four locales
representing the tiered cosmos as described above can be seen. If these are present
within the tombs, then an association with ASC and the tiered cosmos may be
established.
Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of
the dead
Many passage tombs are surrounded by kerbstones delineating the tomb from the
outside world. This is probably as far as anyone in the general public would have
come. The entrance to the monument is often dramatic, embellished with grand
stones, forecourts, and other features emphasizing the demarcation between inside and
outside. Inside the monument, the space is constricted, limiting inhabitation to few
individuals at a time. The forecourt opened out from the monument to a larger area
where many people might gather for ceremonies focusing on the entrance to the
passage grave. The community would stay at the entrance while the celebrant entered
the dark, mysterious world of the monument where interactions with the dead
occurred. They may have awaited the return of the celebrant from his/her journey
inside (Bradley 1989; Thomas, 1990; Parker-Pearson and Richards 1994; Cooney
2000).
The ordinary world from which the subject departs at the onset of ASC may be
compared to the world of the living from which the celebrant and the deceased depart
Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt (Shee-Twohig 1981)
27
Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone (O’Kelly 1982)
upon entering the tomb. Evidence for this would include entrance stones limiting
access to the passage grave, forecourts or other features suggesting ritual practice with
space for many people, and symbolism aimed at a large audience.
Newgrange
The cairn at Newgrange is surrounded by a stone kerb, many decorated with elaborate
motifs (O’Kelly 1982, 12-22). The front of the monument is now covered with a
revetment of quartz stones and round granite boulders rising 3m from the top of the
kerb (O'Kelly 1982, 15-21). These stones were found in the rubble in front of the
mound when it was first excavated. Cooney (2006, 309) argued that the stones
represented a large quartz forecourt.
Either scenario is implicated in large-scale communication aimed at a wide audience.
Quartz was a widely used symbolic element during the Neolithic in Britain and
Ireland. Due to its continued use at entrances and borders of monuments, and its
association with tombs, it has been thought to symbolize the moon and water,
transformation, liminality and the ancestors (Darvill 2002, 73; Cooney 2006, 706).
“The quartz would have caught and reflected the sun and the moon in a variety of
visual effects emphasizing the continuing symbolic power and place of this area as an
entrance to another world" (Cooney 2006, 706). The quartz at Newgrange, whether it
fronted the monument or lay as a platform before the entrance, would have been a
highly visible, highly charged communiqué understood by the witnessing community
as a symbol of the activities taking place inside the mound.
A large decorated
stone lies across the
entrance to
Newgrange (Fig.
3). The artwork on
this stone appears
to emphasize the
architectural
entrance and
28
Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones (Eogan 1986)
passage. The spiral may refer to passages (Dronfield 1996a). The stone is divided in
two by a line emerging from an unwinding spiral motif. The line leads directly to the
passage of the tomb. In order to gain entrance, one would have had to clamber over
the stone directly over the line as if it were pointing the way into the passage (O’Kelly
1982, 149). This is a clear rendering of the act of leaving the ordinary world and
entering, guided by the symbolic passage, the passage to a world that is not so
ordinary. Thus, the symbols on the stone communicate and emphasize to the general
public the passage one takes to enter the inner sanctum of the monument, a place the
vast majority of them would never see. Significantly, the motifs on the bottom of the
stone appear to continue below ground. O’Kelly (1982, 149) suggests that this
represents the ritual union of above and below, communicating to the public the
activities taking place inside the monument. The images in fact do not continue below
ground, suggesting that the carvings are symbolic rather than functional.
An oval stone setting east of the tomb entrance is filled with quartz pebbles and
associated artifacts (O’Kelly 1982, 75-6). This setting and deposition are obviously
deliberate and indicate that certain activities, perhaps of a ritual nature, were taking
place in front of the entrance at Newgrange, with plenty of room for a large audience.
Knowth
Knowth has two entrances: one on the east and one on the west, each leading to a
passage going almost to the center of the tomb. The mound was once surrounded by
127 kerbstones, of which 124 survive, demarcating the boundary of the monument
(Eogan 1986, 46). The largest and most elaborately decorated kerbstones are those
closest to the entrances.
The entrance stone at the western
passage of Knowth is decorated with
nested rectangles and a vertical line
oriented to the passage (Fig. 4). A
stone with two opposed sets of nested
rectangles lies across the eastern
entrance (Figure 13). Entrance is
29
gained by going over the stone along the vertical line, through the concentric images
(Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 211). The motif emphasizes the entrance and the
passage, acting as a guide or map to the route through the chamber. The stone acts as
a barrier to the passage, preventing the entrance of the general public. The symbolism
on the stone communicates to the community the activities taking place inside the
monument.
On the old ground surface or over the various features around the entrance was a
lunatespread of quartz and non-local stones (Eogan 1986, 65). This may have been a
façade similar to the one now standing across Newgrange. This would have
transmitted information about the tomb to a large audience.
Seven stone settings are arranged symmetrically outside the eastern tomb entrance.
These were roughly circular, surrounded by edge-set stones (Eogan 1986, 46). Setting
1 is directly opposite the entrance, saucer-shaped and overlain with small quartz chips
(Eogan 1986, 47). The other settings are similar in size and shape.
The features on the western side are similar. There are six stone settings delimited by
smooth stones. Setting 1, opposite the entrance, is roughly oval and filled with quartz.
Settings 5 and 6 are circular and have spreads of quartz in the center. 2, 3 and 4 are u-
shaped. 2 and 4 are hollowed and filled with dark earth (Eogan 1986, 48).
These settings were deliberately placed and designed. Quartz is a recurring element.
The selection of stones and the careful design suggest ritual use. It is possible that
communal ceremonies took place in the large spaces in front of the entrances.
Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres passage grave on Anglesey in Wales faces northwest toward the
sea. An entranceway is formed by the passage stones opening outwards. Two stone
sockets were found possibly representing monumental elements at the entrance,
possibly a forecourt (Powell and Daniel 1956, 13). Tiny flecks of charcoal were found
which may indicate fire activity, possibly of a ritual nature (Powell and Daniel 1956,
13). This forecourt would have been accessible or at least visible to a fairly large
30
audience. Unfortunately, beyond the tiny specks of charcoal, there is no evidence
surviving of activity taking place in the forecourt, and evidence of monumental
architecture is ambiguous.
Knockmany
Knockmany is a simple passage tomb with several decorated stones, set in a 25m
diameter cairn on top of a hill (Herity 1974, 82). There was a vestigial passage at the
entrance (Herity 1974, 82). The mound is surrounded by a stone kerb. This may have
been added as an afterthought to prevent erosion (Collins 1960, 6). The kerb would
have demarcated the boundary between the outside and the inside.
There is no evidence of any ritual activity at the entrance, but the cairn is much
disturbed. The mound’s placement on a peak would have made it a visually arresting,
dramatic feature of the landscape. This in itself would have communicated to a large
audience.
Fourknocks
The mound at Fourknocks is surrounded by a drystone kerb curving inward toward
the entrance, emphasizing the feature (Hartnett 1957, 201).
Loughcrew
F: F faces eastward toward T and is surrounded by a kerb (Herity 1974, 50).
H: The entrance at Cairn H is demarcated by a large, imposing lintel (Conwell 1866,
362). The entrance faces east, toward Cairn T, as do all the other cairns in the
Carnbane West group. This could be a reference to the River Boyne and the sunrise as
well as an association with the main tomb (T). H is surrounded by a kerb.
I: Cairn I faces eastward toward the river, the sunrise and Cairn T (Herity 1974, 55).
It is surrounded by a kerb.
L. Cairn L faces southeast toward Cairn T, the sunrise and the river. Passage
orthostats open out at entrance. A large lintel demarks the entrance (Conwell 1866,
31
369). L is surrounded by oblong kerbstones. Stone L1 bears highly complex motifs
and is visible from the entrance (Herity 1974, 50).
T: Cairn T is the focal point of all the tombs at Loughcrew. This passage grave is
fronted by a forecourt is created by orthostats opening outwards. The passage
entrance is blocked by large stones. Outside of the entrance, a loose layer of quartz
lumps was found, possibly representing a circular feature or a forecourt (Herity 1974,
42). The entrance was approached by a V-shaped incurve in the kerb, façade made
imposing by graduated larger stones toward the entry, two uprights flanking the
opening and a large lintel. Stones L1 and L2 are highly decorated and are visible from
the entrance. The entry faces slightly south of east to the Boyne and the sunrise
(Herity 1974, 42).
U: The entrance to Cairn U is aligned eastwards like T (Herity 1974, 44). A long slab
laid on its edge fronts the entrance, and along the passage a high sill almost blocks the
entrance (Herity 1974, 44). It is kerbed of small boulders (Herity 1974, 50).
Summary and Discussion
Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt
Kerb Entrance
stone Forecourt
External features
Symbolism (motifs, orientation, quartz)
Newgrange X X X X X Knowth X X X X X Barclodiad y Gawres
X X
Knockmany X X X X Fourknocks X X X LC-F X X LC-H X X LC-I X X LC-L X X LC-T X X X X LC-U X X X
All of the passage graves under consideration were surrounded by kerbs demarcating
the border between inside and outside the monument (See Table 1). This emphasizes
the fact that the interior of the mound is a special, perhaps even dangerous place
32
Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage (Shee-Twohig 1981)
which only the dead and the experienced religious leaders could enter. Three of the
passage graves had entrance stones further limiting access to the tomb. At least five of
the tombs had forecourts providing a gathering place spacious enough to
accommodate large groups. Four of the tombs have external features providing
evidence of ritual performance focusing on the entrance.
All of the tombs feature at least one symbolic element. In some it’s an orientation on
the sunrise, the river and an important monument. Some have artistic motifs on their
entrance stones or on passage stones visible at the entrance. Some have quartz
elements. All of these would have held meaning for the community viewing them,
and all emphasized the physical entrance to the passage grave. While the community
may not have been privy to the knowledge of the inner world of the tomb, they were
given some idea of the activities taking place inside by the symbols presented to them.
They probably witnessed the dead being taken inside, most likely as the climax of a
public ceremony as evidenced by the forecourts and external features, and witnessed
the celebrant emerging alone from the passage grave. The deceased was no longer a
member of their community, but an ancestor living in the land of the ancestors which
was associated with the tomb in a very real, physical way. The entrance to the tomb
became the door to the ancestral world.
Passage as vortex
Upon stepping through
the tomb’s entrance,
the subject enters a
passage. In shape and
design, the tomb
passage is a reflection
of the neurologically-
generated
tunnel/vortex. During
ASC, the vortex is
perceived as an access
route between the
33
every-day realm and the non-ordinary realm of deeper hallucination where the subject
may interact with spirit beings and ancestors. Passages may serve the same purpose
by functioning as an access route between the every-day world outside and the extra-
ordinary world inside where the dead are deposited.
Evidence that these tomb passages were perceived as access routes to the realm of the
dead requires a comparison to the vortices of ASC. The vortices experienced during
ASC often are seen to have imagery on them. They are often seen to rotate. Evidence
for a comparison may include motifs on passage walls, especially symbols of rotation
such as the spiral (Dronfield 1996a and 1996b). The construction of passages in such
a way as to make them difficult or stressful to traverse may reflect that they were
considered to lead to a dangerous place such as the realm of the dead. Architectural
and artistic elements emphasizing the difference between the passage and other parts
of the tomb may be present. There may also be symbolic orientation of the passage,
reflecting the movement from the land of the living (entrance facing sunrise) to the
land of the dead (moving westward along the passage toward the sunset and the
chamber).
Newgrange
The Newgrange passage runs 19 meters along a thin, sinuous passage (O’Kelly 1982,
21). The passage is oriented southeast/northwest. The subject moves northwest
through the passage toward the chamber, or roughly in the direction of the sunset, and
back toward the direction of the sunrise upon her/his return to the outside. This
orientation is emphasized for several days per year when the winter solstice sunrise
enters the passage through the roofbox directly over the entrance and shines into the
back chamber (O’Kelly 1982, 22).
The roofbox had a quartz slab that could be moved back and forth across the opening
to allow or prevent light into the monument, and a profusely decorated lintel (O'Kelly
982, 96). This artwork emphasizes the roofbox and the traversal of the sun along the
passage.
