nf - issue 3 - 2013 - new food magazine · decor (e.g. seasonal, personalised, branded,...

www.newfoodmagazine.com Issue 3 · 2013

PesticidebiomonitoringCarl K. Winter, Department of

Food Science and Technology,University of California, Davis

Ingredientfunctionality

Eugenio Bortone, Senior Scientist,Extrusion Innovation Team,

Frito-Lay North America

PlantmetabolomicsRobert D. Hall, Managing Director,Centre for Biosystems Genomics,Group Leader Metabolic Regulation,Plant Research International

Screening andspray drying of enzymesand probioticsMaarten Schutyser & Jimmy Perdana, Wageningen UR and Martijn Fox, NIZO food research

STEP INTO THE MINDSOF YOUR CUSTOMERS

Get a handle on what your customers truly want. Barry Callebaut has dug deep into their minds andpresents the solutions that will get your customers excited. Find out how a new generation of cocoa products,

chocolate, nuts, fillings, decorations, etc. will fulfill the expectations of your customers. Contact our local sales contacts at www.barry-callebaut.com

IntroductionIn an ever-changing market, consumer demand evolves con tinuously.Through its comprehensive range of innovative products, BarryCallebaut continues to show that its offerings go way beyond justchocolate. The world’s largest chocolate manufacturer has developedseveral insights into what it believes to be the main market trends,allowing its customers to explore opportunities for new ideas, newmarkets and innovative products.

Distinct features of the new marketplaceOne of the market insights defined by Barry Callebaut is the increaseddemand for personalisation. Today’s consumers want to be treated asindividuals, and expect goods to be as distinct and unique as they are. This personal identification can take many forms: high qualityingredients, a focus on craftsmanship, limited editions and exclusiveproducts. Textures, colours and flavours need to convey the experienceof distinctiveness and with it, uniqueness.

In parallel, consumers increasingly seek affordable indulgence; they aresearching for ways to maximise their limited personal time and budgetresources. They look for high-quality yet reasonably priced products.

Barry Callebaut’s Decorations range meets both expectations.

High quality decoration techniques adding a unique touch to chocolateIn response to the growing importance of personalization, BarryCallebaut seeks to create a very personal engagement through custom -ised products, allowing consumers to see their needs fulfilled in theproducts they buy.

One of those engagements is the ‘Decoration Inspiration Lab’, a uniquecentre for developing new products and for testing in Zundert in theNetherlands, opened in February this year. The Lab offers customers atrendy, specialised environ ment to create endless variations of conceptswith its decorations and products.

In the Decoration Lab, Jurgen Koens, Technical Advisor of Barry Callebaut,offers customers professional explanations regarding the possibilitiesof Barry Callebaut’s decoration range, and encourages them to testdifferent products in order to discover their personalisation potential.The Decoration Inspiration Lab presents the wide decoration range inall shapes, colours, textures, designs, applications and tastes, allowingcustomers to identify their ideal tailored decoration. Marzipan decora -tions are just one example of how to personalise a finished product:small, fine and crunchy plates of sugar and almond powder, adding anelement of fun to any food application. They can be printed with anydecor (e.g. seasonal, personalised, branded, storytelling) and can be cutinto any desired shape.

Less is more – how Mini is exactly what today’s customers seekBarry Callebaut’s Decorations range is undoubtedly a response to theconsumer’s individual demands. However, there is more: severalproducts represent smart and creative solutions offering affordable, butstill convenient luxury. Barry Callebaut’s Mignature™ range of minidecorations and inclusions such as mini chocolate vermicelli, chocolatepearls, mini chocolate blossoms and mini Crispearls® – to name but afew – offer manu facturers an endless array of options for adding a touchof individuality, luxury and guilt-free indulgence to their products.Catching the eye of today’s consumer is, in other words, much less aboutbeing big and boisterous and much more about being small, elegant,dainty, personal, and, of course, delicious!

For more information, please visit

www.barry-callebaut.com

Personalised chocolatethrough exquisite decorationsHow Barry Callebaut is helping customers adapt to the new marketplace

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newfoodwww.newfoodmagazine.com 3 Volume 16 | Issue 3 | 2013

No responsibility can be accepted by Russell Publishing Limited, the editor, staff or any contributors for action taken as a result of the information and other materials contained in our

publications. Readers should take specific advice when dealing with specific situations. In addition, the views expressed in our publications by any contributor are not necessarily those

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responsibility arising from any reliance placed on such materials by any reader, or by anyone who may be informed of any of its contents. Published June 2013

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INTRODUCTION

As the effects of the horsemeat scandal in the UK

labours on with the news that Tesco faces falling sales

in nine of its 11 global markets, which is at least in part

due to the food fraud issue, it may take up to a year to

discover the long-term effects on the food industry.

The independent review of the UK’s food system will be

led by Chris Elliott from Queen’s Institute for Global

Food Security and will be a wide-ranging review of

the supply chain. As we continue to explore the effects

of the food fraud scandal in different areas of the food

manufacturing industry in New Food, an article within

our Pesticides & Contaminants Supplement, which

starts on page 41, from Markus Lipp and Jeffrey Moore

of the US Pharmacopeial Convention looks at food

fraud and contamination and how new information

from the USP’s Food Fraud database has revealed

which foods are vulnerable to food fraud.

Our other focus in this issue is metabolomics, with

articles from Robert D. Hall from Plant Research

International, which is part of Wageningen UR, on plant

metabolomics and Amparo Gamero Lluna and

Catrienus de Jong from NIZO food research B.V., who

look at novel yeasts, novel flavours. Metabolomics is at

the heart of all food manufacturing, for it covers

nutritional value, taste, fragrance, colour, disease

resistance, appearance and spoilage, all factors which

affect consumers purchase choices. Please turn to page

21 to read more in our supplement.

We also begin our series on extrusion tech -

nologies, contributed by Eugenio Bortone from

Frito-Lay (PepsiCo), who will be writing a series of

articles that covers the extrusion process and it’s

applications in the food industry. In this issue,

Eugenio begins with a closer look at ingredient func -

tion ality and how extrusion can be affected and in

turn affects ingredient functionality. His article starts

on page 29.

Dr. John HolahHead, Food HygieneDepartment, Campden BRI

Huub LelieveldExecutive Committee, Global HarmonisationInitiative

Dr. Bryan HanleyDirector Scientific Discovery,Wm. Wrigley Jr

Yasmine MotarjemiFood Safety Advisor

Huug de VriesDirector, IATE

Brian McKennaEmeritus Professor of Food Science, UCD andPresident, EFFoST

Karina BadalyanYerevan State University

Kata GalicFood Technology andBiotechnology, University of Zagreb

Supriya VarmaScientist, Frito-Lay (PepsiCo)

François BourdichonFood Safety Microbiologist, NestléResearch Center

Dirk NikoleiskiProduction Protection &Hygienic Design KFE, Kraft Foods R&D

The New Food Editorial Board

FounderIan Russell

Managing DirectorVivien Cotterill-Lee

EditorHelen Bahia

Senior Publications AssistantKaren Hutchinson

Group Sales DirectorTim Dean

Publications ManagerClaire Singleton

Production Manager Brian Cloke

Front Cover ArtworkSteve Crisp

New Food is published bi-monthly (six times per annum) and is available bysubscription at £90.00 for a year whichincludes on-line membership access. Back issue copies can be requested at £15.00 per copy.

Subscription enquiries [email protected] or Telephone +44 (0) 1959 563311

New Food is published by: Russell Publishing Ltd, Court Lodge, Hogtrough Hill, Brasted, Kent, TN16 1NU, UKTelephone: +44 (0) 1959 563311 Fax: +44 (0) 1959 563123Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1461 - 4642Copyright rests with the publishers.All rights reserved©2013 Russell Publishing LimitedRegistered Office as above.Russell Publishing Ltd, is registered as a Limited Company in England, Number 2709148 VAT Number GB 577 8978 47

New Food can guarantee its circulationis 13,594 (for the six issues distributedbetween 1 July 2011 to 30 June 2012).The publication is ABC audited. This is an independent verification that our circulation is genuine.

