next steps for progress on equal pay

8/18/2019 Next Steps for Progress on Equal Pay

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1 Center for American Progress | Next Steps for Progress on Equal Pay

Next Steps for

Progress on Equal PayBy Jocelyn Frye April 12, 2016

A as - ood res auran in Philadelphia paid i s emale shif managers and cashiers lesshan men in he same jobs, even hough hey were doing subs an ially equal work, and

gave he male workers he pre erred job assignmen s and schedules so ha he emale workers ended up wi h ewer hours.1 A exas ranspor a ion company paid a emale

opera ions direc or less han hree male opera ions direc ors; when she was assignedo replace one o he men afer he lef he company, she came across his pay s ub and dis-

covered ha he had been receiving a higher salary.2 A woman was old by her Mississippiemployer ha she could no move in o one o he company’s higher-paying sales jobsexclusively held by men even hough she was per orming he same ype o work because he job was oo dangerous or a woman. She was also admonished ha she would no be a good mo her i she ook he job because i would require her o ravel.3

For many workers, hese s ories hi close o home. Employees mos ofen women busome imes men have an inkling ha hey are being paid less han someone else doing

he same ype o job. In some ins ances, such as he cases above, employees can success-ully pursue charges o discrimina ion, vindica e heir righ s, and receive compensa ionor he money hey should have been receiving in heir paychecks. oo ofen, however,

workers are uncer ain: Tey lack enough in orma ion o know wha o hers earn, leavinghem o wonder whe her hey are being paid un airly. Te resul is ha he employees

unwilling o risk heir jobs by complaining con inue o work bu remain rus ra edand even demoralized or angry. Mos impor an ly, heir si ua ions remain unchangedand i hey are righ , hey are losing hard-earned dollars every day ha could be used ohelp suppor heir amilies and make ends mee .

Te principle o equal pay or equal work is a corners one o he na ion’s commi meno equali y, airness, and ensuring ha every worker has a air chance o succeed in he

workplace. Bu long-s anding pay dispari ies con inue o suppress he earnings o oomany women, undermining heir amilies’ economic securi y and impairing heir long-

erm nancial s abili y.


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Al hough he public conversa ion abou equal pay is ofen ramed as solely a women’sissue, he issue is broader and covers many differen workers. Pay discrimina ion chargesare no led exclusively by women; in ac , men brough approxima ely one- hird o hecharges led under i le VII in scal year 2013.11 Ta same year, people o color ledmore han hal o he pay discrimina ion charges led under i le VII in cases in which

he race o he person ling a charge was specied.12 Employers who are covered13 by

ederal equal pay laws have a dis inc , specic, and unchanging responsibili y o adhereo an idiscrimina ion requiremen s and pay employees equally or equal work.

The gender wage gap , by con ras , is a broader concep . I represen s he difference be ween women’s and men’s earnings and is driven by many differen ac ors, including bu no limi ed o discrimina ion.14 Fac ors such as differences in educa ion, seniori y, work hours, and experience all may con ribu e o he gender wage gap, and he exis enceo a gender wage gap may or may no reveal a broader problem or legal viola ion.

Obstacles to overcome, challenges to address

A closer analysis o how hese wo concep s play ou in he real world reveals he chal-lenges wi h addressing hem. Te goal o ensuring equal pay or equal work and elimi-na ing pay discrimina ion remains elusive, in par because pay discrimina ion is hard ouncover. Pay prac ices are requen ly hidden rom view, and employees ofen have litleaccess o pay in orma ion. Similarly, discussions abou pay in he workplace are regularlydiscouraged or prohibi ed,15 which has a coercive effec on employees who have ques-

ions or concerns abou heir pay.

Even when employees gain in orma ion ha conrms a problem exis s, hey can acedifficul legal hurdles i hey wan o complain. Cour s have been overly s ric in heirin erpre a ions o wha ac s are needed o es ablish ha he jobs in dispu e are air com-para ors be ore a case can even move orward.16 Under he Equal Pay Ac , or example,an individual mus show as a hreshold mater ha he basic elemen s o a claim have been me : ha he individual was paid unequally compared o a person o he opposi esex and ha he jobs being compared cons i u e equal work requiring “equal skill, effor ,and responsibili y, and which are per ormed under similar working condi ions.”17 Somecour s have cons rued his equal work requiremen so narrowly ha only cases in which

he jobs are almos iden ical are permited o move o rial, which leads o claims beingprema urely dismissed be ore he ac s can be evalua ed in con ex .18

A he same ime, cour s have broadly in erpre ed he de enses available o employersunder he Equal Pay Ac which employers can invoke o jus i y a pay dispari y suchas he “any ac or o her han sex” de ense, which allows employers o jus i y a pay di -

eren ial as long as hey can say i was no explici ly based on sex.19 All o hese barriershave made i difficul or individuals o challenge unequal pay prac ices in cour , even


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hough suppor or equal pay requen ly regis ers as a op workplace priori y.20 A recensurvey ound, or example, ha 58 percen o U.S. women considered he gender wagegap o be heir op concern.21

Drivers of the gender wage gap

Te gender wage gap s ems rom he wide varie y o ac ors ha collec ively affec women’s labor orce par icipa ion and overall earnings. Research has ound ha i isdriven by mul iple ac ors, rom measurable differences in work hours and levels oexperience o less quan iable bu no less impac ul views on how cer ain jobs or work-ers should be valued.22

No ed scholars Francine Blau and Claudia Goldin have writen ex ensively abou hemul i ace ed na ure o he wage gap, documen ing i s differen componen s.23 Blau andher co-au hor Lawrence Kahn analyzed he con ribu ors o wage differences and ound

ha while nearly hal o he difference is due o he concen ra ions o men and women in various occupa ions and indus ries, a signican percen age was due o unexplained di -

erences, including po en ial discrimina ion. Al hough he precise size o his unexplainedgap varies across differen s udies, heir research concluded ha 40 percen o he gap wasunexplained.24 O her research reached a similar conclusion, nding ha one- hird o he wage gap was unexplained.25 Goldin’s work has connec ed gender pay differences o workhours: Women work ewer hours han men, in par because women ake on more caregiv-ing responsibili ies a home and hus move in and ou o he work orce more requen ly.26 Teir research makes clear ha piecemeal approaches ha ail o address he ac ual

ac ors driving dispari ies in pay are shor sigh ed and may do litle o close he wage gap.