34
Figure 6: Newgrange L19 (O’Kelly 1982)
Each side of the passage is lined with orthostats. The orthostats
nearest the chamber are tallest, over 2 m high. The passage,
roofed by massive slabs, rises in height to 3.6 m as it
approaches the chamber (O'Kelly 1982, 21). The opening out of
the passage into the chamber is similar to the experience of
leaving the vortex and entering the 3rd stage of ASC.
A marble and a pendant were found deposited in the passage
close to the chamber entrance (O’Kelly 1982, 105),
emphasizing movement into a different space. There are two
concentrations of burnt and unburnt bone in the passage. One
(Lot 3) occurs at the chamber entrance. The other (Lot 7) occurs
a short distance from the chamber entrance. The journey is a
highly orchestrated one with particular emphasis on doorways and openings,
heightening the traveler's awareness that she or he is traveling through radically
different spaces (Thomas 1990).
There are many motifs in the passage at Newgrange, and many of them are
concentrics. Dronfield (1996a, 43) found that most of the concentric motifs at
Newgrange were associated with the architectural passage. Given the association of
the ASC vortex and concentric motifs, the association of the tomb passage and
concentrics at Newgrange is suggestive of a link. The most imposing of all the artistic
compositions in the passage is on L19 (Fig. 6), close to the chamber entrance, again
emphasizing the demarcation or liminal zone between architectural areas of the tomb.
At some point the passage was blocked by a massive stone, cutting off access
(O’Kelly 1982, 100). Perhaps it was felt that without the proper guide, the passage
was too dangerous to traverse, and the world inside the chamber inappropriate for
general members of the public.
35
Knowth
The western tomb
The passage runs approximately 32 meters from the entrance stone to the chamber
(Eogan 1986, 43). The passage is straight for three fourths of its length, then bends to
the right. After the bend there is a sillstone and, further along, the passage narrows.
Finally it expands into a chamber. At the time of publication, this tomb had not been
excavated.
Near the chamber entrance, several passage orthostats (33, 34, 38, 48, 49, 50, 51) bear
complex motifs including several concentrics. These emphasize the transitional or
liminal space between the passage and the chamber (Eogan 1986, 44).
The eastern tomb
The passage on the eastern side is 40 meters long and ends in a cruciform chamber
(Eogan 1986, 64). Eogan (1986, 64) argues that stones decorated in a particular style
were deliberately placed in specific areas of the tomb, especially in the passage as one
nears the chamber. An elaborate chevron-decorated capstone (43) can be found 27 m
from the entrance. Capstone no. 45 also stands out as it was set at a lower level and
was decorated with picked motifs along its outside edge. Along this 5 m stretch, the
orthostats on both sides of the passage were decorated. Several undecorated stones
then occur between this and the entrance to the chamber, setting the areas apart. At
the entrance to the chamber itself, orthostats on both sides of the sill as well as
capstones are decorated (Eogan 1986, 64).
The sill is another architectural element highlighting the entrance to the chamber from
the passage, setting it apart.
Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres has a 20 ft long passage (Powell and Daniel 1956, 12). The
passage is generally straight with a slight variation at the entrance to the chamber
where the left wall dips to the left. The entrance to the chamber is demarcated by
decorated stones. The passage goes from north to south, with the entrance to the
north. The siting is related to Porth Trecastell, the best landing place on the island.
36
Figure 7: Knockmany C6 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Barclodiad y Gawres was the only coastal tomb known to the excavators (Powell and
Daniel 1956, 1). Perhaps the orientation toward the ocean was a symbol of
regeneration.
Orthostats C1, C16 and L8 bear concentric motifs and are located at the chamber
entrance. An interesting aspect of Barclodiad y Gawres is the hearth in the central
chamber. The fire, when viewed from the entrance or inside the
passage, would appear as the bright light in the center of the
vortex during ASC.
Knockmany
Knockmany has only a vestigial passage (Herity 1974, 82).
Cremated bone was found behind stone 12, but this may have
been displaced from disturbance of the burial chamber (Collins
1960, 4). The passage is very short, and oriented south/north
with the entrance at the south. A striking visual experience
when walking through the passage toward the chamber (a quick
trip), is the artwork on stones C5 and C6 (Fig. 7).
Because of the view of the motifs from the passage it appears that one is entering a
different sort of space. However, the passage is so short that it doesn’t feel as if one is
“traversing the realms” so to speak. The architecture appears to refer to a passage or
to be reminiscent of a passage. There is a very faint motif on passage stone 12. The
passage opens into the central chamber.
Fourknocks
The originally unroofed passage at Fourknocks is oriented northeast to southwest, and
is unique in that it yielded elaborate burials (Hartnett 1957, 201).
The passage was paved with flat stones (Hartnett 1957, 205). The remains were found
in layers beneath the paving stones, and included both burnt and unburnt bone
(Hartnett 1957, 206). The heaviest concentration of inhumations was by the entrance,
the lowest by the chamber (Hartnett 1957, 206).
37
The passage widens slightly as it approaches the chamber entrance. The sensation of
entering the chamber, however, must have been very different during the tomb’s
currency than it is today in the passage’s present roofed state. If the passage was
indeed unroofed, as Hartnett claimed, then the entrance to the chamber must have felt
more constricting than opening out, but the chamber would have seemed even more
like a radically different space. These differences may be due to the fact that the tomb
was used in a single event and then sealed (Hartnett 1957).
Loughcrew
F: The passage at Cairn F is approximately 2.5 m long, and is oriented east to west.
The passage widens from approximately 0.5 m at its entrance, to almost 1.0 m at the
chamber entrance (Conwell 1866, 361). There are motifs on five of the eight passage
orthostats, but all are so weathered as to be rendered almost invisible. It is impossible
to say how visually arresting the motifs may have been during the tomb’s currency.
H: The passage at Cairn H, oriented east-west, measures approximately 5m long and
expands from 1 m at entrance to approximately 1.5 m at entrance to chamber. The
passage was packed with burnt bone mixed with small quartz fragments (Conwell
1866, 362). Motifs occur on two of six passage stones. The motifs on L2 are invisible,
while those on R2 are fairly visible, especially a large spiral that occurs on the stone
low to the ground. As one approaches the chamber entrance, the sill stone of the right
recess becomes highly visible, with three large spiral depictions. Stone C5,
comprising the back wall of the left chamber, also has spiral motifs which are highly
visible from the passage as one nears the chamber entrance. All of these vividly
emphasize the difference in space between the passage and the chamber.
I: The passage at Cairn I, oriented east-west, is approximately 2 m long. It opens from
approximately .7 m at the entrance, to 1 m at the chamber entrance (Conwell 1866,
364). There is only one stone with motifs in the passage, R2, located at and
demarcating the chamber entrance. The motifs are fairly visible from the passage.
Motifs on stone C5, the right wall of one of the left chambers, are also visible from
passage.
38
L. The passage at Cairn L is approximately 3 m long oriented east to west (Herity
1974, 54). Of eight passage stones, six bear artwork. R1, R2, L3 and L4 bear spirals
which are fairly visible in the passage. Three spirals on C3 are plainly visible from the
chamber entrance. The chamber appears to open out from the passage due to the roof
opening upwards.
T: The passage at Cairn T is approximately 5 m long and covered by a corbelled roof
rising as one nears the central chamber (Herity 1974, 42). The passage remains fairly
constant in width at approximately 1 m wide at the entrance and the chamber
entrance, with the exception of the midpoint of the passage. At this point, passage
stones L3, L4, R3 and R4 are set at a different angle than the rest of the passage
stones, constricting the passage to about half its width. The passage then opens up
again and continues on toward the chamber. Eight of 12 remaining stones are
decorated elaborately. Five of these are highly visible as one traverses the passage.
A sill separates the chamber from the passage. C8, the back wall of the back recess, is
very complex and highly visible from the passage at the chamber entrance. The side
of C15, at the chamber entrance, is also highly visible from the passage, demarcating
the spaces.
The passage entrance was eventually blocked by large stones, curtailing access.
U: Cairn U’s passage runs approximately 5 m from east to west, widening slightly at
the chamber entrance. Of five remaining passage stones, three bear motifs, none of
which are plainly visible when moving from entrance to chamber (Herity 1974, 50).
Motifs on chamber stones C2, C6 and C8 are visible only when crouched at the
chamber entrance as they are low to the ground.
Summary and Discussion
Of primary importance in the comparison to the ASC-generated vortex is the
perception and experience of the tomb passage as an access route between locations
that are very different from one another.
39
Table 2: Elements of the passage
Symbolic orientation
Opening out into chamber
Non-linear traversal
Emphasis on
chamber entrance
Spirals/ Concentrics
/radials Intervisible
with passage
Other Motifs in passage
Newgrange Y Y Y Y Y Y Knowth E Y Y Y Y Y Y Knowth W Y Y Y Y Barclodiad y Gawres
Y? Y Y Y
Knockmany Y Y Y Y Fourknocks Y Y Y LC-F Y Y ? Y LC-H Y Y Y Y Y LC-I Y Y Y Y Y LC-L Y Y Y Y LC-T Y Y Y Y Y Y LC-U Y Y Y Y
Nine of the 12 tombs under consideration have orientations that may reference a
movement from sunrise to sunset. This may be symbolic of moving from the land of
the living to the land of the dead. Fewer than half have long, sinuous tunnels, but 11
of 12 open out from the passage into the chamber, with architectural and artistic
emphasis on the junction. The sensation of emerging from a physically constricted
passage into a wide, open space emphasizes the perception that the inner chamber is a
radically different place from both the passage and from the outside world. All of the
passages bear motifs as do many ASC-generated vortices. At least nine of the
passages comprise stones bearing highly visible spirals, concentrics and/or radials.
The character of these motifs enhances a perception that they are rotating, a
commonly-reported characteristic of ASC-generated vortices. Additionally, all of the
graves have conspicuous spirals, concentrics and/or radials visible in or from the
passage. These motifs appear to reference rotation and movement, and may serve as
visual cues for movement through the space (Dronfield 1996a).
Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead
The chamber constitutes the inner sanctum of the passage graves. In the graves under
consideration, this area is the most common for yielding human remains and
accompanying objects (with the exception of Fourknocks and Newgrange). Most of
40
the chambers were constructed with high, corbelled roofs, giving a sense of open
space. This may replicate the vortex leading from stage 2 into stage 3 hallucinations.
The chamber may be compared to the realm experienced during ASC stage 3. It has
been shown that stage 3 may represent another existential realm, often interpreted as
an underworld occupied by the dead, ancestors or other spirits (Lewis-Williams and
Pearce 2005, 218). If the chamber can be shown to be associated with a realm of the
dead, ancestors or spirits, then a close association of the chamber with ASC stage 3
may be seen.
We will examine the 12 passage graves for evidence that the chambers were
perceived to be a different existential realm having to do with the
dead/ancestors/spirits. Evidence may include: architectural and artistic elements
suggesting that the chamber was a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and
than the outside world; human remains indicating an association of the space with the
dead; and grave goods indicating a sacred nature of the deposit.
Newgrange
The cruciform chamber at Newgrange has three recesses or side chambers, the west,
the east, and the back recesses. The chamber has a high corbelled roof ending in a
single capstone 6 m above floor level (O'Kelly 1982, 21).
Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber (Shee-Twohig 1981)
41
Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds (O’Kelly 1982)
In the chamber, a layer of burnt and unburnt bones and faunal remains was observed
(O'Kelly 1982, 105) (Fig. 9). The excavations revealed that the tomb was disturbed by
later activities, and it is thought that many of the original artefacts were probably
removed (O’Kelly 1982, 26).
In the main chamber, a layer of burnt and
unburnt human bone was located on the floor
adjacent to the back, east and west recesses. A
bone disc bead was discovered just beyond the
chamber entrance. A central pit was present in
the main chamber associated with a large
hammer pendant. Near the west recess a
serpentine marble and some utilized flint flakes
were found (O'Kelly 1982, 105).
In the end recess only a utilized flint flake was
found together with a single, broken basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105).