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Food issues

Supported by

03 INTRODUCTIONFood issuesHelen Bahia, Editor

07 EVENTS

08 NEWSBITES

12 SPRAY DRYINGScreening platform for optimal spray drying of enzymesand probioticsMaarten Schutyser & Jimmy Perdana, Food ProcessEngineering Group, Wageningen UR and Martijn Fox, NIZO Food Research

16 LOW–WATER ACTIVITY FOODSPotential vehicles of foodborne pathogensEvangelia Komitopoulou, SGS and Larry Beuchat, Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia

29 EXTRUSIONIngredient functionality Eugenio Bortone, Senior Scientist, Extrusion InnovationTeam, Frito-Lay North America

34 PLASMACold atmospheric plasma – A newtool for food manufacturersDanny Bayliss, New Technology Specialist, Department ofFood Manufacturing Technologies, Campden BRI

37 SHOW PREVIEWIFT 2013

51 CHEESE PROCESSINGReducing fat and sodium in cheeseDonald J. McMahon, Western Dairy Center, Utah State University

57 EHEDG: CONVEYOR BELTSConveyor belts in the food manufacturingenvironment Roger Scheffler, EHEDG Member

61 SUSTAINABILITYBarilla activities in sustainable agricultureLuca Ruini, Health, Safety, Environment and EnergyDirector and BCFN Expert and Cesare Ronchi, SeniorPurchasing Manager, Responsible for SustainableAgriculture Project, Barilla G. e. R. Fratelli S.p.A.

64 IN A NUTSHELLBrian Plattner, Process Engineering Manager, Wenger Manufacturing Inc.


Contents

21 METABOLOMICS SUPPLEMENTRobert D. Hall, Plant Research International, looks at plantmetabolomics and new opportunities for quality analyses,while Amparo Gamero Lluna and Catrienus de Jong fromNIZO food research B.V. look at novel yeasts and novel flavours

41 PESTICIDES & CONTAMINANTSSUPPLEMENT

Featuring articles from Carl K. Winter, University of California,Davis who looks at pesticide biomonitoring for food safetyrisk analysis and Markus Lipp & Jeffrey Moore at the USPharmacopeial Convention, who look into food fraud andhow it affects the global food supply


ICFSN 2013: InternationalConference on FoodScience and NutritionDate: 8 – 9 July 2013Location: London, UK

w: www.waset.org/conferences/

2013/london/icfsn/index.php

2013 Annual Trend and Development ofNutraceuticals & FunctionalFood Short CourseDate: 28 – 30 July 2013Location: Texas, USA

e: [email protected]

w: www.foodprotein.tamu.edu/

separations/scfunctiona.php

IAFP 2013Date: 28 – 30 July 2013Location: Charlotte, NC, USA


w: www.foodprotein.org

ICoMSTDate: 18 – 23 August 2013Location: Izmir, Turkey


w: www.icomst2013.org

AOAC Annual Meeting & ExpositionDate: 23 – 25 August 2013Location: Chicago, Illinois, USA


w: www.aoac.org

ICBFEDate: 24 – 25 August 2013Location: Singapore


w: www.icbfe.org

8th NIZO Diary ConferenceDate: 11 – 13 September 2013Location: Papendal, The Netherlands


w: www.nizodairyconference.com

International Dairy ShowDate: 16 – 18 September 2013Location: Minneapolis, USA


w: www.dairyshow.com

DrinktecDate: 16 – 20 September 2013Location: Munich, Germany


w: www.drinktec.com

IMS Symposium. Future Industrial Meat ProductionDate: 23 – 24 September 2013Location: Copenhagen, Denmark


w: www.dti.dk/services/ims-

symposium-2013/33073

Pack ExpoDate: 23 – 25 September 2013Location: Las Vegas, NV, USA


w: www.packexpo.com

6th Protein SummitDate: 24 – 25 September 2013Location: Rotterdam, The Netherlands


w: www.bridge2food.com

International Nonthermal FoodProcessing WorkshopDate: 1 – 3 October 2013Location: Florianópolis, Santa

Catarina, Brazil


w: www.nonthermalfood2013.com

Global Cheese Technology ForumDate: 22 – 23 October 2013Location: Reno, Nevada, USA


w: www.globalcheese

technologyforum.org

Food Structures, Digestion and HealthConferenceDate: 22 – 24 October 2013Location: Melbourne,

Victoria, Australia


w: www.foodstructureand

health2013.com

Process Expo Dairy ShowDate: 3 – 6 November 2013Location: Chicago, Illinois, USA


w: www.myprocessexpo.com

RAFA 2013Date: 5 – 8 November 2013Location: Prague, Czech Republic


w: www.rafa2013.eu

TGDF Food CongressDate: 12 – 14 November 2013Location: Side, Turkey


w: www.tgdffoodcongress.com

2013 EFFost AnnualMeeting: Bio-basedTechnologies in theContext of European FoodInnovation SystemsDate: 12 – 15 November 2013Location: Bologna, Italy


w: http://www.effostconference.com

Fi Europe & Ni 2013Date: 19 – 21 November 2013Location: Frankfurt, Germany


w: www.foodingredientsglobal.com

July 2013

August 2013

September 2013

November 2013

October 2013

September 2013 October 2013

If you have a diary event you

wish to publicise, send details to

Martine Shirtcliff at:

[email protected]

EVENTS

newfoodVolume 16 | Issue 3 | 2013 8

NEWSBITES

New cyclone mill for samplepreparation for NIR analysisRETSCH’s new cyclone mill TWISTER is

specially designed for the processing of

foods and feeds for subsequent NIR analysis.

The optimised form of rotor and grinding

chamber generates an air jet which carries

the ground sample through the integrated

cyclone into the sample bottle. The air jet

prevents the material from heating up, thus

preserving the moisture content. The

provided sieves guarantee an optimum

particle size distribution so that it is not

necessary to recalibrate the NIR spectro -

meter. The rotor speed can be adjusted in

three steps allowing for perfect adaptation to

the sample requirements. Cleaning the mill

is quick and easy as the air jet allows a

complete discharge of the material from the

grinding chamber.

This new cyclone mill in proven

RETSCH quality optimises the reproducible

sample preparation to NIR analysis thus

allowing for meaningful and reliable

analysis results.

www.retsch.com/twister

New spray headerimproves tabletcoating operation

New medium for quality indicator enumeration:RAPID’EnterobacteriaceaeRAPID’Enterobacteriaceae is Bio-Rad´s new chromogenic solution for

the enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae in food and environmental

samples. This new solution completes the large range of Bio-Rad’s

chromogenic media for the detection of pathogens and enumeration of

quality indicators.

Through its excellent selectivity, RAPID’Enterobacteriaceaeprovides fastest results without confirmation step. The final result is

available in only 24 hours with this new alternative method, when the

ISO 21528-2 reference protocol requires 72 hours, followed by time-

consuming and expensive confirmation steps.

Another important benefit is its ease of reading: the combination of

colour indicators allows a high level of contrast and ensures an optimal

reading of Enterobacteriaceae, which appear as red on a clear grey

medium. This feature enables the use of an automated colony counter

providing a direct result in CFU / g and full traceability for the laboratory.

RAPID’Enterobacteriaceae will be available in two formats: ready-

to-use in bottles, and dehydrated, for maximum flexibility. The medium

can be used in both protocols, in-depth and surface inoculation. The

certification NF VALIDATION according to the ISO 16140 standard is

expected by end of 2013.

Key benefits:● Quick response: Complete results in 24 hours without confirmation● Cost-effective test: Only one plate required per sample● Easy to read: Red colonies are Enterobacteriaceae. Suitable for

reading with an automated colony counter● High selectivity● Validation: Certified NF VALIDATION according to the ISO 16140

Standard (pending).

www.foodscience.bio-rad.com

Spraying Systems Co. is a pioneer in spray drying.

We developed the first line of commercial nozzles

for spray drying in the 1940s. We established

the term SprayDry® in 1942 and it became a

registered trademark in 1951. We've continued to

expand and refine the line over the last six decades

and have a full range of automated spray products

(nozzles as well as headers) to satisfy all types of

production environments.

Spraying Systems Model 54000 header can

improve tablet coating processes immediately.

Product scrap and rework due to film coating issues

can be reduced by more than 15 per cent. Plus, less

time is being spent on tablet inspection and sorting.

Another benefit is reduced maintenance time.