Ins ead, policymakers mus ake a comprehensive, coordina ed approach.

Al hough equal pay and he wage gap are dis inc concep s, hey are also inex ricablylinked aking s eps o achieve equal pay may help reduce he overall wage gap, andeffor s o close he wage gap may help promo e beter pay prac ices ha lead o equalpay.27 In he curren discourse, cri ics ofen cona e equal pay and he gender wage gap,allowing hem o jus i y inac ion on bo h issues. Unders anding he differences be ween

he wo is cri ical o ensure ha bo h priori ies receive he arge ed aten ion hey deserveand o make clear ha addressing one does no al er he need o address he o her.

Recent efforts to address the wage gap and equal pay

While policymakers across par y lines are ofen quick o voice heir suppor or equal payin principle, hey sharply disagree abou wha s eps, i any, are needed o ensure equal payin prac ice. One reason or his impasse s ems rom compe ing views abou he rela ion-ship be ween equal pay and he gender wage gap. Some argue ha litle or no ac ion is


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needed on equal pay or he wage gap because exis ing pay dispari ies are en irelyexplainable, due mos ly o women’s choices, ime ou o he work orce, and reduced hoursin comparison o men.28 For he proponen s o his view, he impac o hese choicesdemons ra es ha discrimina ion is a much smaller or even negligible ac or con rib-u ing o women’s lower wages. Because mos gender-based pay differences are he resulo women’s choices and amily decisions, hey argue, policy in erven ion o s reng hen

en orcemen o equal pay laws or o o herwise help raise women’s earnings is unnecessary.

Tis argumen largely ignores he broader body o research showing ha bo h explainedand unexplained ac ors no jus women’s choices inuence he wage gap.29 I alsodismisses research exploring he impac o he lack o work-li e policies on all workers’abili y o move in and ou o he work orce or caregiving reasons.30 Tis subs an ial body o research sugges s ha he women’s choices rame is oo narrow and underinclu-sive o ully explain he wage gap or unders and i s con ours and ha policy in erven-

ions could make a difference.31

Te argumen or inac ion also glosses over he differences be ween pursuing equalpay or equal work and closing he wage gap. Employers who are covered by equal paylaws are required o ensure equal pay or equal work and main ain workplaces ree opay discrimina ion; his legal obliga ion does no change simply because here may be o her ac ors affec ing he wage gap. Te obliga ion o comply wi h ederal equalpay laws is a dis inc , s and-alone requiremen ha is no dependen on or reduced by wha ever o her ac ors may be affec ing wages. Employers are charged wi h combatingpay discrimina ion in i s en ire y by closing all o he pay gap due o discrimina ion. Te

ac ha discrimina ion may be only one piece o he overall wage gap puzzle does nodiminish he need or robus en orcemen o equal pay laws or elimina e he need o

examine whe her exis ing pro ec ions are working or s ronger pro ec ions are needed. Ye opponen s o effor s o address he wage gap rarely ocus on effor s o ensure vigor-ous en orcemen o equal pay laws.

Suppor ers o policy in erven ion argue ha pay differences are connec ed o long-s anding s ereo ypes, persis en undervaluing o so-called women’s work, and he lacko up- o-da e workplace policies ha enable workers o ulll heir work and amilyobliga ions wi hou sacricing one or he o her.32 Tese advoca es poin o he need ors ronger legal pro ec ions o comba discrimina ion, along wi h more robus , compre-hensive work- amily policies o help promo e equal pay and close he wage gap.

Tese compe ing lines o argumen ofen are presen ed as calling or wo dis inc ly differenou comes ac ion or inac ion which has resul ed in vir ually no consensus or movemenon meaning ul equal pay legisla ion a he na ional level since he rs days o he Obamaadminis ra ion. Tis s alema e does a disservice o he millions o workers who believe haequal pay or equal work and air pay prac ices are essen ial workplace values and preven sac ion ha could improve he economic s anding o amilies across he coun ry.


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Congressional (in)action

A he congressional level, he conversa ion abou equal pay and he wage gap overrecen years has largely consis ed o a war o words. Te exis ing laws ha have provided he ron -line equal pay pro ec ions he Equal Pay Ac and i le VII have been on he books or more han 50 years. While hese laws have been ins rumen al in

helping o erode rigid pay barriers ha have un airly depressed women’s wages, heirull impac has been blun ed by he way cour s have in erpre ed he scope o he pro-ec ions available o employees.

In response o hese challenges, wo major bills he Fair Pay Ac , or FPA,33 and hePaycheck Fairness Ac , or PFA 34 have been pu orward o s reng hen exis ing equalpay pro ec ions. Among o her hings, he Fair Pay Ac , originally in roduced in 1994 by hen-Sen. om Harkin (D-IA) and Delega e Eleanor Holmes Nor on (D-DC), wasin ended o address he problem o overly narrow judicial in erpre a ions o wha con-s i u es “equal work” by broadening he legal s andard used o encompass “equivalen

work.”35

Te bill also proposed bols ering pro ec ions agains re alia ion or discussingpay a work and increasing he damages available or viola ions o include compensa oryand puni ive damages.

Te Paycheck Fairness Ac , which was rs in roduced in 1997 by hen-Sen. omDaschle (D-SD), ocused on o her key problems wi h exis ing law. Te PFA’s proposedmodica ions include igh ening he de enses available o employers, requiring hem odemons ra e a business-rela ed reason or a pay dispari y; requiring employers o repor

heir pay da a o en orcemen officials on a regular basis; prohibi ing re alia ion whenemployees discuss heir pay; and lifing he cap on damages available o pay discrimina-

ion vic ims.36

Te impor an improvemen s con ained in bo h bills would s reng henexis ing equal pay pro ec ions. Un or una ely, suppor and opposi ion or hese pro-posals have generally allen along par y lines or years, wi h Democra s suppor ing heproposals and Republicans opposing hem.