In the west recess, a pendant and several fragments of bone points and pins, three of
them burnt, were found mingled with several discrete concentrations of burnt and
unburnt human remains around and beneath a single basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105). The
burnt material contained a tooth and some skull fragments indicating at least one
individual (O'Kelly 1982, 105-6).
The east recess is the largest and most profusely ornamented of the recesses at
Newgrange. Two basin stones, one inside the other, were present in this recess. One
of these basin stones was carved with lattice motifs, argued by Dronfield (1996a, 52)
to have a perceptual association with mortuary remains. In the 1967 excavations, the
lower basin couldn’t be moved, so the ground beneath it was never fully examined.
Elsewhere in the recess, finds included a bone chisel, marbles, a bead and a pendant.
This recess was the richest in human remains. Unburnt material included 2 incomplete
adult skeletons, both broken into very small pieces. The distribution of material shows
that it was widely scattered and intermingled with other materials in the area (O'Kelly
1982, 106-7). The burnt material comprises at least 3 individuals, but it is almost
42
Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z (O’Kelly 1982)
certain that there were more at one time prior to the tomb’s disturbance (O'Kelly
1982, 107).
At the junction of the passage
and the chamber two stones, X
and Y found to be profusely
decorated (O'Kelly 1982, 96)
(Fig. 10). These designs are
artistically unique within
Newgrange and here
emphasize the liminal zone
between the chamber and
passage.
Newgrange Summary
The presence of multiple concentrations of human remains in the chamber suggests
that the chamber is associated with the dead. There are two concentrations occurring
outside the chamber. These may refer to the liminal zone; as one approaches the
chamber, one approaches the land of the dead. This is further emphasized by the
nature of the deposit. The remains are not separated according to individual, but are
mixed together. This may be symbolic of a group of ancestors (Barrett 1994, 51,
Thomas 2000, 655).
The subject entering this space would necessarily come into contact and interact with
the ancestors as their bones would be present. Grave goods found in proximity to the
remains suggest a sacred aspect and possible ritual activity. The high corbelled roof
and side recesses give the impression of space opening up from the passage.
The roof slabs in the eastern and western recesses bear highly complex compositions
featuring spirals and concentric motifs. Additionally, there are several decorated
stones whose motifs are hidden from view, such as the western recess roof slab, which
is presently partially hidden. These compositions may serve to direct the movements
of the deceased. In the case of the roof slabs, the deceased is placed directly beneath
them. Since spirals and concentrics have been seen to represent vortices (Dronfield
43
Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials (Eogan 1986)
Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab (O’Kelly 1982)
1996a, 52), perhaps these motifs serve to direct the deceased upward into the realm of
the ancestors. Similarly, the motifs hidden in the corbels and lintels may be intended
for the deceased.
Based on architectural and artistic
elements, the chamber is delineated as
a separate space from the rest of the
tomb and from the outside world. The
presence of mixed human remains in
the chamber suggest an affiliation with
a group of ancestors.
Knowth
The eastern tomb:
The eastern tomb is cruciform with three
recesses. The chamber is roofed with a high,
corbelled roof topped by a capstone 8 m
above the ground surface. In the central
chamber, human remains were found in a
small area near the entrance to the right
recess (Eogan 1986, 39). These were almost
all cremation except for a few pieces of
disarticulated bone (Figs. 12 and 14).
Cremations were found between the sillstone
and backstone of the left recess (Eogan 1986, 39). A general blanket deposit of
cremations was present, ranging from 3-15 cm deep all around the sides of the recess,
abutting onto orthostats and the sillstone. In one of the hollows, some unburnt or
44
Figure 13: Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 (Eogan 1986)
Fig. 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds (Eogan 1986)
partly burnt bones were mixed in with the cremations. Grave goods consisted of 2
pestle pendants, parts of two mushroom-headed pins, and parts of 5 other pins. In the
outer part of the recess (in the central chamber), on the original surface next to the sill
a small amount of cremated bone was found which may have been part of a more
extensive primary deposit (Eogan 1986, 42).
In the end recess, the burials were much disturbed. The inner part of the concentration
was almost completely covered with a large flagstone lying on the old ground surface.
A cremation deposit overlay the flag (Eogan 1986, 42).
A very complex composition of
art motifs including was found on
stone 48 on the right wall of the
end recess (Figure 13). The only
other composition that comes
close to this one in complexity is
the back wall (54) of the right
chamber. Both include lattices
and lozenges, and stone 54 bears
concentrics argued by Dronfield
(1996a, 52) to be associated with
the dead and the vortex.
There were six burial deposits in the
right recess. Between consecutive
deposits, a thin layer of earth or
small, flat stones was placed. Grave
goods include stone beads, pendants,
and antler pins (Eogan 1986, 43).
A very large stone basin was placed
in a central position in this recess. It
45
is so large as to suggest that it was placed during construction (Eogan 1986, 42). A
distinctive macehead with a spiral motif was found between two jambstones on the
old floor surface at the entrance to the right recess. It was located lying in front of the
stone basin, under a layer of shale. During the initial exploration of the tomb, Eogan
came across the macehead while making his way down the passage for the first time.
He describes it thus: "This ghostly guardian suggested that we were approaching the
inner sanctum" (Eogan 1986, 32).
The passage into the western tomb opens into an undifferentiated chamber (Eogan
1986, 43). The roof is not corbelled, but cross-flags project inward slightly, producing
a corbelled effect (Eogan 1986, 44). The passage expands and rises in height into a
chamber defined by two large sidestones, a backstone, and a sillstone. There is
another sill in the middle of the chamber. Although the tomb has not been excavated,
flakes of cremated bone were noticeable in the fill of soft earth over the floor. Part of
an undecorated stone pestle or macehead and part of the stem of a large antler pin
were recovered. A sandstone basin was found in the passage, but doesn't seem to have
been in its original position. There is a hollow on the outside of the outer sillstone of
the chamber that may have been the basin-stone's original position (Eogan 1986, 44).
The rear wall of the chamber (Stone 41) bears a motif almost identical to that of the
entrance stone, comprising concentric circles.
The presence of human remains that have been mixed together suggests that the
chambers of Knowth were associated with the ancestors. The high roofs and opening
out of the passages into the chambers, as well as motifs marking the entrances to the
chambers emphasize the perception that the chambers are unusual spaces. Grave
goods suggest ritual associations.
Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres contains a cruciform chamber comprising a central/main
chamber and three recesses. At the southern end of the passage, a polygonal central or
main chamber is located which had a partially corbelled roof (Powell and Daniel
1956, 14). A hearth was present in the center. The remains were 6" thick at the centre
46
Figure 15 1. Left recess back wall 2. Right recess back wall
and contained wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Limpet and oyster shells
were pressed into the mulch and all was overlain by flat stones, mostly quartzite
(Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). A pig bone and two hundred tiny bone pieces were
mixed with this mulchy earth and pebbles. They were determined to be fish,
amphibian, reptile, small mammal, and possibly bird bones (Powell and Daniel 1956,
16). A likely scenario is posited as follows:
1. A wood fire was lit and allowed to burn until it consisted of ash with
embedded fragments of flowing charcoal.
2. A libation of special stew was poured over the ashes.
3. The fire was forthwith quenched by covering it with pebbles, earth and
shells (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16).
The end recess is located at the southern end of the passage on the far side of the
central chamber. The entrance is demarcated by a sillstone. A pit found at its centre is
probably the result of grave robbing. Overlying all existant surfaces at the edges and
corner was dark, sticky earth with fragments of cremated bone and charcoal (Powell
and Daniel 1956, 18). Small fragments of cremated bone were also found in lower
levels of the rubble infill (Powell and Daniel 1956, 18).
The eastern (left) recess has no sillstone, but the area has been disturbed. Some small
fragments of cremated bone and charcoal still remained in the corners and edges of
the recess (Powell and Daniel 1956, 19). The back
wall bears a highly visible composition concentric
motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981).
The western recess was least disturbed due to being
carefully blocked with large stones (Powell and
Daniel 1956, 19). A thin scatter of cremated bone
mixed with sticky brown soil and flecks of charcoal
was spread over the floor. Fragments of deliberately-
broken antler pins were scattered throughout (Powell
and Daniel 1956, 21). The bone represents two
47
Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
young adult males, with a few sheepbone fragments (Powell and Daniel 1956, 22). A
concentric motif is present on the back wall (Fig. 15).
The chamber at Barclodiad y Gawres is set apart from the rest of the tomb by artistic
elements present at the chamber entrance, the opening up of the passage, a possible
corbelled roof, silled recesses, and the presence of a hearth. Human remains found
mixed together in the several recesses indicate an association of the space with a
group of ancestors. Grave goods and the enigmatic stew suggest ritual and the sacred
nature of the deposit. Concentric motifs on the back walls of the side recesses may be
vortices for the deceased (Dronfield 1996a, 52) (Fig.15).
The hearth at this site is unique in that no other monument under consideration here
yielded evidence of fire (beyond charcoal mixed with cremated bone). The use of fire
inside the tomb would have been an inductive element of ASC, and would have
replicated the bright light at the end of the vortex commonly reported in experiments
and ethnographic studies focusing on ASC.
Knockmany
The chamber at
Knockmany is a rough
pentagon entered into
through a short passage
(Herity 1974, 82).
Excavators found the tomb
in a very disturbed state,
with human remains
dislocated from their
original deposition areas,
which were impossible to
ascertain. Fragments of cremated bone were found behind stone 12 along with
modern potsherds in an area of disturbance, probably the result of looting (Collins
1960, 4).
48
Stones C9 and C11 bear the most complex and visible of the artistic compositions,
and include many concentric motifs and lozenges (Fig. 16). C9 is located on the right
side of the chamber. Based on its similarities to the roofstones at Newgrange and
Loughcrew T and L, this stone could mark the original deposition site at Knockmany.
Fourknocks
The chamber at Fourknocks comprises a pear-shaped central chamber and three
recesses. A posthole was found in the central chamber, possibly representing a roof
support for the beehive (corbelled) construction surmounted by a cairn (Hartnett 1957,
201).
The recesses are silled. The west and south recesses are roofed with slabs arrestingly
decorated on the front faces, which function as lintels (Hartnett 1957, 214). The east
cell may have been roofed with Stone A. Cremated and unburnt materials in a
homogenous mass 10-20 cm thick with very little charcoal and admixture were found
in the recesses. These were probably burnt elsewhere and deposited as a complete
mass (Hartnett 1957, 214).
The south recess was the principal burial chamber (Hartnett 1957, 216). Twenty
centimeters of cremation materials were spread under a paving stone. Decorated antler
bone was found deliberately broken into fragments. Pins made from sheep
metatarsals, stone beads, a hammer-pendant, bone points/blades, pendants, and
needles were also present (Hartnett 1957, 216).
The west recess yielded 14 cm of cremation materials (Hartnett 1957, 215) along with
an unburnt skull with some longbone and rib fragments. The few associated grave
goods included a stone hammer-pendant, a shale bead, and a small shell pendant. A
small amount of cremated bone and a burnt ox tooth were found under paving stone
(Hartnett 1957, 215).
49
Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
The east recess yielded mixed burials beneath
paving stone. Few grave goods were found,
including a stone bead, a whitish marble,
bone beads, pins, and a pendant. According
to Cooney (2000, fig. 4.5) stone A (Fig. 17)
was the lintel stone for the tomb entrance. He
provides no evidence for this assignation and
no evidence for its location appeared during
excavation. The motifs on the bottom of the
stone are similar to those appearing on roof
slabs of other tombs (Newgrange, Loughcrew
I, T) and the motifs on the front face appear similar to the lintelstones found on other
recesses within Fourknocks. I argue that this stone once rested over the eastern recess.
The deposition of human remains at Fourknocks is dramatic and warrants a close
study of its own. The unburnt bones were mostly children while burnt bones comprise
mostly adult skeletons (Hartnett 1957, 249). Some were mixed with animal bone. At
least 65 individuals in total are represented throughout the tomb (chamber and
passage), and probably a lot more (Hartnett 1957, 250). The adjacent mound
(Fourknocks II) may cover a crematorium trench where these remains were processed.
