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Quaid I Azam University, Islamabad.

Department of administrative Sciences

Gender Discrimination at workplac


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Names of group members

Haseeb dar

Sheema Mehkar

Hussain Tariq

Hussian Bux Chandio

Muhammad umer

M. Masood Ahmad

Nawazish Ali Shah

Submitted To:

Dr. Tahir Saeed

Date: ______________________

Topic: Gender Discrimination at workplace


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First of all we are highly thankful to our Allah thealmighty who made us able to work on the assigned

project. After that we are thankful to our parents who

provided us such platform where we can easily utilize our

capabilities for our personal development. We are also

highly thankful to DR. Tahir Saeed whose guideline

throughout helped us a lot in completing the Assignedproject.


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Table of Contents

Abstract__________________________________________

Introduction_______________________________________

Literature survey___________________________________Theoretical Framework______________________________

Methodology______________________________________

Results___________________________________________

Discussion________________________________________

Conclusion_______________________________________

Recommendations__________________________________

Limitations________________________________________

References_______________________________________


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Gender Discrimination at Workplace:

Causes and elimination

Abstract

This paper presents a theory of gender discrimination in competitive labour markets which does

not rely on any inherent gender asymmetries. Women and men are organized into households

with each having identical household specific human capital. When labour market characteristics

(effort, wages) differ, the possibility of mutually beneficial within household trades arises.

Discrimination involves occupational segregation with men obtaining high paying efficiency

wage jobs and women in piece rate work. It is shown that there always exists a Nash equilibrium

in which firms benefit from discrimination by allocating high paying jobs exclusively to men,

provided other firms also do so, as this ensures their employees (men) enjoy the benefits of

within household trade and will satisfy incentive compatibility at a lower wage. A firm

attempting to hire women in efficiency wage jobs makes strictly lower expected profits, since the

predominance of men in the labour market means women are less likely to enjoy the benefits of

within household trade and more likely to shirk. The model thus provides an intuitive

explanation for discrimination in competitive labour markets even when the sexes are completely

identical. In the same context men are also being discriminated on the same grounds. Thats why

in this study both kinds of discriminations have been considered. So, in this paper Gender

discrimination has been tested through two variables that is female stereotype and masculinityideology showing positive relationship with gender discrimination.

Key Words: genderdiscrimination, culture, feminity concept, masculinity ideology, workplace.


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Introduction:

The research team has selected the topic of gender discrimination at workplace for the research

project. In the recent years it is seen that not only women but also men are being discriminated

on the basis of their gender. Though gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and

attitudes in relation to the gender of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and

do not, normally, carry any legal consequences. Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may

have legal consequences. Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries,

the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would

not have occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain

enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries.

Currently, discrimination based on sex is defined as adverse action against another person, that

would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. This is considered a form of

prejudice and is illegal in certain enumerated circumstances in most countries.

Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be

discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or because

an employer did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her

gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational setting there could be

claims that a student was excluded from an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan,

student group, or scholarship due to his or her gender. In the housing setting there could be

claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or

getting a loan based on his or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender

discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms

based on ones gender.
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Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his

or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan

terms based on ones gender.

Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some

cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles. While there are non-physical

differences between men and women, there is little agreement as to what those differences are.

This all leads to lower job involvement of the males and females which in turn affects the job

performance of the employees. This is a cause of concern and it is happening because women

and men feel that they are not being treated equally. We know that individuals are born with a

given endowment of entrepreneurial talent and decide how much human capital toacquire, and

whether to become managers or workers. There are several international conventions likeSeedaw, Beijing platform of actions and millennium development goals which are working to

eliminate all kinds of discriminations faced by the men and women. All of them are ratified by

the Govt. of Pakistan but no implementation has been seen till now in Pakistan. Not only these

Conventions but also media is having a great concern for men and women equality. We selected

this topic because our society is also highly superficial in this area.* Previously a lot of

researches have been made on this topic like The Many Faces of Darlene Jespersen by (Michael