Saving about 30 minutes per tablet batch for clean-

up and spray nozzle alignment and annual savings

of USD 25,000 and a payback period of about

10 months speaks for themselves.

The Model 54000 header features a modular

design and can accommodate up to six spray

nozzles. Routine maintenance can be done without

special tools. A superior surface finish reduces

contamination risk and simplifies maintenance.

VMAU nozzles offer independent control of

liquid, atomising air and fan air for fine tuning

of spray capacity, droplet size and spray coverage.

A wide range of spray set-ups, including anti-

bearding versions, are available.

www.spray.de


NEWSBITESParadigmScientific Search softwareimproves accessto enterprise-wide scientificinformationParadigm™ Scientific Search from Waters®

provides scientists, engineers and managers

in science-based organisations with easy

and secure access to information across

enterprise-wide data repositories. Easy

access to critical information helps drive

product innovation, development and

manufacturing, resulting in improved time

to market.

Paradigm Scientific Search is un rivalled

in its ability to mine data repositories for

science objects such as chemical structures,

reactions, spectra, chromatograms, images,

biological seq uences and biological struc -

tures. Once extracted from documents,

science objects are indexed for instant recall.

As a result, fast and easy scientific searches

are no longer restricted to text queries.

Within most science-driven enterprises,

valuable scientific content is stored in

local infor mation silos accessible with

access restricted via narrowly focused

informatics tools. Paradigm Scientific

Search offers an alternative to this

siloed approach with cross-repository

access, combining all information into a

single index that can be searched from

a single graphical user interface.

Paradigm Scientific Search offers near-

real-time updating and secure access to

information residing in commonly used

science-based organisation sources includ -

ing Waters Empower® 3 Chromatography

Software and NuGenesis® 8 Featuring

Laboratory Execution (LE) Technologies

data management and workflow solution.

www.waters.com/paradigm

The USD 11.5 billion global infant formula

category is set for its biggest innovation push in

years following the launch of a radical new

‘Staging’ concept by Arla Foods Ingredients.

Built around Arla Foods Ingredients’ Lacprodan®

portfolio of protein ingredients, Staging is an

improved approach to infant formula designed to

reflect the fact that the composition of breast

milk changes significantly during lactation.

At present, formula-fed babies’ diets do not

take account of this, and they are usually given a

‘static’ diet during their first six months.

However, Arla Foods Ingredients has identified

that the protein content of breast milk is dynamic

and changes constantly during this period.

In response, the Denmark-based company

has developed blends of specialised milk protein

fractions that will help manufacturers create

formulas that mimic the changing nutritional

profile of milk more closely during this short –

but critical – time in a baby’s development.

At the heart of the Staging concept is a range

of Lacprodan® milk protein fractions developed

by Arla Foods Ingredients, which can be blended

in varying proportions to create staged infant

formulas that mimic the nutritional profile of

breast milk more closely.

Extracted from high quality whey proteins,

Lacprodan® ingredients provide the ideal amino

acid profile to meet the needs of developing

infants. This means formula manufacturers can

reduce the overall quantity of protein in their

products to levels closer to those found in breast

milk, but still provide all the nutrients formula-

fed infants need to develop healthily and grow at

a similar rate to breast-fed infants.

www.arlafoodsingredients.com

Nestlé has marked the beginning of construction

work on a new factory in Schwerin. The factory

is expected to create about 450 new jobs by

the time is fully operational and will be the

company’s third fully-dedicated Nescafé Dolce

Gusto site. It will produce around two billion

capsules per year for the German, Scandinavian

and Eastern European markets.

www.nestle.com

Arla Foods Ingredients injects new life into infantformula category withinnovative ‘Staging’ concept

Nestlé investsin Germany

Muller Quaker Dairy, a joint venture between

PepsiCo, Inc. and Theo Muller Group, has

announced the opening of its new state-of-the-

art yogurt manufacturing facility in New York.

The new facility will serve as a national

production and distribution centre for Muller

yogurt, which launched in select regional

markets in 2012.

As the fastest-growing dairy category in

the US, yogurt is a USD 6.2 billion industry

that continues to climb. Muller Quaker Dairy

will help satisfy increasing demand for value-

added dairy products in the US, where per

capita consumption of yogurt is generally less

than half that of Europe.

The more than 350,000 square foot

facility will have three production lines

initially, which can produce more than

120,000 cups of yogurt per hour. The facility

can accommodate up to eight production lines

with room for future expansion. The company

is targeting LEED certification for the facility.

The facility sits on 82-acres of land in

what has become one of the most concentrated

milk producing and processing regions in the

country. Muller Quaker Dairy will source

milk for the yogurt products locally. Prod-

ucts manufactured at the plant will include

Muller® Corner®, Muller® Greek Corner®

and Muller® FrutUp™ varieties. Formed in

2011, the Muller Quaker Dairy joint venture

brings together the complementary strengths

of two successful global companies.

www.mullerquaker.com

Muller Quaker dairy yogurtmanufacturing facility opens

Introduction

Spray drying is an effective and mild technique

to stabilise and provide a longer shelf life to

active ingredients in the form of powders.

Very short drying times and relatively low

temperatures have minimal effect on residual

activity of heat sensitive ingredients. How-

ever, for heat sensitive products such as

enzymes and probiotic bacteria, lyophilisation

(freeze drying) is still preferred compared to

spray drying. Because spray drying is much

more cost effective as it can process larger

volumes and operate at higher energy effici -

encies, many attempts have been made to

optimise spray drying and product formulations

towards minimal activity losses. Although many

successes have been reported, optimisation, for

example on the basis of pilot-scale experiments,

remains costly and problematic in practice1.

The optimal spray drying conditions vary

strongly between different ingredients. For

example, during spray drying, the survival of

probiotics is found to increase with decreasing

outlet temperatures and smaller residence

times2. However, too low outlet temperatures

may reduce drying efficiency and result in too

high residual moisture content, leading to

subsequent loss of viability during storage.

Residence time is a critical parameter, which can

vary considerably within different industrial

spray dryers and possible following steps, such

as fluidised bed drying at low temperatures.

Other drying parameters of influence are con -

cerned with the exact spray dryer configuration,

such as nozzle type, positioning of air flow and

injection of feed, and chamber design3. Besides

optimal spray drying, appropriate formulation

and sometimes specific pre-treatment pro -

cedures are also required to obtain products

with extended shelf life4. Usually active ingredi -

ents are suspended in mixtures of carbohydrates

to provide glassy, amorphous powders. It is

advisable to use formulations with high glass

transition temperatures as these are related to

enhanced enzyme and microbial stability during

shelf life. Finally, specific pre-treatments may

be applied to enhance for example probiotic

survival during spray drying and storage.

Many food ingredients, such as enzymes and probiotics, are spray dried to provide a

longer shelf life. A major hurdle when applying spray drying is the extensive

optimisa tion required for formulation and drying conditions to obtain powders of

acceptable quality. Therefore, a high-throughput screening platform based on single

droplet drying mimicking spray drying was successfully developed. It allows, in

combination with a novel viability enumeration technique, screening amongst

others survival percentages of probiotic bacteria as a function of drying conditions

and formulation.

Screening platform foroptimal spray drying ofenzymes and probiotics

Maarten Schutyser and Jimmy PerdanaFood Process Engineering Group, Wageningen UR

Martijn Fox

NIZO Food Research


SPRAY DRYING

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www.spray.de | www.spray.com

Ideal for e e s

roades a e of pray ry® Nozzles

Exposing bacteria to sub-lethal stress conditions

(e.g. heat shock) prior to spray drying is a

strategy to enhance survival percentages.

An attractive approach for screening of

optimal spray drying conditions is via single

droplet drying studies4. During single droplet

drying, conditions such as drying air temp -

erature, drying time, air flow rate and particle

size can be controlled. Therefore, it is practical for

model development and thus can be used to

systematically investigate drying kinetics.

Different single droplet drying modes have been

employed to study drying kinetics such as

acoustic levitation and droplets drying at the

tip of a capillary. The single droplet drying

method proposed by Wageningen University

and NIZO Food Research involves drying of

sessile droplets on a hydrophobic surface and

has the main advantage that it allows a high-

throughput screening approach.