The excavator believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks represent a single
event in which cremations that had been taking place over a period of time were then
brought into Fourknocks I and deposited
(Hartnett 1957, 250). In all 3 recesses a slab
floor repository for cremations was built in
(Hartnett 1957, 251). The deposit was then
paved over with flat stones and each chamber
sealed.
The only Neolithic artwork of a human figure is
thought to be present at Fourknocks. Stone C1
(Fig. 18), in the chamber close to the passage
junction is thought to represent a human face. It
50
Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill (Shee-Twohig 1981)
stands sentinel at the egress from the chamber into the passage, perhaps guiding the
celebrant back to the daylit world, or perhaps guarding the daylit world from the
deceased.
Loughcrew
F: Cairn F covers a cruciform passage grave. A sepulchral stone basin was located in
the northern recess. Underneath the basin a bone pin fragment and flint flake were
found. In the southwestern corner of the southern chamber, a brown, ironstone ball
and bone fragments were scattered throughout (Conwell 1866, 361).
Stone C1 is covered with a series of small arcs and forms the left wall of the southern
recess. This is the most highly visual of all the stones in the monument. Arcs may be
representative of the passage/vortex (Blundell 1998, 9).
H: H is also cruciform in plan with an octagonal central chamber. A sepulchral basin
was found in the western recess.
Chambers yielded bone, stone and
earth fill with over 5,000 finds
including bone blades, combs,
pendants and pins, ferrule, pins, an
antler tine, burnt potsherds, flints, sea
shells, coloured stones, and stone balls
(Conwell 1866, 363-4).
The sillstone to the eastern recess (Fig. 19) is covered with three high visible spirals
leading into the cell.
I: I is a stalled-construction chambered tomb. The floors of cells a, b, d and e were
constructed of square flags. Charred bone was spread on top of the flags. A thin dry-
stone layer with charred bone fragments on top was located beneath the flags. Cell a
yielded two stone ornaments (a bead and a pendant). No bone was located atop the
flag in Cell f but some was found beneath it (Conwell 1866, 364).
51
Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone (Shee-Twohig 1981)
A loose stone was found in cell c. The stone is covered with a complex composition
of motifs covering three sides. This may have been a roofslab with motifs on its
underside, its top (facing the roof) and the edge facing the central chamber. This stone
is comparable to the roofslabs at Newgrange.
L. Cairn L remains intact with a
corbelled roof rising 12 feet
above floor and seven chambers
(Conwell 1866, 366). One
thousand ten bone pieces, a spear
point, javelin, and potsherds were
found. The passage flag had
burned ashes atop it and
excavators thought it to be the
cremation site (Conwell 1866,
367). The second chamber is demarcated by a sill. Underneath a basin, human teeth
and charred bone were found. In the opposite chamber a very large oval basin had
charred bone and teeth beneath it (Conwell 1866, 367). The ends of 2 bone pins,
several stone balls and an oval jet ornament were found in association (Conwell 1866,
369).
The most complex composition is found on C16
(Fig. 20), the rear wall of the largest right-hand
chambers. The motifs comprise mostly concentric
circles, focusing on a central concentric circle with a
second concentric circle connected to it.
T: The chamber at Cairn T has a corbelled roof
rising to 10' high. The floor of the central chamber is
paved with 3 large flags. Underneath at least 2 of the
flags, fragments of charred bone, stone, and charcoal
were found. Three cists or recesses open off the
central chamber. Each recess is roofed by corbelling
52
Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
with a flat capstone. Each has a high sillstone. Above each sillstone is a large
limestone lintel. The floor earth of each cell is mixed with charred bone. A circle of
earth 12" in diameter “inclosed with a hatful of burnt bone” was covered with a flag at
the centre of cell b (Conwell 1866, 372). Larger bones and stones were found atop the
flag, possibly representing a later deposit (Conwell 1866, 372). Chamber b and c have
corbelled "beehive" roofs (Conwell 1866, 373).
The stones with the most complex designs can be found in the recesses. C11 is the left
wall and C14 on the right wall of the right recess. C8 is the rear wall of the rear
recess. C3 is the rear wall of the left recess. All bear concentrics. C11 also bears
lozenges. A roofstone decorated with concentrics and other motifs was also found
belonging to the rear recess (Fig. 21). Several decorated corbels and lintels are
present.
U: The chamber at Cairn U is cruciform, with three recesses opening off a central
chamber. The recesses are further divided by a slab through their middles. Burnt bone
was found beneath paving stones in each recess (Conwell 1866, 374).
The most highly visible and complex
art compositions are those on the back
walls of the recesses, C3 in the left
recess, C6 in the back recess and C9
(Fig. 22) in the right recess. All three
bear many concentrics, and C9 bears
lozenges and lattices.
Summary and Discussion
Each of the tombs under consideration has architectural as well as artistic elements
delineating the chamber as a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and than
the outside world. These include high, corbelled roofs, sills, lintels, an opening into
the space from the passage, and artistic motifs emphasizing these architectural
elements. The presence of ritually-interred human remains in all of the tombs suggests
53
that the chamber was a realm intended for the dead. Aside from Fourknocks and
Newgrange, human remains were confined almost exclusively to the chamber. The
visual separation of the spaces and the presence of the dead suggest that travel
through the monument was not to be taken lightly. This is further emphasized by the
presence of spirals and lattices/lozenges, possibly orchestrating movement through the
tomb (Dronfield 1996a). Finally, all of the tombs, by their design, can be considered
to be inductive to ASC via possible sonic and optic hallucination (with the presence of
fire, such as at Barclodiad y Gawres, or through rhythmic sounds), by gazing at
entoptic imagery, and/or by sensory homogenization, deprivation or apoxia.
Table 3: Elements of the chambers
Elements marking
the chamber as a separate
space
Human remains
Grave goods
Elements orchestrating movements
Possible inductive elements
Newgrange X X X X X Knowth E X X X X X Knowth W X X X X X Barclodiad y Gawres
X X X X X
Knockmany X X X Fourknocks X X X X X LC-F X X X X X LC-H X X X X X LC-I X X X X X LC-L X X X X X LC-T X X X X LC-U X X X X
Leaving the Tomb
Upon completion of whatever activities take place within the chamber, the celebrant
departs through the passage. As stated above, it is a matter of interest to the celebrant
and to the community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the
tomb into the outside world. Since the passage is open access going both ways, there
must be another element added to prevent egress for the deceased through the
passage. This, I will argue in the following section, is in the form of artistic motifs
that act as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant
back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural
elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct,
54
Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb (Eogan 1986)
located at liminal zones such as the chamber/passage junction and highly visible to
anyone (living) attempting to find the passage and leave the tomb.
Newgrange
Certain motifs may have been strategically placed to emphasize and guide the
celebrant through the architecture. Perhaps the best known of all Neolithic motifs is
the triple spiral (a misnomer as the motifs are actually concentric circles) on the right
wall, stone C10 of the back recess. This motif is lined up with the passage as if
illuminating the egress route. As one is leaving the chamber, several simple motifs are
highly visible and appear to guide the subject out of the passage. C2 on the south wall
of the west recess is highly visible, composed of a large concentric spiral/circle with
lattice motif above it. The spiral is associable with the passage (Dronfield 1996a, 54).
In the passage, L19 is heavily decorated with zigzags and spirals, some below ground.
This would have been visible as it faces the chamber as one is exiting through the
passage. L22 is also visible as one leaves the chamber, comprising zigzags on the
bottom left side of the stone, facing the chamber (O’Kelly 1982).
Knowth
The journey out of the western passage is marked with
several architectural and artistic elements. Orthostats
38, 40 and 48 are located near the sill delineating the
chamber from the passage, and all are decorated,
emphasizing their importance as marking a change in
the type of space through which the subject is moving.
The bend in the passage appears to be especially
important as it is emphasized with several highly
decorated orthostats (49, 50, 51, 34 and 33). Simpler
motifs occur on orthostats further toward the exit from
the chamber (e.g., Or 16). The chamber is delineated by a sill (Shee-Twohig, 1981).
When exiting the eastern chamber, certain orthostats are visible at the junction to the
passage. These are Or 36, 37, 56 and 57 and the jamb (Fig. 23) at the right recess
55
Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
entrance (Shee-Twohig, 1981). These all bear simple motifs, and emphasize the
passage/chamber junction. This tomb has a sill demarcating the left recess.
Barclodiad y Gawres
C1, C18 and L8 bear artistic motifs visible while moving from the chamber to the
passage (Shee-Twohig, 1981). They are all located at the chamber/passage junction,
emphasizing the transition from chamber to passage.
Knockmany
When exiting the chamber toward the passage at Knockmany, C3 and C10 stand out
visually. C3 is located on the left chamber wall, facing inward toward the chamber.
C10 is located on the right chamber wall facing inward toward the back of the
chamber. C11 is located on the right chamber wall, adjacent to the passage and facing
inward toward the rear wall of the chamber.
These appear to emphasize the difference between the passage and the chamber.
Fourknocks:
C1 is a well-known stone of this era because it is supposed to be an anthropomorphic
figure (a human face). This would be the only example of such a motif yet found in
Neolithic Britain or Ireland. This stone is adjacent to the passage/chamber junction
and is highly visible when exiting the chamber, seeming to guard the passage. Stones
B, D and C are highly visible, emphasizing the exit from the chamber. A lintel
demarcates the main chamber from the passage.
Loughcrew
F
R2 in the passage is highly visible on the way out.
L4 faces inward and has a strip of short vertical
parallel lines going across the center of the stone.
L1 (Fig. 24) has horizontal parallel lines and is
adjacent to the tomb entrance. These motifs are
56
Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
visible and simple, oriented toward the exit. Sills were possibly originally in place at
the southern and western recesses.
H
Two orthostats stand out visually when exiting Cairn H. These are L2, facing in
toward the chamber and bearing two large arcs with smaller dots inside, and R2, with
a more complex composition of a large circles. These stones are located close to the
tomb entrance. A sill separates the right recess from the central chamber.
I
When leaving Monument I, C1 is
visible on the left wall of the left
chamber, adjacent to the
chamber/passage junction. C17 is
located on the right wall of the
right chamber, adjacent to the
chamber/passage junction (Fig.
25). Both appear to orient the
subject toward the passage/exit.
L
While exiting the chamber, C1 is
highly visible, comprised of three
large concentric motifs oriented
toward the passage. In the passage
itself, several orthostats are visually
obvious on the way out of the tomb,
especially L4, with two large circular
motifs; L3 near the chamber/entrance
junction with a complex though
scattered composition of several concentrics and a flower-shaped radial; and R1
(Figure 26) adjacent to the tomb entrance with a large concentric circle motif. All are
57
Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones (Shee-Twohig 1981)
oriented toward the exit. A sill demarcates the second recess from the central
chamber.
T
Starting from the back chamber and moving outward, C9 is visible on the right wall of
the back chamber. This stone faces in toward the rear wall, and bears several large
concentric designs with radials. These motifs are concentrated on the upper portion of
the stone. As one moves
toward the passage C15
becomes obvious. C15 is
adjacent to the
chamber/passage junction.
The edge is highly visible
and has small, incised
concentrics. All of these
stones are found at liminal
zones. Each recess and the
central chamber are
demarcated by sills.
In the passage, L5, and R5, adjacent to the chamber/passage junction, are both highly
visible. Both bear designs covering most of the stone face including lots of small
incised concentrics mixed in and joining with pecked concentrics. R4, L4 and L3 (R3
is missing) are edge set, forming a delineation of space about two thirds of the way
between the tomb entrance and the chamber/passage junction (Fig. 27). All of these
stones bear varied, faint motifs scattered along the edge-face. R2 is highly visible
while moving out through the passage, and bears several concentric motics
concentrated on the center of the stone-face, moving toward the top.
58
Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 (Shee-twohig 1981)
Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981)
U
The most visible elements upon
leaving Cairn U are C10 and C11,
adjacent to the passage/chamber
junction (Fig. 28). C10 and C11
comprise small, simple motifs and
are oriented toward the passage.
In the passage, R3 (Fig. 29) and R2 are highly visible
when looking out toward the tomb entrance. These both
bear small, isolated concentric circles and arcs.