Selmi George Washington University Law School) and The Rights of Remedies: Collective

Accountings for and Insuring Against the Harms of Sexual Harassment by (Judith Resnik Yale

University - Law School) etc.. but all these researches have not clearly explained masculinity

and fiminity ideologies that are causing Gender Discrimination. We have selected these two

variables for research work because according to us these are the two main variables which are

directly causing gender discrimination at every level. So, it is important to eliminate such

discrimination in order to avoid negative effects of it and to give equal rights to both men and

women. This study is an effort to not only identify the factors responsible for it but also to give

solutions to overcome this problem.

Literature survey:
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=68368http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=68368


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Gender discrimination is a social phenomenon that affects social behavior in many areas (e.g.,

Appleton & Gurwitz, 1976; Berndt & Heller, 1986; Tilby & Kalin 1980). It has been shown that

individuals may discriminate on the basis of target gender (i.e., whether the targets are males or

females) or on the basis of individuating information (i.e., whether the targets behave

stereotypically or counter stereotypically). Individuals behaving counter stereotypically are often

assigned negative evaluations or penalties (Appleton & Gurwitz, 1976; Berndt & Heller, 1986;

Costrich, Feinstein, Kidder, Marecek, & Pascale, 1975; Tilby & Kalin 1980). Most studies done

on gender discrimination have been conducted on adults and in Western societies. Cultures,

however, play an important role in setting social norms and many researchers are now aware that

cross-cultural study provides an opportunity to investigate certain phenomena more thoroughly

(e.g., Bukowski & Sippola, 1998; Schneider, 1998). The present study's contribution is that it

examined gender discrimination from a cross-cultural perspective and focused on early

adolescents. More specifically, the present study focused on the gender discrimination toward

male targets behaving stereotypically and counter stereotypically and investigated gender

discrimination of early adolescents from two different cultures: Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs.

It has been suggested that cultures vary along the dimension of individualism and collectivism

and along the dimension of traditionality (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Shweder, 1990; Triandis,

1989). Collectivitic and more traditional cultures emphasize interdependence among individuals

as well as the importance of social roles and fitting in with the social context and conforming to

societal norms. Individualistically oriented cultures and less traditional cultures, on the other

hand, emphasize independence, self-expression, and the pursuit of personal goals and interests. It

is therefore reasonable to assume that collectivistic/traditional cultures are less tolerant than

individualistic cultures of any transgression from norms, including gender transgressions. We

investigated adolescents from two subcultures in Israel, Israeli Arab adolescents and Israeli

Jewish adolescents. Our study focused on the more traditional Arab population, i.e., those who

live in villages and towns populated exclusively by Arabs and w here education is in the Arabic

language.

Studies have shown that the Arab culture, including the subculture of Arabs living in Israel, is a

traditional and a collectivistic culture (Bierenbauer, 1992; Mikulincer, Weller & Florian, 1993),

which emphasizes the importance of community and family more than the pursuit of self-


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fulfillment (Barakat, 1985; Segall, Dasen, Berry, & Poortinga, 1990). Conversely, Israeli Jews

belong to a more individualistic and less traditional society emphasizing the individual and

his/her own need above those of the community (Ben-Ari & Azaiza, 1998). Mikulincer et al.

(1993), for example, showed that Israeli Arab adolescents reported closer ties to their family

characterized by a restrictive and stringent nature. Nisan (1987) found differences in moral

judgments of traditional Israeli Arabs and secular Israeli Jewish children, such that the former

judged transgressions from norms, even if these behaviors were permitted, more harshly. Finally,

Moore (1998) found that the meaning of gender identity differed for Jewish and A rab women,

such that Arab women's gender identity was a much more traditional one.

The most compelling explanations of gender inequality are materialist theories that use cross-

cultural data on the status of women and men. Materialist theories explain gender inequality asan outcome of how women and men are tied to the economic structure of society. Such theories

stress control and distribution of valued resources as crucial facts in producing stratification.