Te one impor an excep ion o he o herwise s ubborn inac ion o Congress over hepas ew years was he passage o he Lilly Ledbeter Fair Pay Ac , or Ledbeter Ac , in2009. Congress passed he Ledbeter Ac in response o a 2007 Supreme Cour rul-ing, Ledbeter v. Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company ,37 rom a sharply divided Cour

ha changed a decades-old rule regarding he ime period or ling pay discrimina ionclaims.38 Prior o Ledbeter , individuals alleging pay discrimina ion were required o le

heir claim wi hin 180 days o receiving he las discrimina ory paycheck because eachpaycheck in ec ed by discrimina ion cons i u ed a discrimina ory ac ha viola ed he law.In Ledbeter , however, he Cour ignored preceden and ruled ha a pay discrimina ionclaim mus be led wi hin 180 days o when he discrimina ory decision was made. Tischange would have preven ed many vic ims rom ling heir cases because hey lackedaccess o he in orma ion ha would have revealed discrimina ion was aking place.


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Te Ledbeter Ac was in ended o correc he Supreme Cour ’s decision and res ore heprior rule. Al hough ini ially caugh in a par isan s alema e in he Sena e,39 he ac even u-ally became a 2008 campaign issue: Ten-Sen. Barack Obama (D-IL) pushed or passage while Sen. John McCain (R-AZ) skipped he Sena e vo e and s a ed his opposi ion.40 Shor ly afer Presiden Obama’s inaugura ion in 2009, he Sena e was able o overcome

he libus er ha had held up he Ledbeter Ac , and i became he rs bill ha Presiden

Obama signed in o law.41 While he new law represen ed a cri ical s ep orward or vic ims o pay discrimina ion, i s purpose was o regain ground los in 2007 ra her han

ocus on o her changes ha could be aken o improve or s reng hen exis ing law.

In an effor o mu e cri icism or no suppor ing any equal pay proposals, severalRepublican lawmakers have also pu orward pay equi y bills over he pas wo years haare ar more limi ed in scope han he Fair Pay Ac or Paycheck Fairness Ac . In 2015,Sen. Deb Fischer (R-NE) in roduced he Workplace Advancemen Ac ,42 or WAA, andSen. Kelly Ayote (R-NH) in roduced he Gender Advancemen in Pay Ac , or GAP Ac ,43 as he wo main al erna ives.44

Te Workplace Advancemen Ac ocuses exclusively on providing pro ec ions againsre alia ion o employees who discuss pay in orma ion, bu he pro ec ions are limi edonly o hose who can show ha hey were ga hering he in orma ion or purposes ode ermining whe her heir employer is providing equal pay or equal work.45 So i isunclear whe her employees who are simply having a conversa ion abou salaries in he workplace would be covered by hese pro ec ions.

Te GAP Ac is a more ex ensive bill ha includes pro ec ions agains re alia ion ordiscussions abou pay, would limi he affirma ive de enses available o employers in pay

discrimina ion cases, and would increase penal ies or viola ions. As writen, however,he bill raises several concerns: Te re alia ion provision s a es ha i canno be waived bu permi s he pro ec ion o be superseded in specic circums ances, such as a sever-ance agreemen or a setlemen . Tis ype o excep ion could s ill lead o coercion oremployees eeling pressured o give up pro ec ions ha hey migh need. Fur hermore,

he increased penal ies may s ill no be sufficien o de er bad conduc . Impor an ly, he bill also lacks provisions o s reng hen civil righ s en orcemen or provide or grea er pay

ransparency and accoun abili y hrough disclosure o pay da a by employers.

Executive action

Te s andoff a he congressional level no wi hs anding, he Obama adminis ra ionhas aken several execu ive ac ions o address con ribu ors o he wage gap includingdiscrimina ion, undervalued jobs, and inadequa e work- amily policies. While con-s rained by congressional approval, he presiden does have powers delega ed by heU.S. Cons i u ion and s a u e o direc he work o he ederal governmen . Consis en wi h ha au hori y, he adminis ra ion has ocused on s reng hening policies covering


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ederal workers and ederal con rac ors, which receive axpayer dollars o per orm workor he ederal governmen . On he heels o signing he Ledbeter Ac , Presiden Obama

con inued o ackle pay discrimina ion by issuing execu ive orders covering ederal con-rac ors o require more pay ransparency, reduce pay secrecy, and prohibi re alia ion

when workers discuss heir pay.46

Presiden Obama has also ocused on improving wages in low-wage jobs, which aredispropor iona ely held by A rican American women and La inas. Te presiden pushedCongress o raise he ederal minimum wage;47 he also ook ac ion himsel , issuing anexecu ive order raising he minimum wage or workers on ederal con rac s o a leas$10.10 per hour.48 Meanwhile, he U.S. Depar men o Labor issued regula ions clos-ing a legal loophole ha had excluded home care workers mos ly women and ofen women o color rom minimum-wage pro ec ions or decades.49

Finally, he Obama adminis ra ion has worked o s reng hen work- amily policiesrom providing gran s o s a es o help hem explore po en ial paid leave policy solu ions

o public s a emen s by he presiden urging Congress o adop comprehensive propos-als or paid amily leave and paid sick days ha would enable more women o en eror s ay in he work orce wi hou puting heir amilies a risk.50 Presiden Obama alsoissued an execu ive order requiring ederal con rac ors o provide paid sick days o work-ers on ederal con rac s and direc ives o help expand ederal workers’ access o paid

amily leave and exible work- amily policies.51

A roadmap for change

Policymakers could move beyond he par isan rhe oric and s alema e o make prog-ress on bo h securing equal pay and closing he wage gap. A comprehensive approachrequires arge ed work on mul iple ron s: combating workplace discrimina ion; raising wages in he lowes -wage occupa ions, where women dispropor iona ely work; promo -ing work-li e policies such as paid leave ha enable workers o care or heir amilies andremain in he work orce; and expanding access o higher-paying jobs.