Summary and Discussion
Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress
Simple, highly visible motifs at
liminal areas
Architectural elements at
liminal areas and passage
Passage Blocked
Newgrange X X Knowth E X X Knowth W X X Barclodiad y Gawres
Knockmany X Fourknocks X LC-F X X LC-H X LC-I X LC-L X X LC-T X X LC-U X
All of the tombs under consideration bear motifs emphasizing movement toward the
passage and exit. Exiting the tomb is of considerable importance. Simple, highly
visible motifs appear to be associated with the passage and movement to the outside
59
world. These are associated with liminal zones such as the passage/chamber junction,
the passage, and in some cases, are visible when exiting recesses and moving toward
the chamber (C10’s triple spiral at Newgrange).
Architectural elements such as end-set stones in the passage at Loughcrew T, sill
stones, lintels, and passage blocking further emphasize the difference between spaces.
Discussion:
Each of the four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to
the locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt (world of
the living), the passage (vortex), the inner chambers (world of the dead). Leaving the
tomb will be addressed in the following chapter due to the proof’s reliance on art
motifs.
Artwork and composition
Motifs emphasize architectural elements
Lewis-Williams and Pearce (2005, 271) and Dronfield (1996a, 52) argue that the
neurologically generated vortex as an access route between the realms, the
architectural passage, and the spiral motif are closely related. “The very nature of
...entoptic spirals and vortex experiences suggests ‘passage.’ It seems highly likely
that Neolithic spirals similarly had movement between realms as part of their
meaning” (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 271). Dronfield suggests that spirals
(and concentric images) and passages were intended to be representations and
reconstructions of neurologically-generated vortex experiences (Dronfield 1996, 52).
The spiral may be perceived as the actual passageway (vortex) between the tiers.
Dronfield suggests that since the tunnel and spiral are both functions of the V5 motion
analysis, they are neurologically closely related (Dronfield 1996, 52). The spiral motif
in art and myth also attests to this association. Clinically and cross-culturally, the
spiral and similar concentric designs are graphic representations of the tunnel
experience. For example, the motifs are seen in Tukano artwork, specifically a
basketry pot-stand which the Tukano claim represents the spiraling whirlpool leading
60
to another dimension (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 33). Dronfield (1996a) attempts to
prove the association of the spiral (and other concentric motifs) with the tunnel in
Neolithic passage graves. To this end, he examined the spatial distributions of motif
types in three major tomb groups (Newgrange, Knowth and Loughcrew) His findings
indicated "significant relationships between the placing of spiral and other dense
concentric motifs and the location of the passage" (Dronfield 1996a, 41). Dronfield
(1996a, 51) also found an association between lattices and chambers, or realms of the
dead, at Knowth and Newgrange. His findings prove that certain motifs are associated
with specific architectural elements of the tombs, emphasizing a relationship to the
tiered cosmos generated by ASC.
Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living
Perhaps Dronfield’s argument (1996a) may be taken further. The artistic motifs may
have their origins in ASC, but rather than being merely symbolic, they function as
maps or guides through a living tiered cosmos which is replicated by the architecture
of the passage grave. Their association with entoptic imagery may imbue them with
sacred power, legible only to those privy to such sacred information.
This argument may be supported by Hodgson’s (2000) position that geometric mark-
making arises from the neurophysiological mechanism responsible for navigation of
the environment. These motifs may represent or function as navigational aids through
the tomb.
It is widely reported that while in deep ASC, subjects interact with spirits or
ancestors, emphasizing the perception that alternate reality is the realm of the dead
(Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). Many believe that the subject actually dies upon
entering trance or non-ordinary states. S/he enters the world of the beyond “only to be
reborn there and to return to his ordinary existence on this earth when the trance is
over” (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). The Tukano actually refer to the vessel
containing the hallucinogen (yaje) as the “place of death” (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978,
13).
61
This may be perceived as hazardous. In shamanic contexts, it is possible for the
subject to get caught in the land of the dead (Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow
her/him back to the land of the living (Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be
avoided.
In the Neolithic passage grave context, upon completion of whatever activities take
place within the chamber, the celebrant departs through the passage. Since the passage
is open access going both ways, there must be another element added to prevent
egress for the deceased through the passage. This may be in the form of artistic motifs
acting as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant
back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural
elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct,
while those directing the movements of the deceased are complex.
The four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to the
locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt, the passage
(vortex), the inner chambers relating to the world of the ancestors, and the passage
back to the outside world. Different composition types may serve different purposes
within the architecture, mainly to orchestrate the movements of the celebrants as well
as the deceased who, it is hoped, will remain confined to the tomb, or least unable to
exit the same way they were brought in.
Evidence that the movement of humans is being orchestrated may include simple,
visible compositions associated with the passage and egress. Evidence that the
movements of the deceased were being orchestrated includes hidden compositions in
areas inaccessible to humans, and complex compositions in areas in which the
deceased were meant to remain. The location of the complex compositions or “traps”
suggests that the deceased were meant to remain in the tomb or land of the dead,
rather than travel outside of it, perhaps even to another realm. The complex
compositions may act as traps, attracting the deceased and compelling them toward
the composition, preventing passage.
62
Complex motifs as traps
According to Gell (1998, 81), complex patterns are engaging to the human brain.
When presented with a complex pattern, the observer feels compelled to analyze its
composition until it can be grasped mathematically or geometrically. We attempt to
understand the process of its construction. Although Gell’s argument suffers
somewhat from lack of neurological evidence, perhaps Hodgson’s (2000) argument
can be applied. He indicates that this compulsion may be a process of the magno
system in the visual cortex in which lines are analyzed in order to distinguish objects
in the environment (Hodgson 2000, 869). Due to the release of dopamines, humans
experience the compulsion “as a pleasurable frustration; we are drawn into the pattern
and held inside it, impaled, as it were, on its brisling hooks and spines. This pattern is
a mind-trap” (Gell 1998, 80). The cognitive obsession is accompanied by an
attribution of supernatural origin. Even if the subject watches the pattern being
created, because s/he cannot retrace the process by which the design was constructed,
the artist’s seemingly effortless movements are presumed to be guided by a spiritual
entity (Gell 1998, 86). These objects (e.g. mandalas) are thus imbued with the sacred.
In many cases, the designs are used to ensnare or ward off demons, keeping them in
their own world and preventing access to ours. These are apotropaic patterns, used as
protective devices, defensive screens or obstacles impeding passage, and depend on
the pattern’s adhesiveness to demons or other spirits. The spirits become so fascinated
that they lose interest “in whatever malevolent plan it had entertained previously”
(Gell 1998, 84). The demon, like a human, becomes entranced by the pattern,
attempting to interpret the process by which it was created. The demon would then
remain caught in the pattern, unable to exit its world into the world of the living (Gell
1998, 86). Examples include Celtic knotwork, South Indian kolam, Egyptian talisman,
the Minoan labyrinth, and many others too numerous to list (Layard 1937, 116; Gell
1998, 86).
If in the passage graves, the deceased are meant to stay within the tomb, particularly
the chamber, apotropaic patterns may be in use. One would expect to find the most
complicated motifs in locations directing the deceased away from the passage and
exit. For example, very complex motifs often appear on the underside of roofslabs in
63
the recesses of the main chamber. Dronfield suggested that these slabs guided the
movement of the dead up through the motifs, the spirals acting as vortices to the
afterworld (Dronfield 1996a, 54). I suggest that these may have served as an
apotropaic pattern meant to entrance the decedent, persuading her/him to remain in
the recess. Additionally, complicated patterns might be expected to be found on
passages-stones facing back into the chamber, serving to ensnare the deceased before
they have a chance to pass through the passage to the outside world. They might also
be found on stone-faces that are not visible to the living (e.g., the upperside of
roofslabs facing into the roof structure, or the backs of kerbstones facing the cairn and
the inside of the tomb). These would only have been visible to spirits wandering
inside the monument.
Simple motifs as guides
Simple motifs would appear where the living are meant to go (leading in and out of
passage). These would be simple, obvious, and highly visible motifs. Upon
completion of whatever activities took place within the chamber, the celebrant would
have departed through the passage. It is a matter of interest to the celebrant and to the
community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the tomb into
the outside world. If certain motifs were intended to guide the celebrant through the
tomb, then these motifs would have to have been inherently different than those meant
to direct the movement of the deceased. These motifs would have to have been of
little interest to the deceased so instructions meant for living would not be scrutinized
by the eyes of the dead.
Evidence that the movements of humans were orchestrated may include visible motifs
associated with the passage and egress. Stone C17 of Loughcrew I is a great example
of this (Fig. 25). The stone bears a large, highly visible and fairly simple,
straightforward motif. The motif occurs directly to the left of the passage, almost
seeming to point the way out. Another example is Stone C5 at Loughcrew H (Fig. 30).
This stone bears eight scattered concentric circle motifs, very visible and
straightforward. The composition occurs on the far wall of the left recess and appears
to beckon one from the passage into the recess, directing the movements of the
celebrant into the chamber.
64
Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
We will show that in the observed passage graves,
motifs leading into the tomb, down the passage, into
the chamber and, most importantly, back out through
the passage were simple motifs that would have been
obvious to the celebrant, and would not have had an
entrancing effect on the deceased.
Data and findings
We will look at eight passage graves observed during May, 2007, at which sufficient
access and time afforded a thorough examination. These are: Barclodiad y Gawres,
Fourknocks, Knockmany, and Loughcrew H, I, L, T and U. Several factors will be
under consideration: visibility of the composition, its complexity, its location, and
where it faces in the tomb (what architectural element is being emphasized). The first
discussion will focus on the association between complexity and location, and the
second discussion will focus on complexity, visibility and location.
The complexity of the composition adorning each stone was calculated by adding the
total number of motifs to the number of different motifs. This was multiplied by a
number representing the percentage of stone face covered:
1-24% coverage = 1
25-50% = 2
50-75% = 3
Greater than 75%= 4
65
Figure 31: Areas A and B Figure 32: Area C Figure 33: Area D
This total will be known as the complexity index (CI). The tomb has been divided into
visibility areas. Motifs will be classified according to what parts of the tomb they are
visible from:
A: visible at entrance (including kerbstones) (Fig. 31, lavender)
B: visible from passage, going into chamber (Fig. 31, green)
C: visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, corbels, lintels, etc. (Fig. 32, red)
D. visible from chamber and passage while exiting (Fig. 33, yellow)
It is expected that simpler motifs will be classified as B, while the more complex
motifs will be classified as C, and D area stones will bear both simple, highly visible
designs guiding the celebrant out of the tomb, and complex compositions on passage-
stones facing back into the chamber in order to keep the deceased inside the tomb
structure. D will therefore have an average CI as it will comprise both highly complex
and very simple compositions. Differences between these two types of compositions
will be addressed by comparing their visibility.
The CIs were not compared between tombs, but within them. Stones with the highest
CIs in a certain tomb may be lower than those in another tomb, but would still be
characterized as highly complex by comparison with its compatriots. The
compositions in the highest third of all CI averages within a tomb were said to be
66
highly complex, while those in the lower third were said to be simple. This assists in
illustrating locations of more and less complex stones within tombs. All numbers
were entered without alteration when calculating averages between the tombs.
A note must be added regarding the determination of numbers and variety of motifs
on each stone. This is an extremely subjective endeavor. No two observers will arrive
at the same numbers. Shee-Twohig’s (1981) illustrations as well as personal
observations at the tombs were the source of the numbers appearing in this paper.
These differ from those arrived at by Dronfield (1995, 1996a, 1996b). Attempts were
made to identify and rectify the discrepancies, with no satisfying result. Numbers
arrived at by this author are offered here with the understanding that they are not, nor
could they ever be, truly representative of the original designs, but that they come as
close as possible.
Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb
A B C D Loughcrew H 24.00 11.33 7.00 47.00Loughcrew I 0.00 44.00 46.14 46.50Loughcrew L 33.00 17.88 38.54 35.25Loughcrew U 0.00 2.00 42.36 30.75Loughcrew T 109.50 41.75 42.25 53.00Fourknocks 0.00 42.22 48.88 50.00Barclodiad y Gawres 0.00 24.00 39.00 39.33Knockmany 0.00 31.50 46.70 92.50Total 55.50 26.84 38.86 30.33
Complexity Indices by Area
55.50
26.84
38.86
30.33
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
a b c combined d
Visibility Areas
Co
mp
lexi
ty In
dic
es
Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area
67
Barclodiad y Gawres (Shee-Twohig 1981) Four Knocks (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Knockmany (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Loughcrew I (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Loughcrew L (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Loughcrew T (Shee-Twohig 1981) Loughcrew U (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Loughcrew H (Shee-Twohig 1981)
High CI
Medium
Low CI Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb
68
Figure 36: Stones with low ci
A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.