They point out that women's roles of mother and wife, although vital to the well-being of society,

are devalued and also deny women access to highly valued public resources. They point out that

gender stratification is greater where women's work is directed inward to the family and men's

work is directed outward to trade and the marketplace When women do enter the labor markets,

they often are concentrated in lower-paying jobs. Women also enter the labor market later than

men and often have to leave periodically because of child care responsibilities. Historically,

women have had lower levels of education than men, but recently this trend seems to have begun

to reverse. (Eitzen, 2000:251).

The gender role approach focuses on learning behaviors that are defined as masculine or

feminine. The gender role approach emphasizes characteristics that individuals acquire during

the course of socialization, such as independence or dependent behaviors and ways men and

women relate to each other (Eitzen, 2000:252).

The gender structure approach emphasizes factors that are external to individuals, such as the

organization of social institutions, including the concentration of power, the legal system, and

organizational barriers that promote sexual inequality. These approaches tend to differ in how

they view the sexes, in how they explain the causes and effects of sexism, and in the solutions


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they suggest for elimination of inequality. Both individual and structural approaches are

necessary to a complete understanding of sexism. This chapter places primary emphasis on social

structure as the cause of inequality (Eitzen, 2000:252).

Gender related attributes also play their role. An appropriate theoretical foundation for

explaining differences between male and female service providers originates in the sociology

literature and is referred to as feminist theory. This theory proffers two perspectives regarding

gender-related differences in performance. One argues that there are a wide variety of issues that

are impacted by societys attitudes towards women (Hooks, 2000). These attitudes are based in

the history and institutional structure of society. As a result, women are treated differently than

men, so that the performance of businesses owned by women suffers. Another stream of

literature argues that there are innate differences between male and female approaches to issues.These differences lead women to take different actions than males in similar situations (Buttner,

2001; Fletcher, 1998).

According to rational bias theory, there are instances in which engaging in discrimination seems

justified to an employee, even though he or she may be aware of regulations prohibiting bias and

may personally prefer to treat others equally (Larwood & Gattiker, 1985; Larwood et al., 1984).

Employees in decision-making positions understand that they have to take into account the

attitudes and preferences of other people, such as superiors and clients, in order to enhance anddevelop their own careers. It follows that decision makers may choose to discriminate if they

believe their superiors or others having power over their careers expect or prefer it. Thus, an

employee's display of "rational bias," in which discrimination may be viewed as both

instrumental and intentional, is the result of perceiving external pressures from superiors or

clients to discriminate.The perceptions that business norms favor discrimination and that

compliance with the norms is important to business success are two basic tenets of rational bias

theory. If these components are not accepted by decision makers, then the decision makers are

less likely to feel external pressures to discriminate (Larwood et al., 1988a, 1988b). This

suggests preconditions for rational bias to be operative in producing gender discrimination in the

workplace: (1) business people are viewed as generally more accepting of one gender than the

other - at least in the organizational functions being examined; and (2) those making personnel

decisions feel pressure toward deferring to the norms of business (Dexter, 1985; Larwood et al.,


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1988a; Szwajkowski et al., 1991).The first precondition, referred to as the "preference norm,"

does not need to accurately represent the beliefs of those in business - rather, the perception that

the preference norm may exist could be sufficient to make it of concern. The second

precondition, referred to as "compliance instrumentality," suggests that managers anticipate

consequences to their careers if they do not adhere to perceived business norms. Previous

research has demonstrated both the actual existence of the perceived business norms and that

they take priority over employees' own beliefs (Gealy, Larwood, & Elliot, 1979; Larwood &

Gattiker, 1985).