Tere are specic policy solu ions ha policymakers can pursue o s reng hen equal paypro ec ions, including:

• Promo ing grea er pay ransparency so ha employees have he in orma ion hey need

• Requiring pay disclosure by employers o promo e grea er accoun abili y

• Rening he unders anding o wha cons i u es equal work o beter reec he reali-ies o he workplace

• Ensuring pay decisions are business- or job-rela ed


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• arge ing en orcemen effor s a specic indus ries wi h higher pay dispari ies

• Under aking specic research on racial and e hnic pay dispari ies

• Providing workers wi h a righ o reques specic in orma ion abou heir pay or com-pany pay prac ices

• Requiring he pos ing o salary ranges

Fur hermore, pursuing broader economic securi y policies, such as increasing he mini-mum wage and adop ing paid sick days and paid amily leave, can level he playing eld

or workers wi h caregiving responsibili ies and give hem he bes chance o remain inhe work orce. Tese are commonsense, workable s ra egies ha can make a real differ-

ence in he lives o working amilies across he coun ry.

Combatting pay discrimination in the workplace

In addi ion o addressing ac ors ha con ribu e o he gender wage gap, policymakersshould priori ize he ollowing o s reng hen equal pay pro ec ions and en orcemen ools.

Transparency in pay practicesoo ofen, workers ace barriers when rying o uncover illegal pay prac ices or pay dis-

pari ies. Some work in workplaces where discussions abou pay are prohibi ed, makingi harder o iden i y problems when hey occur. Even wi hou such a policy, decisionsabou pay are ofen made behind closed doors wi h litle visibili y.

Adop ing specic pro ec ions ha prohibi pay secrecy rules and clearly s a e ha work-ers can discuss heir pay wi hou ear o reprisal would be an impor an s ep orward.Such pro ec ions would help s reng hen workplaces by providing grea er ransparencyin employer pay prac ices, reducing con usion and misin orma ion, and enabling work-ers make more in ormed decisions. Tese pro ec ions should be available o all work-ers wi h some accommoda ion or si ua ions in which he na ure o heir job requiresconden iali y, such as human resources pro essionals and no rea ed as nego iableperks o be circumven ed or reserved or a selec ew.

Accountabi lit y through disclosureMeasures o promo e accoun abili y in pay decision-making can help incen ivizeemployers o be more vigilan and review heir own pay prac ices, which would in urnadvance airer pay. Employers ofen are bes posi ioned o iden i y pay dispari ies wi hin

heir workplaces and ake correc ive ac ion quickly when needed o ensure uni ormi yand consis ency. Measures such as requiring employers o repor heir pay da a o


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en orcemen officials on a regular basis or pos ing s ar ing salaries or salary ranges in jobannouncemen s could help hold employers accoun able by es ablishing clear guidelinesand benchmarks or evalua ing heir pay processes.

Business- or job-related reasons for pay decisionsI is essen ial o ensure ha employers base pay decisions on sound, business-rela ed

reasons. Allowing employers o jus i y pay dispari ies wi hou having o provide a job-rela ed ra ionale means ha employers can erec obs acles o air pay ha are unneces-sary or unrela ed o a par icular job or he employer’s business. While employers need

he discre ion o make hiring and pay decisions in accordance wi h heir own prac ices,hey also should ake s eps o ensure heir pay decisions are no based on arbi rary ac-ors unrela ed o a job or business.

For example, a worker’s prior salary may have no hing o do wi h he qualica ionsneeded or a par icular job. I prior salary is used o jus i y paying a male applican more

han a emale applican , long-s anding pay dispari ies can perpe ually relega e women o

lower salaries. Tere are specic s eps policymakers can ake o address hese problems,such as enac ing provisions ha would igh en exis ing law by requiring employers ohave a business- or job-rela ed reason or a pay dispari y and limi ing he use o priorsalary when making an employmen decision. Limi ing he use o such in orma ion andclosing loopholes crea ed by overbroad in erpre a ions o he permissible jus ica ions

or pay differences allowed under exis ing law could help reduce arbi rary pay differ-ences unrela ed o he job.

Protection against retaliation and adverse employment actions Workers should no be penalized or discussing or inquiring abou heir pay. Al hough

re alia ion is generally prohibi ed under curren laws, such as i le VII, and in someins ances, workplace rules ha prohibi pay discussions may viola e exis ing laws suchas he Na ional Labor Rela ions Ac , workplace cul ure ofen discourages workers romraising ques ions abou heir pay and os ers a cul ure o secrecy and reprisals. Given hisenvironmen , policymakers should ake ac ion o clari y and s reng hen exis ing re alia-

ion pro ec ions o s a e clearly ha such pro ec ions ex end o he varie y o si ua ionsin which pay may be discussed in he workplace and mus be comprehensive and nosubjec o waiver. Moreover, policymakers should es ablish clear, robus penal ies wi hen orcemen mechanisms o make his pro ec ion a orce ul, effec ive de erren .

Recognition of the barriers faced by diverse groups of workersPay dispari ies dispropor iona ely affec several communi ies wi h unique barriers. Forexample, racial and e hnic pay differences, which affec people o color regardless ogender, are ofen larger han he pay differences based on gender, ye racial/e hnic wagegaps ofen receive less scru iny and analysis. Research has also revealed pay dispari ies

aced by mo hers, people wi h disabili ies, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and ransgender, orLGB , workers.52


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Tus, any equal pay re orm should include provisions o ackle hese ypes o paydispari ies head on, regardless o race, e hnici y, economic s anding, disabili y, sexualorien a ion or gender iden i y, or o her ac ors. Policymakers should ake s eps suchas requiring more disaggrega ed da a analysis o iden i y popula ions wi h he largespay dispari ies wi hin specic occupa ions or indus ries, under aking grea er educa-

ion and raining o comba persis en s ereo ypes ha may affec pay decisions, and

arge ing en orcemen effor s in cer ain occupa ions and indus ries where dispari iesare mos pronounced.

