Networks of Exclusion:

Job Segmentation and Gendered Social Networks in the

Knowledge Economy

Dr. Mia Gray

Dr. Tomoko Kurihara1

Segmentation in the Labour Market

Persistent Gendered Segmentation UK: Women in Work Commission US: Fed Glass Ceiling Commission

Knowledge Intensive Economy different? Occupational Segmentation

women primarily subject to segregation into occupations that are devalued because they are dominated by women

Job Segmentation gendered and racialised patterns in pay,

position, and prestige within an occupation.

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Social Networks at Work job acquisition and promotion embedded in

informal networks informal social networks provide access to

valuable labour market info and lower transaction costs

“Weak ties” original or unique information from one network, or community of knowledge, to another

networks can result not only in jobs, but in better jobs - prestige jobs, satisfaction, earnings (Granovetter)

Once you get a job -- affect job stability and promotion prospects

Women better at this explicit social component to work

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Social Networks and Job Promotion Gendered nature of social networks affects internal

mobility within the firm “information isolation,” blocks career advancement of

women, as well as minorities (FGCC) Composition, range, and geography of women's

networks of social contacts differ from those of men (Drentea) social homogeneity of networks (Marsden, Kanter) women who use informal job search methods are more

likely to end up with gender segregated jobs (Drentea) segregation in networks reinforces occupational

segmentation in the labour market technical women excluded from informal networks of

knowledge diffusion in high tech firms (Gray and James, Fisher)

ineffective in placing members in high-end jobs is because there are fewer high-status contacts in the network (McGuire)

Open vs Closed network5

Social Capital as Metaphor Putman: celebratory embrace of social networks:

social capital - positive externalities of social connections (results in trust, shared norms, solidarity, civic mindedness)

social capital is productive and positive Bourdieu: class and social networks

social capital = social networks + resources embedded in these networks + instrumental use of these resources

social K as investment of members in the dominant class engaging in mutual recognition to maintain the group resources.

Stress unequal distribution of capital Agency imp. -- individuals either consciously or unconsciously invest time

and effort to produce and maintain good and useful social relations with people in exchange for profitable outcomes

Lin, Burt, and Cook: application to work place Lin: Social capital = structural (embeddedness), opportunity (accessibility)

+ action-orientation (use) Social K always generates return or gain and positive Intertwined with human K (networks make you more desirable to

employers for some positions)

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Social Capital Problematic Positive outcomes (individuals always

have positive returns on investments) No benefits from scale: capital always

accrues equally to large and small investors

Confuses resources in network & resources as network

Like neoclassical economics, assumes away conflict, power-struggles with assumption of harmonious outcomes

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Our Study – ICT Engineering Professionals:

Two firms in same segment of ICT: licensing only Small number of women and declining focus groups and individual interviews of 30 engineers

(gender, ethnicity) CVs as aide memoir -- snapshots of career histories--

focusing on social relations that led to job acquisition & promotion

account for the way people experience and conceptualise their relationships in the workplace

attuned to the use of language within the firm (differentiating between management and eng) that reflect shared norms, identity and values

complex ways in which the meaning of social networks/capital can be interpreted by status, age, sex and ethnicity

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Our Findings: Job Segregation Severe job segregation:

Female engineers -- support engineering jobs (testing, customer service, debugging)

Women rarely held positions in management

– few functioned as “development” engineers – few women in lower management.– Job security gendered -- many of the support jobs are currently

being outsourced to India and other countries. Male engineers – “core” engineer and mangmt

– No men as low-level support engineers– Male management – Mid and senior engineering positions are mixed, mostly filled by

ethnic men and women

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Table 8 : The Occupational Structure of Interview Participants

Low-level Engineers            Technical support            Customer Support            Testing

MaryAishaLei

Katrina KirstyVictoria

       

  Ethnic Women EU Ethnic Women

Non-ethnic Women

Ethnic Men EU Ethnic Men Non-ethnic Men

Born UK

Immigrant

Top Management            Division manager            Vice Presidents            Director of Research

        Arjun   DerekNigel 

Middle Management            Manage staff + use technical knowledge

      EdwinColin

Talvin Juan  

Lower Management            No staff management            Product/customer knowledge

  Ulla       Luca  

Senior Engineer Wei     Steve      

Mid-level Engineer

Qian   Bridget   Omar    

Findings: The Key to Promotion Male mgmt engineers – all strongly mentored. All received informal invitations for them to apply for job

(then advertised and won in open competition). Understands promotion, sees hierarchy Effective but closed system of mentors – nested

mentoring, “band of brothers” – share history, cultural norms and references (“BTP shape”)

Screening potential candidates (degree of openness, but “structural holes” don’t indiscriminately bestow their resources equally upon broader web of contacts)

Resources access are cumulative – creates initial legitimacy, which then creates more networks and makes them more worth knowing

– Accrue more capital from being “chosen”

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Band of Brothers:

Nested Mentoring at BTP

CEO David

VP of Eng

Derek

Head of SystemOn Chip

Pete

Director Of EngArjun

CPU Eng Mgr

Nigel

Findings: The Mystery of Promotion (or lack of)

Strong gendered patterns in accessing networks and resources

Female support engineers isolated from male manager’s “club” and felt they missed out on information flows

Promotion system “was a mystery.” Others felt they were ‘out of the loop’

No language to talk about mentors/networks Explained lack of hierarchy Everyone has networks, but varying

– resources in them – degree of conscious use and – skill in using them

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Realising Capital: Negative Returns

Network Mobility Women still changed jobs more often to

accommodate partner’s career. More difficult to gain and change employment, more

un and under-employment Made promotion slower Negative Returns?

Human capital (education) under valued Social capital (univ./job connections) devalued Social capital specific to sector/industry/occupation Realising social capital limited (need for work permit limits

mobility)20

Deploying Capital: Spatial Liquidity

Networks have spatial and non-spatial components

Non-spatial: – Non-proximate industry-based networks help with work advice,

problem solving, crisis. Can help with job acquisition

Spatial: – Proximate industry networks and/or regional networks provide

opportunity within firm and/or region. Affected when change location (nationally or internationally) or sector --if not motivated by personal opportunity

– Additionally, community-based/home based mobilise social capital can help realise return on workplace capital. Often mobility separates worker from community based social capital.

– Both devalued existing social networks – make it difficult to access and resources

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Different Networks and Range of Mobility in Space

BTP

Support Engineers

Mid Level Management

Low End Management

“Band of Brothers”

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Complex confluence of overlapping network mobility

Conclusion: Not always positive outcome (can lose capital) Takes capital to make capital (large investors privileged) Importance of agency as well as structure:

“competences” -- social knowledge and skills to act on this knowledge -- necessary for positive outcomes

People do not pass on information indiscriminately to whoever they are in touch with; it’s an investment or payment of an outstanding debt.

Exclusionary as well as inclusionary -- gender, ethnicity and forms of cultural capital at work to maintain the distinction between inclusivity and exclusivity. Protection of resources

Social capital as a power-structure by another means Depoliticises the workplace

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