There is an alternative theoretical perspective that would not accept the arguments advanced by

feminist theory. The foundation for most of this research is the rational economic model (Ferber

& Nelson, 1993). This theory argues that individuals make rational economic choices and seek to

maximize economic benefit to themselves or the firm. Most of these models assume that

customers are economically rational and will make their choices based on the benefits gained

from the transaction, and not the gender of the service provider. Prior research on whether gender

as an impact on the financial performance of professional service providers has not provided

clear insights on whether feminist theory or the rational economic model is more valid. Some

researchers find that women achieve lower financial performance than men (Hisrich & Brush,

1984; Loscocco, Robinson, Hall, & Allen, 1991; Lustgarten, 1995; Chaganti & Prasuraman,

1997; Fasci & Valdez, 1998), while others argue that there is no performance difference between

male & female owned enterprises (Fischer, Reuber & Dyke, 1993; Kalleberg & Leicht, 1991).

Davidson & Cooper (1983) found that managerial women experience greater strain and feel

more isolated at work than males which in turn affect their performance. There is gender

difference in leadership because of negative perception and evaluation of women in leadership

(Stelter 2002).

Some employers discriminate against men or women out of deference to the prejudice of their

customers or workers. Until the early 1970s for example airlines refused to hire male flight

attendants because they claimed their passengers preferred females. Then the supreme court let

stand a lower court ruling that customers discriminatory preferences do not justify gender


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discrimination (Diaz v. pan American 1971), opening the occupation of flight attendant to men

(and eventually to older people). Nonetheless, many employers still defer to customers

discriminatory preferences (Trentham and Larwood 1998). A study of females security workers

found that most security firms clients don not care, but the few who expressed a preferences

wanted men (Ericksone, Albanese, and Drakulic 2000:314). Client or customer preferences can

combine gender and race/ethnicity, as was the case among employers who told a temporary

agency to send any Marias or Kims__by which they meant Latinas or Asian women

(Rogers 2000). This study of temporary agencies found a widespread desire for workers from

certain sex and racial/ethnicity groups, although clients expressed it through the use of code

words, as when they requested articulate or front office applicants by which they meant

white. Although some temporary agencies refused such requests, many honored even the most

egregious ones, particularly if they came from a major client.

Research Question:

What are the factors causing gender discrimination at work place?

Theoretical Framework:

There are three variables which are under study. Gender discrimination is dependent variable

and it is the variable of primary interest and changes or variations in the Gender discrimination

will be explained by two independent variables (1) Female Stereotype (2) Masculinity Ideology.

Female Stereotype and Gender discrimination have positive relationship between them.

Masculinity Ideology has Positive relationship with Gender discrimination, i.e. greater the

Masculinity ideology greater will be the Gender discrimination and vice versa.


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Review of past researches shows that if there is Female stereotyping then males and females

will not get equal rights and in this way gender discrimination at workplace will be enhanced.

Thats why there is a positive relationship between them.

Past researches also show that concept of Masculinity has positive relationship with gender

discrimination because social norms of our society like concept of masculinity, concentration of

power in the hands of one gender etc... causes the discrimination to increase.

Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Hypothesis:

Female Stereotype and Gender discrimination have positive relationship between them.

Concept of Masculinity has positive relationship with gender discrimination.

METHODOLOGY

Study design

In this cross-sectional co-relational field study data on two independent variables (Female

stereotype, masculinity ideology) and dependent variable (Gender Discrimination at workplace)

were collected from both males and females working in the Quaid I Azam University, Islamabad.

Population and Sample

Gender

Discrimination

at workplace

Masculinity

Ideology

Female

Stereotype


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Population for the study comprised men and women working as teachers or employees in Quaid

I Azam University, Islamabad. Convenient sampling method was used to draw sample out of

population because it was deemed fit by the researchers on the basis of cost and time

considerations. Subjects were chosen in predetermined numbers. The total sample size was n=30

which comprised 14 (46.67%) males and 16 (53%) females. 35 questionnaires were given to

both gender and they all were received back within a time period of 3 days, resulting in 100%

response rate because questionnaires were personally administered and researchers clarify

research topic, doubts and assist some of the respondents in understanding some questions. The

units of analysis were individuals who responded to the survey. During data filtration patterns

were observed in 5 out of 30 questionnaires of which 2 were filled by males and 3 by females,

such questionnaires were set aside and remaining 30 were used for analysis.