Equal treatment of workers who do equal work in different settings or jobsTe in en o exis ing equal pay pro ec ions is o ensure ha all workers receive equalpay or equal work. In prac ice, he principle o equal pay or equal work should nomean ha he jobs in ques ion mus have exac ly he same name or ake place in exac ly

he same loca ion. Jobs may be equal in erms o he work and skills required bu havedifferen i les or labels; employees working or he same employer could be doing hesame work bu in differen loca ions.

Judges should no in erpre he law so narrowly ha workers who are per ormingequal work are none heless rea ed differen ly because o labels or o her dis inc ions

ha migh no make sense in oday’s echnologically sophis ica ed and advanced workplaces. Policymakers, meanwhile, should ocus on ensuring ha similarly si u-a ed employees are rea ed equally by heir employers. Tis could mean adop ingprovisions ha make clear ha he concep o equal work mus be measured holis i-cally o encompass workers who per orm he same asks bu under differen job i lesor in differen loca ions.

Investment in robust enforcement effortsS reng hening en orcemen is cri ical o making he law’s promise o equali y areali y or all workers. Te key agencies charged wi h en orcemen o exis ing equalpay pro ec ions a he ederal level such as he Equal Employmen Oppor uni yCommission, or EEOC, and U.S. Depar men o Labor ofen have limi ed resources

o inves iga e discrimina ion claims, under ake arge ed en orcemen effor s, andensure compliance. For example, since scal year 2011, he EEOC has seen i s s aff-ing levels uc ua e due o a hiring reeze, seques ra ion, and he ederal governmenshu down. Al hough i is now able o under ake new hiring, i s s affing is s ill below2011 levels.53 Fur hermore, o her agencies also may be able o play an impor an roleand bring added resources o ederal en orcemen effor s. For example, policymak-ers could explore ways ha he Securi ies and Exchange Commission can promo egrea er ransparency o employer pay prac ices. Increased resources alloca ed oen orcemen ac ivi ies combined wi h more comprehensive repor ing o en orcemenac ions and ou comes could help improve employer prac ices, de er bad conduc , androo ou problems when hey occur.


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Fur hermore, grea er resources could be used o reinvigora e effor s o ackle long-s anding, persis en barriers o women’s advancemen in senior- and en ry-level jobsofen re erred o as he glass ceiling and he s icky oor. Increasing he number o

arge ed compliance reviews o ederal con rac ors by he U.S. Depar men o Labor’sOffice o Federal Con rac Compliance Programs or example, o ocus specicallyra es o promo ion in upper-level managemen jobs or movemen rom en ry- o mid-

level jobs could help isola e specic problems and break down occupa ional barriersha have limi ed oppor uni ies or women.

Empowering workersPolicies should seek o empower workers so ha hey are beter posi ioned o evalua e

heir op ions and make decisions or hemselves. Es ablishing a righ - o-reques policyha enables workers o reques cer ain in orma ion abou a job when an offer is made

such as he salary range or a summary o he employer’s pay policies, including measuresused o de ermine salary increases and expec ed promo ional oppor uni ies couldhelp ensure ha workers are beter in ormed abou how pay decisions are made and

u ure pay oppor uni ies.

Promoting state innovation and voluntary effortsPursuing progress on equal pay should include suppor or bo h manda ory and volun ary effor s. Everybody rom employers and policymakers o even employees

hemselves can and should play a role in crea ing a level playing eld or all and ensur-ing ha workers are paid airly. Tere are employers and local communi ies ha have

aken concre e s eps o improve heir pay prac ices and elimina e un air pay dispari-ies. Success ul employers such as Sales orce and Te Gap have under aken effor s o

evalua e he salaries wi hin heir work orces and make adjus men s, where necessary, o

ensure employees are paid airly.54

Suppor ing such effor s or example, by providinggran s or research, suppor ing s a e explora ion o po en ial innova ive ini ia ives, orlifing up and celebra ing employer bes prac ices can help ex end he reach o goodprac ices and encourage change.

Closing the gender wage gap

While an i-discrimina ion measures are an impor an piece o he earnings puzzle, poli-cymakers mus go ar her o address he li any o ac ors ueling he gender wage gap.Te ac s ha women dispropor iona ely work in jobs ha pay lower wages, work ewerhours han men, and assume many o he caregiving responsibili ies in heir amiliesare among he ac ors ha con ribu e o women’s lower earnings.55 Ac ion s eps couldinclude he ollowing.


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Raising the minimum wage Women dispropor iona ely work in low-wage jobs and make up almos wo- hirds ominimum-wage workers.56 A he same ime, women are increasingly are aking ongrea er responsibili y o provide economic suppor o heir amilies. A rican American women and La inas, in par icular, are more likely o be sole breadwinners in heir ami-lies, as well as minimum-wage workers.57

Tus, nding ways o improve he wages o low-wage workers could have an enormousimpac on low-income women and heir amilies. Raising he ederal minimum wage

o a leas $10.10 per hour or higher would be an impor an s ep orward. Addi ionally,raising he minimum wage o ipped workers workers who receive ips as par o heir wages and are dispropor iona ely women o color is also cri ical. Te curren mini-mum wage or ipped workers s ands a $2.13 per hour, which is wholly inadequa e or workers rying o make ends mee .58

Expanding work-family policies

Women ofen work ewer hours han men, in par because hey spend more ime ou ohe work orce or caregiving reasons. Te ac ha women are more likely o ake on he

caregiving responsibili ies wi hin heir amilies can make hem arge s or un air rea -men and limi heir job oppor uni ies. Policies ha improve women’s abili y o movein and ou o he work orce, provide care o heir amilies when needed, and re ain heir jobs would signican ly boos heir earnings.