AB
C
D
EF
GH
69
Figure 37: Plans with mid ci
B
C
D
EF
GH
A
A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.
70
Figure 38: Stones with high ci
B
C
D
EF
GH
A
A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.
71
Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 (Shee-Twohig 1981)
Area A: Visible at entrance
This area bears a high average CI of
55.5. There are very few stones that
are visible at the entrance: two
passage stones at Loughcrew T (Fig.
40), one at Loughcrew L, and a
kerbstone at Loughcrew I. The high
CI may indicate that these stones were
not meant to be passed by the
uninitiated. A highly complicated
pattern may function as an apotropaic motif designed to ensnare the average observer,
preventing passage.
Recall the carved kerbstones at Knowth and Newgrange, especially the formidable
entrance stones decorated with large, complex designs. These are effective barriers to
the tomb, traversable only by the celebrant and by the deceased. It is relatively safe
for the celebrant to enter the tomb, as s/he would have been instructed in its
navigation as well as in proper methods for interacting with the dead and spirits, while
it may have been somewhat more risky for an uneducated citizen. The entrance serves
as a barrier. The stones at Loughcrew may serve the same purpose though not in so
physical a manner (they do not have to be clambered over).
Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber
The CI for this area is 26.04. This indicates a relatively low complexity in art
compositions in the passage and on chamber stones visible from the passage. C6 at
Loughcrew T, for example, is a highly visible composition that is nevertheless simple,
having a low CI. This composition may have served to guide the celebrant from the
passage into the chamber to interact with the deceased. C2 in Loughcrew U is another
example. This is a simple motif with a CI of 2, and is highly visible from the passage.
With three exceptions (Barclodiad y Gawres C13, Loughcrew T C4, and Loughcrew
L C18 (no longer there)), all 38 stones with the lowest CIs are intervisible with or in
the passage (Fig. 36). 34 stones are visible while entering through the passage. Of
these, only seven are highly complex, with a CI of 80 or higher. A complicating factor
72
to these calculations, I believe, is Fourknocks which has three highly visible and
complex lintels over the recesses off the main chamber, raising the CI average. These
are obvious from the passage and, in fact, are the first thing one notices when entering
the chamber. These are clearly placed on liminal zones, delineating the border
between the central chamber and the recesses, a symbolic place of the dead. In its
layout Fourknocks is not so very different from the other passage tombs under
consideration. The liminal zones are emphasized by architectural and artistic motifs.
The difference lies in both the complexity of these designs as well as in the tomb’s
usage. Hartnett (1957, 251) believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks
represent a single event. The deposit was then paved over with flat stones and each
chamber was sealed. There is no suggestion that any of the other tombs contain
possible single-event depositions, though this has not been discussed.
There would have been no need to place simple, highly visible motifs at strategic
points in the tomb, as there would have been no need for guidance. If Hartnett was
correct, no-one would have been navigating the tomb besides the deceased.
With the majority of compositions visible from the passage while moving toward the
chamber having low CIs, these may be interpreted as guideposts. The relative lack of
high CI compositions (excluding those at Fourknocks) indicates a lack of necessity to
prohibit or prevent passage into the chamber once the subject has traversed the
entrance stone and entered the tomb.
Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc.
The average CI for this area is 38.86. One can observe from the plans of the tombs
under consideration that with few exceptions, the most highly complex compositions
occur within the chamber and recesses and in areas invisible to the living people in
the tomb (structural stones such as corbels are not shown on these plans). The only
exceptions are five stones located in the passages (the complex stones discussed
above that are visible at the entrance, and L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and
R2 at Loughcrew H which will be discussed below). Structural stones in the tombs
under consideration have an average CI of 32.75, close to the overall CI of area C.
These range, however, from 3 to 188. Consequently, it is difficult to say with certainty
whether these display a trend of higher CIs. Their placement alone, in areas not
73
visible to living subjects, might be argued to be evidence of communication with the
dead. It is easier to argue that highly complex compositions within the ground
architecture display a tendency to cluster within the chambers, especially the recesses
of the tomb (Fig. 38).
L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and R2 at Loughcrew H exist in the passages.
R2 at Loughcrew I and L5 at Loughcrew T face back toward the chamber and may be
a preventative measure against the deceased exiting through the passage. Several
stones with medium CIs exist in the passage in stones that face the back of the
chamber. These include R4, R3 and L3 at Loughcrew L, L2 at Loughcrew H, L8 at
Barclodiad y Gawres, L4 and R5 at Loughcrew T. These may serve a similar purpose
as those with higher CIs, as apotropaic patterns. R2 at Loughcrew H doesn’t seem to
fit this pattern, as it doesn’t face inwards toward the back of the chamber.
These may have been placed there to keep the dead in what was thought to be their
proper place. In addition to the magnificent examples at Loughcrew, the roofslabs at
Newgrange illustrate this function. Dronfield (1996a, 54) suggests that the spirals on
the roofslabs at Newgrange functioned as passages through which selected individuals
could travel to the next dimension. It seems as if the otherworld could be accessed
only through the tomb, then, as the location of complex motifs such as those found on
the roofslabs are placed strategically around the tomb to prevent the deceased from
exiting through the door. Whether the tomb was thought to BE the land of the dead or
function as a passage is not certain. What appears to be certain is that the deceased
were expected to remain within the monument for a specified amount of time.
Table 6: CI of hidden compositions Tomb Stone CI LCT Roofstone Cell 2 188 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstone (upper surface) 36 LCT Co1/C2 33 LCT Lintel cell 2 30 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstone (lower surface) 28 LCT Co2/C2 26 LCI Loose stone, probably roofstones (edge) 20 LCT Lintel cell 1 11 LCT Co2/C4 8 LCT Roofstone Cell 3 6 LCT lintel cell 3 4 LCL Co4/c2-4 3 Average CI 32.75
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Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting
The average CI for compositions visible from the chamber and passage while exiting
(in other words, those motifs facing back toward the chamber) is 30.33, indicating a
lower overall complexity in compositions than in some other areas of the tomb. This
average is not sufficient to illustrate the function of stones in this visibility area,
however, as it includes both highly complex and very simple compositions. Highly
complex compositions may function as a last-ditch attempt to prevent egress of the
deceased through the passage, while highly simple motifs may function as guides for
the celebrant exiting the tomb. Both are expected to be found in this area.
If simple motifs were to function as guides for the living, it would have to be visible
as the subject moves through the tomb. Motifs intended for the dead would not
necessarily be visible to the living. Simple motifs located at liminal zones would
therefore be more highly visible than any other motifs if they are intended as guides
throughout the monument. Motifs occurring at these locations will be compared to
visibility ratings of other motifs taken at the tombs. Visibility ratings are given to each
composition based on observation at the tombs. These were assigned based on
visibility from certain vantage points, in this case, as one is exiting the tomb. These
are:
1= faintly visible
2=medium visible
3=highly conspicuous
These ratings were given to every composition in every tomb. Figure 37 below
illustrates the comparison between the visibility of simple motifs encountered while
exiting the tomb, to the visibility of all other motifs within the tomb. In all but two
cases, the simple motifs exhibit higher visibility. Fourknocks and Knockmany are the
exceptions. Fourknocks again, may exhibit different tendencies than the other tombs
because of the possibility that it was only used once and then closed, making the
erection of guidestones unnecessary. Knockmany is a uniquely shaped tomb among
the tombs under consideration. Use is ambiguous due to the highly disturbed nature
and looting of the artifacts. Reasons for the differences, therefore, in the use of
complex and simple compositions within the tomb are elusive. It would appear,
75
Motif Visibility
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
LCH LCI LCL LCT LCU FK BYG KM
Simple/Liminal v. Other Motif Visibility
Vis
ibil
ity
Rat
ing
Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions
however, that simple motifs in liminal zones visible while exiting the chamber exhibit
a higher visibility than do other compositions within the tomb. This may indicate that
the compositions were meant to be viewed and interpreted by the living individuals
navigating the tomb.
Conclusion
It was found that stones visible at the entrance had the highest CI, while those leading
into the chamber through the passage had the lowest. C has the highest CI of the tomb
interior and, as expected, area D exhibits an average CI, combining simple and
complex compositions present in that visibility area.
This may be interpreted as follows. The compositions at the entrance and kerb serve
to keep the uninitiated from entering the tomb. If Gell (1998) is to be believed, these
motifs function as neurological “traps,” causing an observer to become entranced due
to cognitive functions resulting from selective adaptive traits as outlined by Hodgson
(2000). Compositions visible while moving through the passage to the chamber have
the lowest CI, indicating that they do not function as apotropaic patterns, and may
instead serve to guide the subject into the chamber. The prevalence of complex motifs
in the chamber and especially the recesses may indicate an attempt to contain the
deceased within the central part of the tomb. Finally, low CIs combined with high
visibility of motifs encountered while exiting the chamber may function as
navigational tools for the celebrant, while high CIs combined with a lower visibility
may serve as final attempts to trap the deceased, preventing her/his egress through the
front door.
76
Discussion
The four locales of a chambered tomb have been shown to correspond to the four
locales experienced during ASC. These include the entrance, the passage, the inner
chambers or world of the dead, and the passage back to the outside world.
Architectural elements emphasize the differences in these areas further suggesting that
the tomb is a reflection of ASC.
Dronfield (1996a) argued that certain endogenous diagnostic motifs were associated
with certain areas of the tomb, further emphasizing their association with ASC. I have
attempted to show above that motifs also function to orchestrate both the movements
of the celebrants and the movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb
or the land of the dead or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in.
The placement of these motifs reiterates the notion that the tomb incorporates or
reifies the tiered cosmos arising from ASC. The entrance, the vortex, the land of the
dead and the exit are emphasized and delineated by the deliberate placement of
simpler and more complex compositions of motifs in association with specific,
corresponding architectural areas of the tomb. These may have been perceived as real
zones by those who constructed the tomb and placed the artwork. The artwork itself
has been shown to be associated with ASC (Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b). This
would imbue the motifs with a sacredness. It may have been believed that they
originated in another world and were infused with spiritual powers.
If the architecture has been seen up to now as a representation of the tiered cosmos,
then the artwork transforms it into a living, working manifestation of that cosmos.
These tombs were not mere receptacles for bones to be placed inside and forgotten.
Motifs were deliberately placed inside the tombs, perhaps intended to engage in
communication long after the chambers were sealed and the entrance blocked. Placed
on the permanent material of stone, the artwork maintains transitional spaces and
guards borders, simultaneously opening up vortices and access routes. The artwork
facilitates movement, gives breath and voice to the stones. These stones are not
ancient text. They are eternal dialogue between past and present, living and dead.
77
Conclusion and Discussion
Brain processes during altered states of consciousness result in heightened emotions,
blurred boundaries between self and other, misattribution of sensorial stimuli, and the
experience of a journey through different “realms” often accessed by a vortex. These
same neurological processes are responsible for heightened memory formation and
belief in the reality of perceived stimuli. Together these brain processes may have
manifested in the cross-cultural belief in a tiered cosmos, thought to be the origin of
shamanism and many other religions. Elements within the tiered cosmos bear a
striking resemblance to the elements within Neolithic passage graves in Ireland and
Wales.
Through the investigation of Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I,
L, T, U, and Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, an association
with the tiered cosmos has been shown. A number of characteristics are shared
between the two. First, an association with ASC was shown to exist via the presence
of entoptic motifs in the tombs, and the possible presence of audial and optic
inductive elements. Evidence that the tomb is itself functioning as a tiered cosmos has
been shown by a favourable comparison between the locales experienced during ASC
and those experienced in the tombs.
Applying Gell’s (1998) apotropaic model to Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H,
I, L, S, T, and U in Ireland has been demonstrated that many of the artistic
compositions functioned to orchestrate both the movements of the celebrants and the
movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb or the land of the dead
or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in.