Variables and Measures

Questionnaires include two demographic variables (gender & Age), they were tapped by direct

single questions.

Instruments:

Gender Discrimination At workplace: Adaptive version of Staff Gender Equality (SGE)

questionnaire was used for measuring the Discrimination faced by the staff members. It

contained 11 statements measuring it. (e.g. your organization has gender inclusive culture).

Each item was cast on a 5- point Likert scale. The higher the score, the lower will be the gender

discrimination faced by the employee and vice versa. Reliability of these items checked via

SPSS SOFTWARE gave alpha=.916

Concept of Feminity: Attitudes towards Women Scale (ATW)(Spence, Helm

rich & Stapp, 1978) Short version, which contained 25 statements to

measure. For example under modern economic conditions with women being

active outside the home, men should share in household tasks such as


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washing dishes and doing the laundry Etc. Reliability of these items checked via

SPSS SOFTWARE gave alpha= .656

Masculinity Ideology: Masculinity ideology Scale ( ) purchased from NIP

has been used for measuring it which contained 44 statements e.g. a man

should take risk in harmful conditions. Reliability of these items checked via SPSS

SOFTWARE gave alpha= .885

Data collection method

Data was collected through personally administered questionnaires because the survey was

confined to local area i.e. QAU. Moreover, this method was deemed fit in Pakistan as compared

to mailed and electronic questionnaires. Method of personally administered questionnaires was

adopted to introduce research topic, clarify doubts of respondents and collect all the completed

responses within a short span of time. All questionnaires were received back within 3 days.

Results:


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In order to test the formulated hypotheses, statistical analysis of the responses of the

questionnaires was done.

The reliability of the three scales is given below:

Reliability of Gender discrimination at workplace scale

Table 1

Alpha Reliability Coefficient of SGE for the Main Study (N=30)

Scale No. of items Alpha coefficient

SGE 11 .916

Table 1 shows the alpha reliability (r=0.916) for the SGE scale. The results in table 1

show that scale has satisfactory reliability.

Reliability of Female Stereotype (ATW) scale

Table 2

Alpha Reliability Coefficient of for the Main Study (N=30)


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ATW 25 .656

Table 2 shows the alpha reliability (r=0.656) for the ATW scale. The results in table 2

show that scale has satisfactory reliability.

Reliability of masculinity ideology (MI) scale

Table 3

Alpha Reliability Coefficient of MI for the Main Study (N=30)


MI 43 .885

Table 3 shows the alpha reliability (r=0.885) for the MI scale. The results in table 3 show

that scale has satisfactory reliability.

Frequencies:

Statistics:


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genderGender discrimination

at workplaceFeminity

stereotypeMasculinity

ideology

N

Valid 35 30 30 30

Missing 0 5 5 5

Gender:

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

5 14.3 14.3 14.3

male 14 40.0 40.0 54.3

female 16 45.7 45.7 100.0

Total 35 100.0 100.0

Gender discrimination at workplace:


Valid

13.00 1 2.9 3.3 3.3

15.00 7 20.0 23.3 26.7

21.00 2 5.7 6.7 33.328.00 5 14.3 16.7 50.0

30.00 1 2.9 3.3 53.3

35.00 1 2.9 3.3 56.7

39.00 5 14.3 16.7 73.3

43.00 4 11.4 13.3 86.7

47.00 1 2.9 3.3 90.0

48.00 3 8.6 10.0 100.0

Total 30 85.7 100.0

Missing System 5 14.3

Total 35 100.0

Feminity stereotype:



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Valid

55.00 3 8.6 10.0 10.0

57.00 3 8.6 10.0 20.0

61.00 5 14.3 16.7 36.7

63.00 1 2.9 3.3 40.0

65.00 2 5.7 6.7 46.7

67.00 4 11.4 13.3 60.0

68.00 1 2.9 3.3 63.3

72.00 1 2.9 3.3 66.7

76.00 6 17.1 20.0 86.7

77.00 4 11.4 13.3 100.0

Total 30 85.7 100.0


Total 35 100.0

Masculinity ideology:


Valid

119.00 3 8.6 10.0 10.0

126.00 1 2.9 3.3 13.3

130.00 1 2.9 3.3 16.7

159.00 4 11.4 13.3 30.0

160.00 1 2.9 3.3 33.3

167.00 4 11.4 13.3 46.7

183.00 5 14.3 16.7 63.3

186.00 1 2.9 3.3 66.7

208.00 3 8.6 10.0 76.7

222.00 4 11.4 13.3 90.0

225.00 1 2.9 3.3 93.3

262.00 2 5.7 6.7 100.0

Total 30 85.7 100.0


Total 35 100.0

Descriptive Statistics:

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

Gender discrimination atworkplace 30 13.00 48.00 30.7667 12.31115

Feminity stereotype 30 55.00 77.00 66.8667 7.98159Masculinity ideology 30 119.00 262.00 181.3000 39.09771

Valid N (list wise) 30


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Interpretation: After evaluation from SPSS software we conclude that Gender Discrimination

at workplace and Feminity ideology has positive relationship between them so our hypothesis is

accepted but its value i.e. 0.111 no doubt showing positive relationship but it is not much strong

So, we can say that there still remains other factors which are causing gender discrimination. The

same is the case with masculinity ideology and gender discrimination relationship but it is

stronger as compared to feminity ideology.

Regression:


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Model Summary

Predictors: (Constant), Masculinity ideology, Feminity stereotype

Discussion:

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate

1 .359(a) .129 .064 11.90803


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Conclusion:

This study was aimed at finding the factors creating gender discrimination at workplace. We

identified two variables feminity and masculinity ideology for our study. After this research

work and evaluations we have come to this conclusion that both feminity and masculinity

ideology have positive relationship with gender discrimination i.e. causing gender discrimination

to increase but his relationship is not that much stronger. So there will be other factors which are

highly correlated with it.

Recommendations:

If you find you're being discriminated against because of your gender, there are steps you can

take to remedy the problem.


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Confronting Sex Discrimination on the Job

1. Identify the problem: Determine exactly how you're being discriminated against, and make

sure you have all the facts to show it by keeping a log of each occurrence and written documents

or voicemails that can be used as evidence.

2. Get a Second Opinion: Find another woman in your work environment that you can confide in

and get her input. It's possible that there could be other reasons besides your sex for the

discrimination you believe is occurring.

3. Confront the offender: Talk to the person you have a problem with. Calmly state your case and

ask/demand that the discrimination end. This works best if a co-worker is doing the

discriminating or an immediate supervisor. When discriminating against women seems to be apart of the company's culture you have a bigger problem on your hands.

4. File a complaint with the company: If the problem isn't resolved or it's clear that sex

discrimination is a problem throughout the company, you should file a formal complaint with the

company and talk to the owner or manager about the problems you see. Remember that they

have a legal responsibility to end the existing sex discrimination.

5. File a complaint with outside agencies: If the problem isn't resolved or the situation worsens,

report the business and file a complaint with the EEOC.

Also there is need for equality based rules and policies in the organization from recruitment to

fire off, from pay to job assignment in all areas there is need for equality in order to avoid these

discriminations.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

The generalizability of the results of this study is low since a non-probability sampling technique

was used due to lack of time and resources. The sample size is also very small (n=30) which is

not suitable for such kind of research.

For future research, work which look more directly at these issues taking a larger sample size

will be encouraged. Also there are many other factors which are causing gender discrimination


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like concentration of power in the hands of one gender, men dominating society etc..there is need

to research on these variables in future.

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