For example, workplace policies ha enable workers o ake ime off o care or heiramilies wi hou sacricing heir incomes are crucial. Policymakers should es ablish a

na ional program o provide paid amily and medical leave,59 requiring employers o pro-

vide a minimum number o paid sick days per year, and limi he abili y o employers oengage in unpredic able scheduling prac ices. Such policies would allow more workerso move in and ou o he work orce o care or heir amilies, as well as promo e grea er

re en ion o alen ed employees.

Improving women’s access to higher-paying occupations Women his orically have been concen ra ed in jobs ha have high numbers o emale workers and persis en ly low wages. One s ra egy or improving women’s wages is oexpand oppor uni ies or women in higher-paying, radi ionally male-domina ed occu-pa ions such as science and echnical jobs.

arge ed inves men s o expand access o raining can help women acquire and buildnew skills ha beter posi ion hem or higher-paying oppor uni ies and offer grea ermobili y. Addi ionally, under aking arge ed effor s o improve he overall quali y olow-wage jobs and o work wi h employers o crea e pa hways or workers o move upin o mid-level and supervisory posi ions is essen ial. oo many women remain s uck inlow-wage jobs wi h no oppor uni y or advancemen .


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Conclusion

Americans should expec our policymakers o ake concre e s eps o uphold he na ion’scommi men o equali y and airness. Te concep o equal pay or equal work mus be more han jus words on a page; i requires serious en orcemen o ensure ha hepromise o he law is made a reali y or all. Women are increasingly breadwinners whose

amilies rely on heir income o make ends mee . Promo ing equal pay and closing he wage gap are bo h cri ical priori ies; addressing hem will boos women’s ull par icipa-

ion in he work orce and s reng hen working amilies.

Comprehensive policy solu ions o promo e grea er airness in he workplace, elimina ediscrimina ory pay prac ices, s reng hen equal pay pro ec ions, and reduce pay dispari-

ies are essen ial o ensure ha all workers are paid airly. Re orms ha ake in o accounhe many differen ac ors ha con ribu e o he wage gap as well as enable workers o

remain in he work orce and earn higher wages would promo e he economic s abili yo all working amilies. Ensuring equal pay or equal work and closing he wage gap are

bo h impor an priori ies ha call or real ac ion no jus rhe oric.

Jocelyn Frye is a Senior Fellow a he Cen er for American Progress, where her work focuses on awide range of women’s issues, including work-family balance, pay equi y, and women’s leadership.


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Endnotes

1 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “CheckersFranchise Will Pay $100,000 to Settle EEOC Pay Discrimi-nation Lawsuit,” Press release, April 2, 2014, available athttp://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/4-2-14.cfm?renderforprint=1 .

2 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “NFIRoadrail and NFI Industries to Pay $45,000 to Settle EEOCPay Discrimination Suit,” Press release, March 14, 2016, avail-able at http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/3-14-16a.cfm?renderforprint=1 .

3 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “ForrestCity Grocery Company To Pay $125,000 To Settle EEOC SexDiscrimination Suit,” Press release, August 24, 2011, availableat http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-24-11.cfm. See also Amanda McMillan, “Pay Discrimination AgainstWomen,” Center for American Progress, April 7, 2014,available at http://www.c-span.org/video/?318718-1/pay-discrimination-women .

4 Carmen DeNavas-Walt and Bernadette D. Proctor, “Incomeand Poverty in the United States: 2014” (Washington:Bureau of the Census, 2015), Figure 2, available at https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publica-tions/2015/demo/p60-252.pdf.

5 Unpublished calculations based on a review of median

earnings of full-time workers broken down by race, gender,and ethnicity. Bureau of the Census, “Table PINC-01. Se-lected Characteristics of People 15 Years and Over, by TotalMoney Income in 2014, Work Experience in 2014, Race, His-panic Origin, and Sex,” available at https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/perinc/pinc01_000.htm (lastaccessed March 2016); National Women’s Law Center, “WageGap for African American Women—State Rankings” (2015),available at http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-African-American-Women.pdf; National Women’s Law Center, “Wage Gap for Native Ameri-can Women—State Rankings” (2015), available at http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdf ; National Women’s Law Center,“Wage Gap for Latinas—State Rankings” (2015), availableat http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-Latinas.pdf.

6 Bureau of the Census, “Table PINC-01. Selected Characteris-tics of People 15 Years and Over, by Total Money Income in

2014, Work Experience in 2014, Race, Hispanic Origin, andSex”; National Women’s Law Center, “Equal Pay for AsianAmerican Women” (2016), available at http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdf .

7 Equal Pay Act of 1963, 29 U.S.C. §206(d).

8 Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. §2000e, et.seq.

9 Equal Act of 1963, 29 U.S.C. §206(d) (1).

10 Ibid.

11 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “EEOC Title VII Wage Charges FY 2009 through FY 2013” (2014),unpublished tables provided on l e with author.

12 Ibid.

13 Most laws specify who is covered by a particular law andmust comply with its provisions. For example, Title VII statesthat employers with 15 or more employees are subjec t tothe law’s requirements. See Title VII , 42 U.S.C. §2000e(b).

14 Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn, “The Gender PayGap: Have Women Gone as Far as They Can?”, Academy ofManagement Perspectives 21 (1) (2007): 7–23, Table 1.

15 51 percent of women and 47 percent of men surveyedstated that discussions about pay were discouraged orprohibited at their workplaces. Institute for Women’s PolicyResearch, “Pay Secrecy and Wage Disc rimination” (2014),available at http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1 .

16 Deborah Thompson Eisenberg, “Stopped at the StartingGate: The Overuse of Summary Judgment in Equal PayCases,”New York Law School Law Review 57 (4) (2013): 815.

17 29 U.S.C. §206(d)(1).

18 See, for example, Equal Employment Opportunity Commis-sion v. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey , (2nd Cir.2014), available at http://caselaw.ndlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1679235.html .