Ramifications on Social Behaviour
The same neurological processes that are responsible for ASC and the tiered cosmos
also facilitate the very social behaviours that have enabled our species’ survival in the
face of economic and environmental change: social cohesion.
In Homo sapiens and other mammals ritual behaviour is one way of overcoming
social distance between individuals, to coordinate group action, socialize young, and
78
communicate status and social structure (Marshall 2002, 360). Our neural pathways
have evolved in such a way as to facilitate this behaviour efficiently. For example, the
human compulsion to gather together during times of stress has obvious survival
benefits (e.g. a large group is better able to ward off large predators). During such
gatherings, the human brain activates neural processes rewarding this behaviour (e.g.
dopamine and other analgesic hormones are released providing a respite from
anxiety), causing a continued desire to engage in this activity. Freedom from fear is a
powerful motivation. The pleasure and necessity of co-presence is enhanced by
activities causing varying degrees of AUB and religious awe such as rhythmic
drumming, etc. This behaviour predisposes humans toward ritual practice.
It is not by neurology alone that Homo sapiens engage in spirituality and communal
behaviours. A ritual must involve culturally significant experience in order to generate
the emotional atmosphere necessary for transcendence, unity with one's conspecifics
and the formation of spiritually potent memory. Newberg et al (2001, 89) have found
that rhythmic ritual behaviours relying on culturally meaningful events activate the
autonomic system to a higher degree than chemical stimulation (Newberg et. al. 2001,
89). It is during ritual that local myth and legend are maintained. Mithen (1996)
argues that the resolution of paradoxes (that humans can fly, trees can talk, etc.) is
essential to symbolic thought. It is during "spillover" (deafferentation) experiences
that paradoxes presented through myth become resolved by the simultaneous
functioning of both hemispheres of the brain. In ritual stimulation of the arousal
system, for example, the presentation of what is an unresolvable logical problem in
the left brain (the shaman brings messages from the community's ancestors) is
experienced as unified in the holistic operation of the right brain. The myths become
experienced fact.
In this state, cultural symbols such as the designs on the entrance stone at Newgrange
are totems imbued with sacred significance. The effervescence (heightened emotions)
experienced by the community is “misattributed” to the totem (in this case the stones)
as a causal factor (Marshall 2002, 366). This is remembered in ritual context by a
community whose neurological processes are functioning in an altered state, and are
predisposed to the increased formation of memories imbued with religious and
emotional significance (Newberg et. al. 2001, 96). Social integration and a sense of
79
unity are amoung the most noted outcomes and functions of ritual, according to
Durkheim (1912, in Marshall 2002, 363).
Ritual requires attentional focus, according to Marshall (2002, 365). The use of
rhythm (optic, audial, dance, etc.) and spectacle are common tools. These produce
unified movement via behavioural entrainment, creating rapport and a sense of
belonging. Those who control this attention are in a position of great power, able to
influence the beliefs and behaviours of their community through a generalized
neurological manipulation. This is heightened at the tombs "because death is, as
Berger puts it, 'the marginal situation par excellence,' it makes sense that it is closely
associated with the most radical techniques of attentional control’” (Berger 1969, 23
in Marshall 2002, 365). The community may experience fear at the death of one of its
members. This causes a desire for congregation. The funeral rite then provides a
release from fear and provides effervescent states attributed to the sacred power of the
totem and the celebrant’s ability to harness that power.
The experience of ASC upon individuals in a group may facilitate the affectation of
desired social conditions upon that group. In other words, the consciousness of an
individual may be altered in such a way that the conditions suggested during the ritual
experience become integral to the individual's perception of self within society. These
conditions become so associated with the community and (perhaps) the spiritual, that
they seem unquestionable by/to the individual. To question such conditions may
appear to be anti-social. In this way, certain social conditions may be carried out
without public challenge, although the individual may privately maintain adversity.
It's not necessary for everyone to believe it, just to have it as a necessary condition of
action (Shennan 1982, 156). An analysis of theta:gamma activity during emotionally
charged experience suggests a neurological process behind the social one for keeping
such subversiveness hidden.
This is not to suggest that individuals did not have their own thoughts, knowledge,
and understanding of any situation they experience. Nor is it argued that ideology is a
“purely gratuitous invention of consciousness intentionally manipulating reality, nor
is the result of a conspiracy on the part of those whose interests it serves” (Shanks and
80
Tilley, 1987, 181). This argument merely suggests the possible neurological
underpinnings of how social behaviours become translated into ritual behaviours.
Neolithic practices reflect Upper Palaeolithic ceremonial practice in many ways.
During the Upper Palaeolithic, people used caves with labyrinthine passages, small
chambers and large open rooms for ceremonial purposes. According to Lewis
Williams and Pearce these caves and subterranean passageways represented the
neurologically-generated cosmos. They believe it is no coincidence that passage
graves resemble caves. “The ‘cave’ in the tomb is replicated by the cave in the mind”
(Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 218). The authors contend that by constructing
their own “cave,” Neolithic people “gained greater control over the cosmos and were
able to 'adjust' beliefs about it to suit social and personal needs" (Lewis-Williams and
Pearce 2005, 85).
Neolithic people did not – could not – challenge the tiered nature of their universe: it was wired into their brains. Nor could they ignore notions of passing through a vortex and flight: those experiences, too, were 'hard-wired.' So the new, 'above-ground' arrangements for representing and for accessing the tiers of the cosmos, arrangements that sometimes necessitated major construction, became an acceptable way of accommodating a burgeoning new social and religious dispensation without jettisoning the fundamental structure of the cosmos. (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86)
Though this may have been controlled by a few knowledgeable persons, ceremony
and symbol would have changed along with the needs of the community. The careful
construction of the tombs, placement of artistic motifs and architectural elements and
use of inductive elements may have been perceived as maintaining the land of the
dead as a separate but contemporary realm within the Neolithic landscape. This may
have had crucial importance, providing comfort, a basis for social cohesion and
perhaps a political structure to Irish and British Neolithic communities during a period
of economic change.
81
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Appendix
Motif Counts
Barclodiad y Gawres
BYG C16 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right chamber at entrance to passage Meander 2 sets of 2 vertical Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 4 nested Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2 concentric lozenges
BYG C13 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of western chamber Meander Set of 3 nested Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Set of 3 nested Square
BYG C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of eastern chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 (?) Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 2 2nd and 4th from left Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 3 Circle
BYG3 continued Shape Number Location Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1, 1 nested (form dependent) Square
BYG C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East wall of chamber, adjacent to
passage entrance Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric connected to multiple
spiral, 2 concentric with angled tops, 1 connected to arc loop, with angled top, 1 form dependent
Lattice Lozenge 1 concentric Parallel line 1 set of 2 horizontal Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
BYG L8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander Fortification 1 Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 3
Fourknocks FK R2 (incised shapes) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right
Almost invisible motifs Invisible from chamber or passage
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 vertical set of 6-7 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 1, missing 1 edge, cross inside,
possible lattice
FK R5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right adjacent to chamber
Faintly visible on way out Faintly visible in passage
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice 1 (or lozenges) Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag 1 Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1 incised concentric south face of stone, facing chamber Square
FK A Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Central chamber
Visible from central chamber and on the way out toward passage. May not be in original position. Highly visible motifs. The edge is covered with markings that are very similar to other lintel stones and may have been a lintel stone at one time.
Meander 1 inside circle Fortification Zigzag and lozenge motif possibly a
fortification
Arc-spiral Filigree
FKA continued Shape Number Location Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Vertical line of 8 lozenges Parallel line 1 set of 3 horizontal inside circle Zigzag 2 sets of 2,vertical and facing each other Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
FK F Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone of western chamber
Highly visible from chamber and passage (on the way in)
Meander Fortification Zigzags possible fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Set of 10 horizontal Parallel line Zigzag 2 sets of 3 horizontal facing each other Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Vertical line of 9 above and 7 below,
form dependent
Square
FK E Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone of back chamber
Highly visible from passage and central chamber
Meander Fortification Zigzags possibly fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge 4 sets nested Parallel line Zigzag 2 sets nested (4 above, 2 below)
horizontal
Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 2 above, 3 below, form dependent
FK C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous From the diagram it looks like this stone
was decorated on the back. I find no record of decorations.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
FK D Possibly weathered/eroded Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Lintel stone, east wall central chamber
Almost invisible Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 2 on edge edge Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
FK C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Chamber west, adjacent to passage.
Highly visible from central chamber and passage, especially on the way out.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 8, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 concentric, 1
FK C1 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
FK B Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East passage
Chamber entrance Lintel (?) stone above orthostat at entrance to central chamber. May not be in original position. Different type of motif from all other lintel stones. Very highly visible from chamber and passage especially on the way out to passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 6 concentric Arc 1 simple, 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 1 Square FK L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage close to chamber entrance
Very faintly visible from passage Meander Fortification Zigzags possible fortification (?) Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 5 horizontal Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Set of 3 incised vertical Square
Knockmany KM Stone 12 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage at chamber entrance
Almost invisible Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 horizontal lines , 3 sets of 6 vertical
lines, 2 lines at right angle
Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous right side of chamber, entrance
highly visible as one exits chamber into passage. One of the most striking stones in the tomb.
Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 2 Filigree Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) 4 Small circular (arc) 7+ Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 Arc 2+, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of chamber
Not visible from passage. Visible when exiting chamber out into passage. Probably medium visibility, fairly faint.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Edge Arc (loop) 1 Face Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral
KM C10 continued Shape Number Location Circle 1 Face Arc 2 concentric Face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East wall of chamber
Beautifully visible in chamber. Slightly visible from passage/entrance to central chamber.
Meander 3 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) 2 Small circular (arc) 1 set of 3, 5 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 8-10 in square Zigzag 1 nested Small circular 11 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle 3 concentric Square 3 concentric
KM C7 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous back wall chamber. Very faint, almost
invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 possible Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Circle with dot Back face Arc 1, 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Misc lines Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Northwestern wall of chamber. Lines
highly visible from passage. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 3 conjoined Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 4
1 on back 4 on face 1 on back
Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets of 7 horizon, 2 sets of 2 vert, 1
set of two vert (one above the other)
Zigzag Small circular 7 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West wall of chamber. Nicely visible
from chamber, especially radial/flower motif.
Meander 3 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 11 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1, 1 concentric on back
1 on face, 1 on back
Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 5 vertical Zigzag Small circular Many small dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West wall of chamber. Almost invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice
KM C4 continued Shape Number Location Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets Zigzag Small circular 1 dot radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
KM C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Southwestern wall of chamber, adjacent
passage. Visible from passage, fairly faint.
Meander 1 possible Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 6 with dots Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 9 vertical, 1 set of 5 horiz Zigzag Small circular Several dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Loughcrew H LC H R2 Shape Number Circles,Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage right: highly visible, striking
in passage and exiting tomb from chamber to passage.
Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 with dot, 1 Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 5 with a vertical line down the
middle
Zigzag Small circular 5 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H C18 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Southeastern (right) wall of eastern
chamber: faint. Not visible from central chambers. Visible only when inside right side chamber, as the motif faces into the cell.
Meander 1 or more incised Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 1 dot radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H Sill Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Eastern chamber entrance: by far the
most striking stone in the tomb. Very visible from central chamber and passage, even though low to the ground.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 3 Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H C14 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side (wall?) of eastern chamber:
visible in passage and central chamber. Not striking, but visible.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral
Circle LC C14 continued Shape Number Location Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Eastern wall of back chamber: visible
in central chamber, looking out toward passage. Only seen if crouched down. Fairly faint.
Meander Fortification Possible fortification of (2 sets) arcs
connected by horizontal line
Arc-spiral Filigree 1
Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side chamber wall. Very visible
from passage. Nice, strong motifs. Striking, especially the two larger circles.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 6 concentric Arc 1 with dot, 1 simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Passage left: almost invisible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle At least 5 tiny, incised Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC H K8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Kerb: Couldn't find this stone. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 sets inside circle Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Loughcrew I
LC I R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: visible from passage.
Medium visibility. Not particularly striking.