Development and validation of the

single droplet drying approach

A single droplet drying platform was succ -

essfully developed allowing the controlled

drying of single sessile droplets5,6 (Figure 1).

It starts with controlled pneumatic micro-

dispensing of droplets with a diameter of 150

microns (minimum) on a hydrophobic surface.

Subsequently, the sessile droplets are dried at a

specific air temperature and relative humidity.

Dried particles are harvested for further

analyses. The drying behaviour of sessile water

droplets was characterised in terms of heat and

mass transfer and compared to drying of water

droplets during industrial spray drying (Figure 2,

page 14). Subsequently, the drying behaviour

of maltodextrin suspensions was investigated

and modelled using an effective diffusion

model. The latter model predicts the developing

SPRAY DRYING

Figure 1 Single droplet drying platform with pneumatic dispenser, drying air channel, deposition platform and camera

temperature and moisture gradients inside the

drying droplet. It was also proven that

the contribution of heat conduction (via the

contact between droplet and membrane)

compared to the convective heat transfer via the

air to the total evaporation could be neglected.

As input for modelling of the drying behaviour, a

dedicated approach was developed for

measuring of moisture diffusivities in solid

materials. This approach was based on gravi -

metric analysis of thin film drying in a dynamic

vapour sorption (DVS) analyser. Results

indicated a decrease of moisture diffusivity with

decreasing moisture contents and temp -

eratures. However, it also appeared that

moisture diffusivities were similar for various

carbohydrate matrices. Molecular interactions of

e.g. hydroxyl groups seem to have a pre -

dominant influence on moisture diffusivity.

The enzyme β-galactosidase enzyme was

selected as a model enzyme to verify our

approach in assessing the influence of drying

on inactivation of a heat sensitive ingredient

during spray drying7. For this enzyme, we first

characterised the effect of temperature and

moisture content on activity loss (Figure 3).

A mathe matical model was developed to

describe the inactivation kinetics of this enzyme

as function of these two parameters. The latter

inactivation kinetics was combined with the

effective diffusion model to develop a predictive

tool for the influence of drying on residual

activity. This model was then used to reversely

estimate the parameters of the inactivation

kinetics from the single droplet drying

experiments. Finally, the full inactivation kinetics

was successfully verified by comparing model

predictions and experimental data from

laboratory-scale spray drying.

Optimal spray drying of probiotics

Probiotics are described as living micro -

organisms which, when administered in

adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on

the host. Health benefits are usually related

to the influence of probiotic bacteria on the

microbial balance in the hosts’ intestine or via

modulation of the gut-associated immune

system. Probiotics are often preserved by

drying. Unfortunately, probiotics are mostly

heat sensitive and therefore spray drying of

these microorganisms is problematic because

of low survival rates.

In our research, we chose Lactobacillus

plantarum WCFS1 as the model organism for

drying experiments. In collaboration with the

Microbiology Group of Wageningen University

(Dr. Ludmila Bereschenko and Professor Michiel

Kleerebezem), a novel viability enumeration

technique was developed and used to evaluate

survival during drying8 (Figure 4, page 15). The

method employs a micro-porous aluminium

oxide chip (Anopore). (Semi-) dried particles are

rehydrated on this micro-porous chip in a

medium containing fluorescence probes for

live/death enumeration. Subsequently,

fluorescence-microscopy and image analysis

were used to determine the live/dead ratio of

bacteria. The method was found to provide

survival per centages in agreement with

conventional plating. Additionally, it has the

advantage that it is compatible with a high-

throughput approach. The novel viability

enumeration method was successfully used in

combination with single droplet and laboratory-


SPRAY DRYING

Figure 3 A) Measured and modelled enzyme inactivation as function of drying air temperatures of 80 (blue), 85 (red), 95 (black) and 110°C (green) during single droplet drying. B) Measured and predicted enzyme inactivationduring laboratory-scale drying. The error bars indicate the standard deviation5,7

Figure 2 Time series of droplets drying comprising water only (top) and 20 w/w% maltodextrin DE6 (bottom)5,6

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scale spray drying experiments to study the

effect of drying conditions on survival of L.

plantarum WCFS1 (Figure 5). The influence of

carrier formulations on residual viability was also

investigated systematically and for example,

large influences of glass transition temperature

and the molecular weight of the solid carrier on

survival were found. The latter is illustrated in

Figure 5.

The approach was subsequently used to

study inactivation mechanisms of L. plantarum

WCFS1 during drying. It appeared that two

inactivation mechanisms could be disting -

uished. The first inactivation mechanism is

dehydration inactivation, which occurs at all

temperatures, due to destabilisation of the

cell membrane during removal of water.

The second inactivation mechanism is thermal

inactivation (at temperatures above 45°C)

and is related to loss of functionality of

critical components, such as ribosomes or

proteins in the cells. Surprisingly, it was found

that during laboratory spray drying dehydra-

tion inactivation of L. plantarum WCFS1

was absent. This may be explained by the

high drying rates in laboratory-scale spray

drying (due to the smaller droplet size

compared to industrial scale spray driers).

Apparently, the fast drying leads to instant

vitrification preventing destabilisation of

the membrane. For slow drying processes

(e.g. during freeze drying), relatively low

survival rates were observed. The latter could

again be explained by the dehydration

inactivation during the slow drying (thus long

drying times).

Conclusions

A screening platform was successfully devel -

oped for assessing the influence of drying and

formulation conditions on heat sensitive

ingredients. It was verified with the model

enzyme β-galactosidase and further applied to

study the influence of drying and formulation on

the survival of L. plantarum WCFS1. In addition

to the experimental platform, modelling

approaches were also developed to extract

inactivation kinetics from single droplet drying

experiments. The obtained inactivation kinetics

was successfully applied to predict inactivation

and survival during laboratory-scale spray

drying experiments. Future directions for

research are to further develop the current

platform for automated screening and apply it

to assessing different powder functionalities as a

function of drying and formulation parameters

(e.g. morphology, surface properties related to

wetting behaviour and encapsulation). If you are

interested in our research or would like to

participate in a consortium, don’t hesitate

to contact us.

SPRAY DRYING


1. P. Thybo, L. Hovgaard, J. Lindeløv, A. Brask, S. Andersen,

Scaling Up the Spray Drying Process from Pilot to

Production Scale Using an Atomized Droplet

Size Criterion, Pharmaceutical Research, 25 (2008)

1610-1620

2. J. Silva, R. Freixo, P. Gibbs, P. Teixeira, Spray-drying for

the production of dried cultures, Int. J. Dairy Technol.,

64 (2011) 321-335

3. X. Zhou, J. Dong, J. Gao, Z. Yu, Activity-loss

characteristics of spores of Bacillus thuringiensis

during spray drying, Food and Bioproducts

Processing, 86 (2008) 37-42

4. M.A.I. Schutyser, J. Perdana, R.M. Boom, Single droplet

drying for optimal spray drying of enzymes and

probiotics, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 27

(2012) 73-82

5. J. Perdana, M. Fox, M.I. Schutyser, R. Boom, Mimicking

Spray Drying by Drying of Single Droplets Deposited

on a Flat Surface, Food and Bioprocess Technology, 6

(2013) 964-977

6. J. Perdana, M.B. Fox, M.A.I. Schutyser, R.M. Boom,

Single-droplet experimentation on spray drying:

Evaporation of a sessile droplet, Chemical Engineering

and Technology, 34 (2011) 1151-1158

7. J. Perdana, M.B. Fox, M.A.I. Schutyser, R.M. Boom,

Enzyme inactivation kinetics: Coupled effects of

temperature and moisture content, Food Chemistry,

133 (2012) 116-123

8. J. Perdana, L. Bereschenko, M. Roghair, M.B. Fox,

R.M. Boom, M. Kleerebezem, M.A.I. Schutyser,

A novel method for viability enumeration for

single-droplet drying of Lactobacillus plantarum

WCFS1, Applied and Environmental Microbiology,

78 (2012) 6

References

Maarten Schutyser obtained his PhD

degree (2003) cum laude at Wageningen

University. He worked for six years in industrial

R&D. Since 2008, he has been an assistant

professor at the Food Process Engineering

Group. His research group focuses on drying

and other separation technologies for efficient

production of food ingredients. Maarten Schutyser chairs the Dutch

Working Group on Drying. [email protected]

Jimmy Perdana obtained his MSc

degree Food Technology cum laude in 2009 at

Wageningen University via the prestigious

Huygens Scholarship. In the same year,

he joined the Food Process Engineering

Group to start a PhD project on the develop -

ment of a high throughput screening platform

to study spray drying of probiotics. [email protected]

Martijn Fox obtained his PhD degree

(2006) at Wageningen University. He joined

NIZO food research as a project manager

and his expertise is concerned with

heating, drying and evaporation processes.