19 Ibid. See also National Women’s Law Center, “Closing the‘Factor Other Than Sex’ Loophole in the Equal Pay Act”(2011), available at http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/les/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdf .

20 See, for example, Thomson Reuters Foundation and TheRockefeller Foundation, “The 5 key issues facing women inthe G20,” available at http://www.womenatworkpoll.com/ (last accessed April 2016); AFL-CIO, “Our Voices: A Snapshot

of Working Women” (2016), available at http://www.acio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/le/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdf .

21 This poll surveyed 9,500 women in the 19 member coun-tries in the G-20. Thomson Reu ters Foundation and TheRockefeller Foundation, “The 5 key issues facing women inthe G20.”

22 Blau and Kahn, “The Gender Pay Gap: Have Women Gone asFar as They Can?”

23 Ibid.; Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn, “The GenderWage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations.” DiscussionPaper 9656 (Institute for the Study of Labor, 2016), availableat http://ftp.iza.org/dp9656.pdf; Claudia Go ldin, “A GrandGender Convergence: I ts Last Chapter,” American EconomicReview 104 (4) (2014): 1091–1119, available at http://scholar.harvard.edu/les/goldin/les/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863 .


25 Andrew Chamberlain, “Demystifying the Gender PayGap” (Mill Valley, CA: Glassdoo r, 2016), available athttps://research-content.glassdoor.com/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/03/Glassdoor-Gender-Pay-Gap-Study.pdf.

26 Goldin, “A Grand Gender Convergence.”

27 Cynthia Costello and Ariane Hegewisch, “The Gender WageGap and Public Policy” (Washington: Institute for Women’sPolicy Research, 2016).

28 Mark J. Perry, “New BLS report on women’s earnings: Mostof the 17.9% gender pay gap in 2013 is explained by age,marriage, hours worked,” American Enterprise Institute,December 9, 2014, available at http://www.aei.org/publica-tion/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/ ; JuneO’Neill, “Race and gender wage gaps: Discrimination still toblame?”, American Enterprise I nstitute, April 9, 2013, avail-able at http://www.aei.org/publication/race-and-gender-wage-gaps-discrimination-still-to-blame/ .


30 Sarah Jane Glynn and Jane Farrell, “Family Matters: Caregiv-ing in America” (Washington: Center for American Progress,2014), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Caregiving-brief.pdf .

http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/4-2-14.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/4-2-14.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/3-14-16a.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/3-14-16a.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-24-11.cfmhttp://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-24-11.cfmhttp://www.c-span.org/video/?318718-1/pay-discrimination-womenhttp://www.c-span.org/video/?318718-1/pay-discrimination-womenhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/perinc/pinc01_000.htmhttps://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/perinc/pinc01_000.htmhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-African-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-African-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-Latinas.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-Latinas.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1679235.htmlhttp://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1679235.htmlhttp://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://www.womenatworkpoll.com/http://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://ftp.iza.org/dp9656.pdfhttp://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863https://research-content.glassdoor.com/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/03/Glassdoor-Gender-Pay-Gap-Study.pdfhttps://research-content.glassdoor.com/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/03/Glassdoor-Gender-Pay-Gap-Study.pdfhttp://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/http://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/http://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/http://www.aei.org/publication/race-and-gender-wage-gaps-discrimination-still-to-blame/http://www.aei.org/publication/race-and-gender-wage-gaps-discrimination-still-to-blame/https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Caregiving-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Caregiving-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Caregiving-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Caregiving-brief.pdfhttp://www.aei.org/publication/race-and-gender-wage-gaps-discrimination-still-to-blame/http://www.aei.org/publication/race-and-gender-wage-gaps-discrimination-still-to-blame/http://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/http://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/http://www.aei.org/publication/new-bls-report-womens-earnings-17-9-gender-pay-gap-2013-explained-age-marriage-hours-worked/https://research-content.glassdoor.com/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/03/Glassdoor-Gender-Pay-Gap-Study.pdfhttps://research-content.glassdoor.com/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/03/Glassdoor-Gender-Pay-Gap-Study.pdfhttp://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_aeapress_2014_1.pdf?m=1401372863http://ftp.iza.org/dp9656.pdfhttp://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://www.aflcio.org/content/download/174712/4156596/version/3/file/1662_WWSurvelReport2_webready.pdfhttp://www.womenatworkpoll.com/http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/4.11.11_factor_other_than_sex_fact_sheet_update.pdfhttp://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1679235.htmlhttp://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-2nd-circuit/1679235.htmlhttp://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/pay-secrecy-and-wage-discrimination-1http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/NEW_Equal-Pay-for-Asian-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-Latinas.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-Latinas.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Native-American-Women-Wage-Gap-2015.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-African-American-Women.pdfhttp://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/State-by-State-Wage-Gap-African-American-Women.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/perinc/pinc01_000.htmhttps://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032015/perinc/pinc01_000.htmhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttps://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/p60-252.pdfhttp://www.c-span.org/video/?318718-1/pay-discrimination-womenhttp://www.c-span.org/video/?318718-1/pay-discrimination-womenhttp://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-24-11.cfmhttp://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/8-24-11.cfmhttp://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/3-14-16a.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/3-14-16a.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/4-2-14.cfm?renderforprint=1http://www1.eeoc.gov//eeoc/newsroom/release/4-2-14.cfm?renderforprint=1


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31 Blau and Kahn, “The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, andExplanations.”

32 Sarah Jane Glynn, “Explaining the Gender Wage Gap”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014), availableat https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/up-loads/2014/05/WageGapBrief1.pdf .

33 Fair Pay Act of 2015, H.R. 1787, 114 Cong. 1 sess. (Govern-ment Printing Office, 2015), available at https://www.congress.gov/114/bills/hr1787/BILLS-114hr1787ih.pdf . TheFair Pay Act was rst introduced in 1994.

34 Paycheck Fairness Act , S. 862, 114 Cong. 1 sess. (GovernmentPrinting Office, 2015), available at https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-114s862is/pdf/BILLS-114s862is.pdf . ThePaycheck Fairness Act was rst introduced in 1997.