Meander 4 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric incised Arc Lattice Lozenge
LC I R2 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line 1 set of 3
vertical
Zigzag Small circular radial 5 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C17 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of 1st chamber: highly visible
going out toward passage. Striking. Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C15 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right side of 2nd chamber and left side
of 1st chamber: not very visible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 4 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C13 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous left side of 2nd chamber, right side of 3rd
chamber: edge not visible. Face slightly visible from inside chamber, especially when stooping.
Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3-10;
2 East face; south face
Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 10, 2 with dots;
One with parallel lines, 1 concentric East face; south face
Arc 1; 1, 1 concentric
East face; South face
Lattice 1 East face Lozenge Parallel line 1 set inside a loop, 1 set South face Zigzag Small circular radial 1;
3 East face; south face
Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of 6th chamber: highly visible
from passage and central chamber. Meander 6 Fortification Possible fortification of meanders or
small circular arcs
Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3 sets Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 2 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C4 (after Du Noyer) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 6th chamber: slightly
visible from central chamber and cross chamber, though overgrown with lichen and weeds.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral
LCI C4 continued Shape Number Location Circle 6 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC I C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 7th chamber: highly visible
looking out at passage. Probably the most striking motifs in the tomb.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 4 sets concentric, 2;
2 sets concentric Face; edge
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
I Loose stone (probable roofslab of chamber 5) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Found in 5th passage, probably roofslab Meander 2 sets vertical; 2 Upper surface; lower surface Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1; 6 Upper surface; lower surface Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric; 2 concentric; 3 Upper surface; edge; lower surface Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 6 sets edge Zigzag Small circular radial 3 Upper surface Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Loughcrew Cairn L LC L R1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L R3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 2 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L R4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage at chamber entrance Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag
LC L R4 continued Shape Number Location Small circular Many possible incised circles, possible
dots
radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C19 East Face Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous East Face: left wall of 1st chamber, right
wall of 2nd chamber Meander 9 Fortification 1 Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 4 concentric, 5 simple Lattice 1 Lozenge 1 Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C19 West face Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous West face! Facing 2nd chamber Meander Fortification 2 large regions lozenge/lattice shaped Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C17 east Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall 2nd chamber, right wall 3rd
chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3
LC L C17 east continued Shape Number Location Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot, 6 possible incised circles Arc 3 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 2 Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C17 west Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 3, 1 incised Arc 2 simple, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C17 south Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 with parallel lines Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C16 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 3rd chamber Meander 1 Fortification 1 (triangles) Arc-spiral Filigree 3? Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 5-6 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 10 concentric (1 on back), 10 simple Arc 7 simple, 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 set of 7 vertical, 1 incised, 1 incised on
edge/back
Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 3rd chamber, right wall of
4th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 1 incised Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of 5th chamber Meander 5 sets (possible fortification) Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric, 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial
LC L C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left, back wall of 5th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of 6th chamber, right wall of
7th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 east side, 1 north Arc 2 East face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 3, 1 set of 7 East face Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall 7th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2-3 Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 concentric, 3 simple Arc 1 concentric, 1 with lines inside Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial
LC LC3 (east) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 2 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC C3 (west) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 6 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C18 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 4 dots radial
LC L C3 edge Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall 8th chamber, left wall 7th
chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 2 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall 8th chamber Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2, 3 incised Arc 2 concentric incised Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage at chamber entrance Meander 1 inside circle Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 1 with motifs inside Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 4 inside circle, set of 3, set of 2 Zigzag Small circular radial
LC L L3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 possible incised Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 flower Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC L L1 looks very weathered Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 + Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric, 4 + simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Loughcrew T
LC T R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: highly visible inside
passage, especially exiting. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 6 Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 1 simple Arc Lattice Lozenge
LC T R2 continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T R4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 simple, 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T R5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage, entrance to chamber:
highly visible in passage. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 3 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 3 simple, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 6 sets Zigzag Small circular radial 2 incised (1 formed to existing parallel
line set)
Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T Sill 1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to central chamber: not
visible. Motifs indiscernible. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 possible incised Arc 3 concentric, 2 concentric incised Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 9 possible incised tiny circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C15 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to central chamber: top edge
very faint. Side edge highly visible from passage. Face visible when exiting from chamber into passage, especially double arc and loop art motif on the right side of the face.
Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral 2 Filigree 5-6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 simple, 3 concentric, 1 oval with 5
parallel lines inside, 1 oval with 4 lines inside; 3 concentric on edge (2 with incised design inside), 10 concentric incised on edge
Arc 1 concentric on edge; 2 concentric on face
Lattice Lozenge 1 set of 7 horizontal Parallel line Set of 4 Zigzag Small circular 8 dots on edge radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C14 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall north (right side) chamber:
visible from back, right and central chambers.
Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 4-5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc)
LC T C14 continued Shape Number Location Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric with dots, 1 embellished
with parallel lines and dot, 1 simple
Arc 1 concentric embellished with parallel lines
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set bordered by arcs, 1 set of 6, 1 set
adjacent to spiral
Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of northern (right side)
chamber: fairly visible from passage and central chamber, espcially 2 concentric circles and radial motif on left side of stone face.
Meander Fortification 1 possible Arc-spiral Filigree 2-4 Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2-3 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric with dots, 10 incised
circles
Arc 3-4 Lattice Lozenge 1 possibly part of a fortification Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous North wall central chamber: fairly
visible from passage and central chamber.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric, 2 simple, 1 concentric
incised
Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial
Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)
LC T Sill 3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Entrance to back chamber: lightly
visible from passage and central chamber. Radial design most pronounced, but still faint.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with radial, 1 with dot Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 2 dots radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of back chamber: visible
from back and central chamber (when crouched and looking in)
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 Arc 1 concentric , 2 concentric with radials Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 7-10 vertical on edge Zigzag Small circular radial 2 radiating from concentric arcs Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of back chamber: highly
visible from central chamber and passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 2 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 with flowers, 4 with dots, 1
concentric, 3 with parallel lines divided by vertical line, 1 simple
LC T C8 continued Shape Number Location Arc 1 concentric, 1 concentric with parallel
lines inside
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag 1 set of 4 Small circular radial 5 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of back chamber: (No
record)??? Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of central chamber: highly
visible from passage and central chamber.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 5 with dots Circle Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of southern chamber:
slightly visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage. Fairly faint markings.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 with dots, 1 concentric Arc 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of southern chamber: highly
visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric, 5 with dots, 5 with
incised motifs inside
Arc 3 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 6-8 horizontal Zigzag Small circular 12 tiny concentric incised circles radial 2 inside circles, 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of southern chamber: visible
from central chamber. Not visible when exiting chamber into passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 incised concentric, 3 oval concentric
incised
LC T C2 continued Shape Number Location Arc 2 simple, 2 concentric, 2 with dots, 1
with lines radiating from 1 side
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 divided by line, set of 3, set of
4 with arc
Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of central chamber at
entrance to passage: not visible from chamber. Almost invisible from passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T L5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage by chamber entrance:
highly visible in passage and exiting chamber to passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 2 simple, 1 concentric, 4 with incised
circles inside, 2 with dots
Arc 1 concentric, 1 with incised circle inside
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular @50 tiny concentric incised circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T L4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage: faint. Only visible in
passage. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 1 Circle 3 with dots, 1 simple; 2 with dots on
edge
Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 3 tiny circles, 2 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T L3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left chamber: very slightly visible in
passage, especially exiting to outside. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3-4 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 3 Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage: highly visible in passage,
especially entering as stone faces entrance.
Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 4 Arc (loop) 2 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 3 concentric, 3 with dots, 3 simple Arc 2 with dots, 4 concentric, Lattice Lozenge Parallel line
LC T L2 continued Shape Number Location Zigzag Small circular At least 10 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T L1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage at entrance to tomb:
highly visible in passage, especially entering as stone faces entrance.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 3 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 5 with dots, 1 with a row
of circles with dots lining the inside and radial lines with dots, 1 with a radial inside
Arc 3 concentric, 1 simple Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial 1 with dits, 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T co2/C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Oval with circle, oval and closed arc
shape inside
Arc 2 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T C01/C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Faint/couldn't find Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T Co1/c2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Faint/couldn't find Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot on edge or back Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 7 Zigzag Small circular 3 dots radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T Fragment (after Conwell) Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Not there Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with dot Arc 1, 1 with dot Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)
LC T Lintel Cell 1 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Almost invisible Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 4 sets Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T Roofstone Cell 3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Set of 4 nested horizontal, 1 vertical Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC T Lintel cell 2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Very faint Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric, 2 incised (?) Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 1 set of 8 vertical, 1 set of 4 vertical Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous (none)
LC T Roofstone Cell 2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Roofstone, back chamber: beautifully
visible when crouched in central or back chamber. Highly defined. Looked like the eastern chamber ceiling in Newgrange!
Meander 2 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral 2 Circle 4 concentric, 2 with dots, 1 with
radial, 3 simple, 1 oval with parallel lines and radials coming out
Arc 2 with dots, 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge 1 with dot Parallel line Set of 6 vertical divided by line, set
of 5 connected by line, set of 3
Zigzag Small circular radial 3, 1 flower Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2 ovals with parallel lines,
LC T K29 after Du Noyer Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric, 1 on back Arc 1 with parallel lines inside, 1
concentric, 3 with incised circles inside, 2 conjoinedconcentric
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular 18incised small circles radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Loughcrew U
LC U R2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right passage: visible when exiting
chamber into passage Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple)
LCU R2 continued Shape Number Location Small circular (arc) Set of 7 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 2 concentric Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U R3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Visible when looking out at passage
from chamber. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) 1 Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C11 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right central chamber at entrance to
passage: south face invisible. East face visible when crouched.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Set of at least 10 on south face Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 1 concentric on east face Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C10 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of northern side chamber:
slightly visible exiting chamber into passage.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) 1 Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 5 possible Arc 1 concentric Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C9 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall of northern side chamber:
most striking stone in the tomb. Not visible from passage.
Meander 1 on edge; 5 or 6 on face Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree @ 5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 8 concentric Arc 13 concentric Lattice 1 set of 3 concentric lozenges Lozenge 1 concentric Parallel line 1 set of 4 diagonal inside arc, All
other parallel lines appear to be part of the zigzag/lattice/lozenge design
Zigzag Set of 5 with lattice/lozenge design Small circular 3-5 dots radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C8 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left side of northern side chamber:
almost invisible. Would be visible from passage if motifs were more heavily carved.
Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) 1 Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral
Circle 2 concentric, 1 simple LC U C8 continued Shape Number Location Arc 1 Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C7 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of back chamber: almost
invisible. Right wall of back chamber. Not visible from passage, but passage can be seen from it.
Meander Set of 6 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C6 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous back wall of back chamber: visible
when crouched. Fairly faint motifs. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 5 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc 2 concentric, 1 arc with radial
lines, 2 simple
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Set of 5 vertical Zigzag Small circular 1tiny circle radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C5 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall of back chamber: barely
visible. Easier to see when crouched. Can't be seen from passage.
Meander Set of 6, 2 Fortification Arc-spiral 1 Filigree 6 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 with radial inside Arc 2 concentric Lattice 1 Lozenge Parallel line Set of 7 Zigzag Small circular radial 1 inside circle Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square 2
LC U C4 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Right wall of southern chamber:
neither face is visible. Very faint. Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 1 east face; 2 north face Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 east face; 1 north face Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C3 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Back wall, southern chamber: visible
when crouched. Medium visible...not too faint.
Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 4 concentric, 1 simple, 1 with
radial lines inside, 10 concentric incised
Arc 2 concentric, 3 simple Lattice
Lozenge LC U C3 Continued Shape Number Location Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U C2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left wall in left chamber: faint. West
face partially visible while exiting the chamber toward passage, easier to see when crouched. Concentric arcs, 2 of the circles, and oval with parallel lines more visible. East face plainly visible from passage, especially when crouched.
Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 3 west face Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle 1 concentric west face, 3 ovals
with parallel lines west face, set of 11 simple running vertically up west face, 7 simple west face
Arc 1 concentriceast face, 1 concentric west face
Lattice Lozenge Parallel line 3 sets inside ovals Zigzag Small circular radial 1 Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
LC U L2 Shape Number Location Diagnostic endogenous Left passage, near entrance to
chamber: almost invisible. Meander 1 Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree 2 Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square
Finish fish.