His work varies from applied research

to optimisation and troubleshooting of

processes. Martijn Fox hosts the annual NIZO course on evapora-

tion and spray drying. [email protected]

Biographies

Figure 4 Schematic overview of the combined single droplet drying of probiotic bacteria and viability enumerationprocedure. 1) microbial culture suspension, 2) single droplet drying, 3) reconstitution and staining, 4) fluorescencemicroscopy analysis8

Figure 5 A) Viability fractions after single droplet drying at air temperatures of 25 (red) and 70°C (blue). B) Viabilityfractions after drying with different formulations of glucose (blue), trehalose (red), and maltodextrin DE6 (green)dried at 25°C. Initial dry matter was 20% w/w and initial droplet size was 600 μm. The error bars indicate the standarddeviation and the solid lines are drawn to guide the eye8

While low-aw foods have some advantages

regarding preservation, there are nevertheless

some major food safety issues to consider:

� Many microorganisms, including patho -

gens, are able to survive drying processes.

Growth does not occur but vegetative cells

and spores may remain viable for several

months or even years. They can often persist

longer in low-aw foods and in dry food

processing environments than in high-aw

foods and wet environments

� Processes such as heat treatment (e.g.,

pasteurisation) or high hydrostatic pressure

that work very well for high-aw foods do not

have the same efficacy with low-aw foods

� Food processing environments in which

dried foods are handled must be main -

tained at low humidity and kept dry, with

specific dedicated ‘dry cleaning’ procedures

� Consumers sometimes wrongly believe

that low-aw foods are sterile, which may

lead to dangerous practices such as

keeping reconstituted infant formula

at ambient temperature for prolonged

periods, thereby creating growth oppor -

tunities for patho gens such as Bacillus cereus

and Cronobacter spp.

Hazards in low-aw (< 0.85) foods can result from

exposure to the processing environment

following a microbial inactivation step, not

subjecting products to an inactivation step or

contamination through the addition of low-aw

ingredients after an inactivation step.

Water activity and microbial growth

Foods may be dried by various means, e.g., sun

drying of fruits, or roller-, drum- or spray-drying

of liquids such as milk or by the addition of

solutes such as salt or sugars, to lower the aw.

The minimum aw for microbial growth is ca. 0.60

but for most bacteria it is ca. 0.87, although

Until recently, there has been a common belief that low numbers of microbial food

contaminants should not be a major issue in low-water activity (aw) foods where

growth does not occur. However, depending on its end usage or target population,

low numbers of pathogens can lead to foodborne illness, hence their presence in

low-aw foods can pose a serious safety risk.

Potential vehicles offoodborne pathogens

Evangelia KomitopoulouSGS

Larry Beuchat

Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia


LOW–WATER ACTIVITY FOODS

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halophilic bacteria can grow at aw 0.75. Some xerophilic spoilage moulds

and yeasts can grow at aw 0.60 to 0.70.

The minimum aw for growth of Staphylococcus aureus in most foods is

0.85. Foods with aw <0.85 include cereals, chocolate, dried fruits, dried

fermented sausages, various dried powdered foods, grains and seeds. Such

foods are shelf-stable with respect to pathogen growth, but microbial

contaminants, including pathogens, may survive for very long periods of

time. These foods potentially serve as vehicles of foodborne illness,

especially if they are rehydrated and stored at non-refrigerated

temperatures before consumption.

Pathogens of concerns

In fermented, dry, vacuum-packaged sausage, verotoxin-producing

Escherichia coli (VTEC) can survive for at least eight weeks (2-log reduction

at 4°C). It has been reported that E. coli O157:H7, can survive in infant rice

cereal (aw 0.35 to 0.73) at 5°C and 25°C for 16 and 22 weeks, respectively.

At an initial population of ca. 5.5 log CFU/g, VTEC survived in apple powder

(aw 0.16 to 0.23), buttermilk powder (aw 0.21 to 0.38), cheddar cheese

seasoning (aw 0.21 to 0.36), and powdered chicken (aw 0.34 to 0.38) for

19 weeks at 5°C and 16 weeks at 21°C. Survival of even a few cells of

Salmonella, E .coli O157:H7 (or other serotypes of VTEC) or Cronobacter spp.,

may be sufficient to cause disease, particularly in foods containing high

levels of protein and/or fat, e.g., dried fermented sausages, chocolate, nuts,

cheddar cheese seasoning and various milk-based powders. Several

outbreaks of salmonellosis have been associated with consumption of

incriminated chocolate found to contain low numbers of Salmonella many

months after the outbreaks. Individual strains of a single serotype of

Salmonella can exhibit very different survival and heat resistance

characteristics in chocolate.

Survival and persistence of Gram-positive foodborne pathogens in

low-aw foods is a concern. Staphylococcal intoxications are of minor

importance compared with the number of cases and severity of illnesses

linked to Salmonella and VTEC but they are particularly relevant in dried

foods due to the ability of S. aureus to grow at aw 0.85. Salted and cured

food products (defined as semi-dry), including ham, hard cheese and

salami, and especially foods where fermentation or drying have been

delayed (such as in slow cheese fermentations or in pasta drying) and in

‘natural fermentations’ where starter cultures are not used are at risk of

staphylococcal growth and toxin production.

A heat-stable emetic toxin can be produced by Bacillus cereus in starchy

foods such as cakes, pasta and especially cooked rice. Diarrheagenic toxin

is relevant only when B. cereus grows in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Wet processing of dry food products, e.g., cereals, can present conditions

suitable for growth and production of heat-stable toxins. B. cereus spores

survive in dry foods such as rice and in dry food processing environments

for long periods of time, and can germinate and grow in reconstituted

products that are not properly processed or stored.

Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium perfringens (and rare strains of

Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium baratii), which can cause foodborne

toxico-infections, can survive but not grow in low-aw environments.

Consumption of honey containing C. botulinum by infants may give rise to

infant botulism, a toxico-infection, whereby low numbers of spores

germinate in the GI tract and produce toxin. Isolates of C. botulinum

cultured from honey (aw 0.60) and linked to cases of infant botulism appear

to reflect the same types found in soil where the honey was produced.

A case of infant botulism has been associated with consumption of

reconstituted infant formula milk powder, although the unopened brand

of formula implicated in this case was apparently not the source of

transmission of spores to the infant. Intestinal toxaemia botulism in adults

has been linked to consumption of peanut butter; spores isolated from

peanut butter and at case patient were indistinguishable by pulsed-field

gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis from spores isolated from the patient.

An underlying GI condition may be a risk factor in adult intestinal toxaemia

botulism. Spores of C. perfringens survive well in dust and on surfaces, and

are often resistant to routine cooking conditions. Sporulation of large

numbers of vegetative cells of C. perfringens in the GI tract can result in the

production of enterotoxin. Spores of C. perfringens have been found in

powdered infant formula, dried herbs and spices, including black pepper,

which if added to cooked meat dishes may give rise to an infective dose if

the food is temperature abused during cooling or storage.

Listeriosis associated with consumption of low-aw food contaminated

with Listeria monocytogenes has not been documented. However, the

pathogen has been detected in several types of dried foods, including

dried, smoked sausages (e.g., salami, chorizo, salpicao and alheiras) and

cold-smoked fish. Populations of L. monocytogenes in peanut butter

(aw 0.33) and a chocolate-peanut spread (aw 0.33) have been reported to

decrease by only ca. 1 log CFU/g over a 24-week period at 20°C.

Viruses such as Norovirus are responsible with increased frequency

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for outbreaks of foodborne illness, with very large numbers of cases

worldwide. However, dried foods have not yet been implicated as carriers

of this virus. Hepatitis A infections have been associated with consumption

of sun-dried tomatoes, probably via infected food handlers.