35 Fair Pay Act of 2015, H.R. 1787, §3(a).

36 Paycheck Fairness Act , S. 862.

37 Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company , 550 U.S. 618(2007).

38 Lilly M. Ledbetter v. The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Inc.,550 U.S. 618, 654–55 (2007) (Ginsburg, J., dissenting), avail-able at https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/pdf/05-1074P.ZD .

39 Lori Montgomery, “Senate Republicans Block Pay DisparityMeasure,” The Washington Post , April 24, 2008, availableat http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ar-ticle/2008/04/23/AR2008042301553_pf.html .

40 Carl Hulse, “Republican Senators Block Pay DiscriminationMeasure,” The New York Times, April 24, 2008, available athttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/24/washington/24cong.html?_r=0 .

41 Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, Public Law 111-2, 123Stat. 5, 111th Cong., 1st sess. (January 29, 2009), availableat https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-111publ2/pdf/PLAW-111publ2.pdf .

42 Workplace Advancement Act , S. 2200, 114 Cong. 1 sess.(Government Printing Office, 2015), available at https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-114s2200pcs/pdf/BILLS-114s2200pcs.pdf .

43 Gender Advancement in Pay Act , S. 2070, 114 Cong. 1 sess.(Government Printing Office, 2015), available at https://www.congress.gov/114/bills/s2070/BILLS-114s2070is.pdf .

44 In addition to the bills introduced by Sen. Fischer and Sen.Ayotte, Sen. Dean Heller (R-NV) also introduced a bill thathas received less attention: End Pay Discrimination ThroughInformation Act , S. 83, 114 Cong. 1 sess. (Government Print-ing Office, 2015).

45 Workplace Advancement Act , S. 2200, §2.

46 The White House, “Executive Order – Non-Retaliation forDisclosure of Compensation Information,” Press release,April 8, 2014, available athttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/04/08/executive-order-non-retaliation-disclosure-compensation-information .

47 Julie Vogtman and Katherine Gallagher Robbins, “Fair Payfor Women Requires a Fair Minimum Wage” (Washington:National Women’s Law Center, 2015), available at http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/fair_pay_for_wom-en_requires_a_fair_minimum_wage_may_2015.pdf .

48 The White House, “Executive Order – Minimum Wage for

Contractors,” Press release, February 12, 2014, available athttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/02/12/executive-order-minimum-wage-contractors.

49 U.S. Department of Labor, “Application of the Fair LaborStandards Act to Domestic Service,” October 1, 2013, avail-able at http://webapps.dol.gov/FederalRegister/HtmlDis-play.aspx?DocId=27104&AgencyId=14&DocumentType=2.

50 U.S. Department of Labor, “Department awards $1.55m tostudy paid family, medical leave implementation,” Press re-lease, September 29, 2015, available at http://www.dol.gov/opa/media/press/wb/WB20151927.htm ; The White House,“Remarks by the President in State of the Union Address,”Press release, January 20, 2015, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/01/20/remarks-president-state-union-address-january-20-2015 .

51 The White House, “Executive Order – Establishing Paid SickLeave for Federal Contractors,” Press release, September 7,2015, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/09/08/executive-order-establishing-paid-sick-

leave-federal-contractors.

52 Michelle Yin, Dahlia Shaewitz, and Mahlet Megra, “AnUneven Playing Field: The Lack of Equal Pay for Peoplewith Disabilities” (Washington: American Institutes forResearch, 2014), available at http://www.air.org/sites/default/les/Lack%20of%20Equal%20Pay%20for%20People%20with%20Disabilities_Dec%2014.pdf ; AmericanAssociation of University Women, “The Simple Truth Aboutthe Gender Pay Gap” (2016), available at http://www.aauw.org/les/2016/02/SimpleTruth_Spring2016.pdf; CrosbyBurns, “The Gay and Transgender Wage Gap: Many WorkersReceive Less Pay Due to Sexual Orientation and GenderIdentity Discrimination,” Center for American Progress, April16, 2012, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/lgbt/news/2012/04/16/11494/the-gay-and-transgen-der-wage-gap/ .

53 U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, FiscalYear 2013 Congressional Budget Justication (2012), available

at https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/plan/2013budget.cfm ; U.S.Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Fiscal Year2017 Congressional Budget Justication (2016), available athttps://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/plan/2017budget.cfm.

54 Cindy Robbins, “Equality at Salesforce: The Equal Pay As-sessment Update,” March 8, 2016, available at https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2016/03/equality-at-salesforce-equal-pay.html ; Samantha Masunaga, “Gap says audits show itsworkers get equal pay for the same work,” Los Angeles Times,November 27, 2015, available at http://www.latimes.com/business/la--gap-fair-pay-20151127-story.html.

55 Blau and Kahn, “The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, andExplanations.”

56 Vogtman and Gallagher Robbins, “Fair Pay for WomenRequires a Fair Minimum Wage.”

57 Julie Vogtman, Katherine Gallagher Robbins, and StephanieRomán, “Fair Pay for Latinas Requires a Fair MinimumWage” (Washington: National Council of La Raza andNational Women’s Law Center, 2015), available at http://nulwb.iamempowered.com/sites/nulwb.iamempowered.com/les/Fair%20Pay%20for%20Latinas%20Requires%20a%20Fair%20Minimum%20Wage.pdf ; Julie Vogtman,Katherine Gallagher Robbins, and Suzanne Bergeron, “FairPay for African American Requires a Fair Minimum Wage”(Washington: National Urban League and National Women’sLaw Center, 2015), available at http://nwlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/fair_pay_for_african_american_women_requires_a_fair_minimum_wage.pdf .

58 Fair Labor Standards Act , 29 U.S.C. §203(m).

59 Sarah Jane Glynn, “Administering Paid Family and MedicalLeave: Learning from International and Domestic Examples”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2015), avail-able at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2015/11/19/125769/administering-paid-family-and-medical-leave/.
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