Certain moulds capable of growth in low-aw environments can

produce mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxin, ochratoxin and fumonisin) that can

result in serious diseases, including liver and kidney cancers. Mould-

contaminated foods are a serious public health concern and there are

strictly applied limits on mycotoxin content.

Foodborne pathogens in low-aw foods often exhibit an increased

tolerance to heat and other treatments that are otherwise lethal to cells in

high-aw environments. It is virtually impossible to eliminate these

pathogens in many low-aw foods and food ingredients without impairing

organoleptic quality. For example, the heat resistance of some Salmonella

serotypes in dry foods can approach that of bacterial spores in aqueous

systems. Heating low-aw wheat flour at 75°C to 77°C for 2.5 minutes and

pecan nutmeats (aw 0.52) at 120°C for 20 minutes reduces Salmonella by

only about 1 log CFU/g; heating peanut butter at 90°C for 50 minutes

results in a Salmonella reduction of 3.2 log CFU/g.

Control measures in dry environment

Measures to control pathogens should therefore focus on proper heat

processing of liquid foods before drying and preventing post-process

contamination of dry foods and ingredients, which is often a much

greater challenge than designing efficient control measures for high-aw

foods. The most efficient approaches to prevent contamination are based

on HACCP principles, including hygienic design, zoning and imple -

mentation of efficient cleaning and sanitation procedures in dry food

processing environments.

To minimise potential contamination of high-aw foods, dried spices

and herbs, dried egg, milk powders and other dry ingredients should be

kept separate from other foods and food ingredients that will not

be cooked. Upon rehydration of low-aw foods or ingredients containing

microorganisms, growth may occur. These foods should be used within a

short time after rehydration or stored, either refrigerated or frozen, for a

limited time before consumption.

Analytical considerations

Characteristics unique to low-aw foods can create challenges when testing

for the presence of pathogens. Pathogens present in low numbers in dry

foods cannot be assumed to be homogeneously distributed, and during

detection and/or enumeration, they may be out-competed by non-

pathogenic microorganisms. Additionally, resuscitation of injured cells

poses a problem; immediate exposure to selective media pressures may be

lethal to such cells, which may result in the pathogen not being detected.

End-product testing is therefore of limited value for verification of the

microbiological safety of dry foods and should be complemented by

environmental monitoring and audits, including supplier audits. The goal

should be to advance our knowledge of the behaviour of foodborne

pathogens in low-aw foods and food ingredients, ultimately developing

and implementing interventions that will reduce foodborne illness

associated with this food category.


‘‘Characteristics unique to low-aw foods can create challengeswhen testing for the presence of pathogens’’

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Safety assessment of low-aw foods:

industry perspective

Food producers and manufacturers of low-aw

foods and food ingredients need to consider the

ways consumers will use their products when

performing the safety assessment.

� Is the instruction given to the consumer on

cooking before eating sufficient to reduce

the pathogen risk to an acceptable level,

and is the consumer likely to follow exactly

that cooking process?

� Have the instructions to consumers

been validated for effectiveness at reduc-

ing pathogens?

A food manufacturer must assess the possible

ways consumers use low-aw foods which,

despite instructions on the pack, may be

consumed without cooking or rehydrated

and then stored at ambient temperature for

prolonged periods.

When setting control measures and micro -

bial risk management metrics for low-aw foods,

foreseeable use, as well as abuse, should be

considered and incorporated into the safety

assessment. Control measures should be

sufficiently robust to manage unusual practices.

The end product has to be safe in the expected

ways it is to be consumed.

Code of hygienic practices

for low-aw foods

The Codex Alimentarius Committee on Food

Hygiene (CCFH) considered new work on

low-moisture foods prior to its 43rd session in

2011. Based on a horizontal approach covering

the numerous codes of practice available

for specific low-aw foods, a draft guideline

‘Code of Hygienic Practice for Low-Moisture

Foods’ is currently under publication process by

the United States, with input from Australia,

Canada and the United Kingdom. The code

would be applicable to various products that

include, but are not limited to, peanut butter

and other nut butters, cereals, dry protein

products (such as dried dairy products, soy

protein, rice protein), confections (such as

chocolate), snacks (such as spiced chips), tree

nuts, desiccated coconut, seeds for con -

sumption (e.g., sunflower, sesame and pumpkin

seeds), and spices.


• FAO/WHO 2008. JEMRA MRA Series #15: Enterobacter sakazakii (Cronobacter spp.) in powdered formulae: Meetingreport. Available online at: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/micro/mra10.pdf

• GMA, 2009: Control of Salmonella in low moisture foods. Available online at: http://www.gmaonline.org/downloads/technical-guidance-and-tools/SalmonellaControlGuidance.pdf

• GMA, 2009: Annex to Control of Salmonella in low moisture foods. Available online at: http://www.gmaonline.org/downloads/wygwam/Salmonellaguidanceannex.pdf

• Beuchat, L., E. Komitopoulou, R. Betts, H. Beckers, F. Bourdichon, H. Joosten, S. Fanning and B. ter Kuile. 2011. ILSI EuropeReport Series 2011: 1-48. Persistence and Survival of Pathogens in Dry Foods and Dry Food Processing Environments.Available online at: http://www.ilsi.org/Europe/Documents/Persistence%20and%20survival%20report.pdf

• Beuchat, L. R., H. Komitopoulou, H. Beckers, R. P. Betts, F. Bourdichon, S. Fanning, H. M. Joosten and B. H. ter Kuile. 2013.Low-Water Activity Foods: Increased Concern as Vehicles of Foodborne Pathogens. Journal of Food Protection76(1):150-172. Available online at: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iafp/jfp/2013/00000076/00000001/art00023

Further reading

Evangelia Komitopoulou is the Global

Technical Manager for Food at SGS in the

United Kingdom. SGS is the world's leading

inspection, verification, testing and certifica -

tion company.

Larry Beuchat is a Distinguished Research

Professor, Center for Food Safety, University of

Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin,

Georgia 30223-1797, USA.

Biographies

SUPPLEMENT

Metabolomics

22 Plantmetabolomics - a newopportunity forquality analysesRobert D. Hall, Managing Director,Centre for Biosystems Genomics,Group Leader Metabolic Regulation,Plant Research International

26 Novel yeasts,novel flavoursAmparo Gamero Lluna and Catrienusde Jong, NIZO food research B.V.

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The assessment of food quality in relation to the

starting materials, how these are processed and

what happens during transport and storage are

central to developing a sustainable, marketable

product. The appearance approximately 10

years ago of metabolomics as an analytical

technology has been broadly welcomed and is

already being widely applied in a variety of crop

and food contexts.

Metabolomics uses state-of-the-art tech -

nologies involving highly advanced hardware

such as mass spectrometers (MS) and Nuclear

Magnetic Resonance approaches3. Accordingly,

the level of investment generally means that the

work is usually performed in central laboratories.

Such laboratories have already built up

extensive expertise and are designing generic

approaches which can readily be tailor-made to

suit every crop or food application a client

desires. In this article, we shall touch on those

areas of metabolomics which are most relevant

to the food industry and draw attention to the

wealth of new information and knowledge

which is being generated. This information

forms the basis of multiple crop and food

improvement strategies and is relevant to both

the commercial and home environments.

Metabolomics and food quality

– the taste of success

Fragrance, flavour, astringency and taste are all

primarily determined by the metabolites

present in our food and beverages. These

features are generally determined by a complex

mix of interacting components from a diverse

range of chemical backgrounds – from sugars to

polyphenols and from lipids to terpenoids.

Understanding quality and taste means having

an in-depth insight into food biochemistry.

Nevertheless, despite the complexity, some -

Metabolomics is the science dedicated to the analysis of small molecules1

. Such small

molecules determine most key features of (crop) plants and their products. These

include nutritional value, taste, fragrance, colour, disease resistance, appearance,

spoilage, off-flavours and many more. The compounds involved cover not only the

most important nutritional food ingredients such as sugars, amino acids, fatty acids

etc., but also components like polyphenols, terpenoids and tocopherols which

determine food quality and influence consumer perception and preference.

Consequently, knowledge of these small molecules is hugely important in helping us

design and monitor food production and food processing strategies2

.

Plant metabolomics – a new opportunity forquality analyses

Robert D. Hall

Managing Director, Centre for Biosystems Genomics, Group Leader Metabolic Regulation, Plant Research International


METABOLOMICS SUPPLEMENT

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times having just one significant off-flavour

component can convert a commercial product

into a profit liability. Here metabolomics is also

being applied to advance our knowledge of

food quality issues related to both fresh and

processed foodstuffs. A few examples are:

� Integrating consumer taste panel analysis

and metabolomics data to identify taste

determinants in red wine

� What does cooking do to fragrant rice grains?

� Characterising compositional changes

occurr ing in coffee processing linked

to bitterness

� Seasonal differences in the amino acid

content of fresh tomatoes

� Investigating a link between isoprenoid

and tocopherol content and potential

health – promoting properties in corn

� Defining compositional contrasts in

Cabernet Sauvingnon wines from different

new world regions.

Metabolomics, maturity and shelf life

Plant and fruit development, ripening, optimum

time of harvest, storage and shelf life are all

defined by coordinated paradigm shifts in

biochemical composition. These changes are

generally invisible to the eye and only by delving

into the metabolism is it possible to gain

detailed insights into what is going on, why this

happens, how this is controlled and how we

might manipulate it to achieve optimal product

quality and prolonged shelf life. Melon fruit

ripening for example is a three dimensional

process (inside – out and bottom to top) which is

also happening in the fourth dimension of time.

Similarly, the quality of a tin of fruit on a kitchen

shelf is the complex result of not only the

composition of the starting material and how

this has been modified during factory proc -

essing, but also how the product has been

handled from factory, to shop, to kitchen, as well

as the overall period taken before it is opened

and used4. Metabolomics is already providing us

with unique knowledge of the biochemical

changes taking place during these complex

processes and is delivering the tools we need

to design improvements. From the recent

literature, a diverse range of areas of application

can be found including:

� Characterising fruit ripening e.g. in apples,

tomatoes melons and soft fruits such as

raspberries and strawberries

� Assessment of the influence of the environ -

ment and climate on broccoli quality

� Assessing varietal differences in

tomato quality

� Defining the biochemical nature of the

differences in Bordeaux wine composition

from different years

� Compositional changes in stored, polished

rice determining quality depreciation.

A role for metabolomics in primary

food production strategies

The crop varieties used to provide the food we

eat have been generated by plant breeders to

suit both the ultimate desires of the consumer as

well as the production demands of the grower

and distributor. Quality issues have often been

ignored or have had to take second place to

other more economically relevant features such

as yield, disease resistance and reduced labour-

intensity. Part of the reason behind this often

relates to our lack of knowledge regarding what

actually determines food quality and the

absence of appropriate tools to generate this

information. Metabolomics is now helping us

bridge this knowledge gap. Plant breeders are

already employing metabolomics approaches

to identify key metabolite markers linked to

quality attributes (taste, fragrance, appearance,

shelf life) which can be used to select faster and

more easily elite lines5. Furthermore, meta -

bolomics is also being applied in the post-

harvest (transport, storage, processing) phase,

once again to help optimise commercial

processes in order to deliver the perfect product,

avoid spoilage and waste etc:

� Identifying the genetics behind oil compo -

sition in rapeseed varieties

� Defining the biochemical basis of fungal

disease resistance in potato

� Designing early-warning systems

for fungal infection in mushroom

compost preparation

� Identifying metabolic markers for early

stage detection of food spoilage organisms

� Identifying metabolite markers for tomato

taste attributes.

A role for metabolomics in food

processing strategies

More and more of our food is being produced

and eaten in processed form. Next to the more

traditional methods (canning, roasting,

fermenting, pasteurising etc.), ready-made

meals and pre-chopped vegetables and fruit


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are now commonplace in western super -

markets. The shelf life of such products is a key

issue, as is taste / flavour and nutritional value.

Metabolomics approaches are also being

applied to help us better understand what

happens at each individual step during food

processing. They are enabling us to identify

those steps which deserve further optimisation

as they are responsible for a significant loss of

antioxidant components, the formation of off-

flavours, discolouration etc. Some recent

examples include:

� Markers for onset of spoilage /

off-flavour appearance

� Identifying the processing steps

resulting in loss of antioxidants in tomato

paste production

� Finding markers for off-flavours in roasted

coffee beans

� Generating tools to assist and direct in

the blending process

� Shelf life depreciation in packaged

fruit segments of melon.

Metabolomics and

seed-based industries

Seeds, including grains, form the basis of a

major part of the human daily diet across

the globe. Rice, wheat, millet and corn are

staple com ponents of much of the carbo-

hydrate and protein eaten daily – always in

cooked and processed form. But seeds like

beans, lentils and nuts are also major dietary

components, often providing e.g. an important

source of protein. Seed quality, in terms of oil

and sugar content well as seed stability and

vitality are also proving interesting targets for a

metabolomics app roach. Knowledge is being

generated on the nature and origins (both

genetic and environ mental) of differences

between varieties, cultivation regimes as well as

alterations arising during processing and

(prolonged) storage. Examples include:

� Defining differences in cocoa products

related to health-promoting properties

� Defining the aging process in stored

vegetable seed

� Identifying the components determining

flavour differences in jasmine and

Basmati rice

� Describing metabolic changes during

barley grain germination relating to malting

quality differences

� What are the biochemical differences

between wet and dry processed green

coffee beans?

Metabolomics, adulteration and

tracing and tracking

Is my expensive extra-virgin olive oil 100

per cent pure? Have these coffee beans all

really been produced by my contractor?

Is my Basmati rice pure and really from the

Punjab? The temptation to bulk up more

expensive products with a cheaper one is

great when this is difficult to detect. Unscrupu -

lous suppliers adding just 10 per cent of

a cheaper ‘bulking agent’ can mean an almost

10 per cent increase in their profit margins

– but at the expense of overall quality.

Buyers and importers are keen to have more

elaborate, reliable tools to check for potential

adulteration and authenticity. As an unbiased

and untargeted approach, meta bolomics is

already beginning to be applied to generate

the information needed in the stride against

unscrupulous producers and suppliers and

to check that products warranting e.g. a

subsidy from the EU, are indeed what they

purport to be and also, are in pure form.

Some diverse examples:

� Detecting olive oil adulteration with

sunflower oil

� Identifying markers to trace and track high

value or subsidised products


� Identification of adulteration of strawberry

fruit purees with cheaper apple substrates

� Quantifying orange juice adulteration with

cheaper mandarin juice

� Finding indicators for organic compared to

non-organically-grown vegetables

� Terroir–specific differences which define red

wine grape origin.

Future developments

In just 10 years, metabolomics has gone from a

fundamental science tool to one which is

gaining great favour as an exploitable approach

in a wide range of food-related topics, from pre-

breeding to post-harvest. Metabolomics is

generating new knowledge to advance food

production and processing strategies. For

scientists, this knowledge is the start of an

hypothesis generator through which we can

enhance our understanding both of which

chemical components play a determinant

role of food quality as well as how the

composition of these components is influenced

by inherent (genetic / environmental) and

artefactual (post-harvest) factors. For the food

industry, metabolomics-based knowledge is

leading to the development of new tools to help

support the needs of sustainable production

while meeting the demands of the consumer

for improved products. Metabolomics has for

example, already delivered the first super-

market tool to assist the consumer determine

fruit ripeness. Ripesense® is a colour indicator

label which reacts to natural chemicals

released from ripening fruit. The different

colours indicate when the fruit is / will be at the

optimal stage for eating, thus allowing

the consumer to choose which product to buy

to eat today or later – and thus eliminate

the need to squeeze the goods6!


Dr Robert Hall is Group Leader Metabolic

Regulation in the Business Unit Bioscience at

Plant Research International, The Netherlands.

He gained a PhD on plant secondary metab -

olism at the University of Edinburgh and

since 1987 has worked in the Netherlands.

His group has been involved both in the

development of metabolomics technologies since their

establishment in 2000-2002 as well as in their application specifically

for crop plants and food products. The PRI metabolomics platforms

have been applied to a diverse range of food related applications

linked to both crop production and food processing. The group has

published well over 100 scientific papers and Dr. Hall has edited two

books on the topic. He was directly involved in the establishment of

the Netherlands Metabolomics Centre and he was the third President

of the International Metabolomics Society. He serves on a number of

international assessment boards for crop research.

[email protected]

Biography

1. Hall, R.D. (2006) Plant metabolomics: from holistic hope, to hype, to hot topic. New Phytologist 169, 453-468

2. Stewart, D. et al., (2012) Crops and tasty, nutritious food – how can metabolomics help? In: Hall, R.D. (Ed) Biology of plant

metabolomics. Wiley-Blackwell. pp 181 – 218

3. Hall, R.D. (2012) Plant metabolomics in a nutshell: potential and future challenges. In: Hall, R.D. (Ed.) Biology of plant

metabolomics. Wiley-Blackwell. pp 181 – 218

4. Capanoglu, E. et al., (2010) The effect of industrial food processing on potentially health-beneficial tomato antioxidants.

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 50, 919 – 930

5. Fernie, A.R., Schauer, N. (2009) Metabolomics-assisted breeding: a viable option for crop improvement? Trends in

Genetics 25, 39 – 48

6. www.ripesense.com

References and further reading

‘‘Metabolomics is generating newknowledge to advance food production

and processing strategies’’

The production of aromas in fermented prod -

ucts by yeasts has high potential. Yeast is one

of the most abundant organisms on earth and

the biodiversity in this group is immense.

For conventional yeasts, such as Saccharomyces

cerevisiae, which is widely used in the food

industry, this has been well studied. S. cerevisiae

has been used for centuries for the production

of fermented products such as wine, beer

and bread. In addition, S. cerevisiae is the

eukaryotic model in cell biology and has been

used to develop many molecular and genomic

tools3,4. The yeast domain contains more

than 1500 yeast species that are poorly studied

but some of them display interesting traits5.

These so-called non-conventional yeast

species represent a large untapped potential

for product innovation, an under-utilised

resource that may hold great academic and

industrial potential.

Flavour screening

With this in mind, NIZO food research joined

the Cornucopia project (http://www.yeast-

cornucopia.se) with the aim of exploiting the

untapped potential of non-conventional

yeasts for new flavours, ethanol, acid and

osmo-tolerance and probiotic properties.

In this project, many of strains available

within Cornucopia have been screened,

whereby NIZO looked for new, interesting

flavour profiles which could be used in the food

and beverage industry. In order to reach this

goal, a large collection of species (1500) from

CBS (Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures,

Utrecht, The Netherlands) was screened for

flavour formation. The first approach was to test

one characteristic representative of about 150

Flavour is one of the most important attributes of food quality and a lot of research in

the food industry is focused on improving and diversifying the flavour of products.

Flavour compounds of biological origin, the so-called natural or bio-flavours, are

attracting more and more interest as a natural, clean-label solution. Plants are an

important source of new flavours and essential oils; however, this option has its

limitations. It can be difficult to extract these compounds and be expensive (they

may be present in low amounts, in bound form) or only found in exotic wild plants.

Another potential source is flavour synthesis or conversion of precursor-compounds

by microorganisms. When this occurs in the product during fermentations, it is a

highly attractive way to produce novel flavours1,2

.

Novel yeasts,novel flavours

Amparo Gamero Lluna and Catrienus de Jong

NIZO food research B.V.



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Figure 1 Biodiversity within the yeast group

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species by selecting the most interesting profiles and then to analyse

at the strain level. The idea was to get as much biodiversity as possible

(Figure 1, page 26). The flavour screening was carried out with

dedicated analytical methodology based on gas chromatography.

The 15 most promising species were selected for further

screening at strain level, using a wider range of detection and

identification techniques including mass spectrometry. Finally, the

most interesting profiles were selected for screening in different food

matrices. In this way, we selected 13 yeast strains with the highest

potential from the CBS collection.

High biodiversity regarding flavour formation

The results clearly showed the huge (bio)diversity in flavour

formation within the yeast group (Figure 2, page 28). The aroma

profiles appeared to be strain or species dependent, whereas

genus, isolation source and growth rate had little or no effect on the

aroma profiles. In addition, it was remarkable that some non-

conventional yeast produced higher quantities of aroma compounds

than the Saccharomyces species, implying an added value for

biotechnological and food applications.

Screening in product applications

As revealed in the VMT article of December 20116, a wide range of

high-throughput product fermentation screening systems has been

developed such as the NIZO Micro-wine, beer, yoghurt, cheese and

bread systems. These miniaturised product processes mimic larger-

scale fermentations with the possibility of fast screening with low

material and labour costs. For example, the MicroBeer and

MicroVinification fermentations are carried out in 24-well microplates

in only five millilitres7.

As mentioned above, 13 strains presenting interesting aroma

profiles were studied in various products using the micro-screening

tools. Strains of Hanseniaspora, Kazachstania, Torulaspora or

Wickerhamomyces are examples of the selected candidates for

potential applications in the food industry.

In most cases, the fermentations were more efficient in mixed

cultures. This may be due to the fact that the non-Saccharomyces

yeasts are sensitive to the increasing levels of ethanol produced as

the fermentation progresses. The differences in aroma production

among the different strains could be detected in the pure cultures,

but those differences were masked in the case of the mixed

newfoodwww.newfoodmagazine.com Volume 16 | Issue 3 | 2013


© Olh

a Afanasie

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cultures, indicating that the Saccharomyces

species took over the fermentation. This

problem was solved when fermentations were

carried out at lab scale, when a lower proportion

of Saccharo myces yeast was added. This was a

clear example of the usefulness of the

microsystems to assess the effect of certain

conditions on the resulting fermented beverage

as a tool for improvement.

To enhance the fermentation rate of the

selected non-conventional yeasts, they were

mixed with the fast growing Saccharomyces

yeast. This was improving the fermentation

speed but was at the cost of the diversity of the

aroma differences. This phenomena could either

be caused by out-competition of the non-

conventional yeast by the Saccharomyces or the

growth of these yeasts inhibited by alcohol

formed during fermentation. Optimisation

with lower doses of Saccharomyces, also

tested at larger scale, gave the required fast

fermentation rate in combination with clear

differences in aroma. With the use of the micro-

fermentation systems, it is possible to do a fast

and efficient optimisation in the direction of

practical applications.

The 13 selected yeasts were inoculated

at the beginning of the MicroCheese process

(Figure 3) together with lactic acid bacteria, and

different aroma profiles were found in the

resulting microcheeses.

The results of the in-product screening

clearly indicated that some of the yeasts were

able to produce high amounts of esters, which

gave an intense fruity flavour to the resulting

fermented products. In addition, some of the

strains yielded lower levels of ethanol, indicating

potential application in the development of

more healthy products.

MicroBread

Experiments are currently being carried out with

the selected yeasts in the recently developed

MicroBread system (Figure 3), screening the

ability of these yeasts to produce CO2 for use in

breadmaking in order to obtain bread with

novel flavours. Some of these results were

presented this year at the 10th Wartburg

symposium held on 16 – 19 April 2013 in

Eisenach, Germany.

Other possibilities

The screening of the yeasts employing the

microsystems developed at NIZO allowed us to

make a thorough survey of yeast biodiversity

and find strains with potential for application in

product innovation in the food industry, such as

increasing fruity flavour or decreasing ethanol

level. Nevertheless, yeasts offer many other

possibilities and further research is on-going to

unravel the complexity of this group of

microorganisms and find new candidates for

product application.



Amparo Gamero obtained her BSc in

Human Nutrition and Dietetics and her MSc

in Food Science and Technology at the

University of Valencia in 2004 and 2006,

respectively. Amparo then joined Professor

Querol’s group of molecular microbiology of

industrial yeasts at the Institute of Agricultural

Chemistry and Food Technology (Spanish National Research Council).

Her research was focused on the production and release of aromas

during winemaking carried out by Saccharomyces species and

their hybrids. She obtained her PhD in Food Science, Technology

and Management on March 2011 (Polytechnic University of

Valencia). Amparo was awarded with a two year Marie Curie contract

on April 2011 (FP7-PEOPLE-ITN) to explore the flavour production

and the probiotic functionality of non-conventional yeasts at

NIZO food research.

After finishing his studies as an analytical

chemist, Catrienus de Jong was involved

with the foundation of the flavour research

department at NIZO food research. Now

30 years later, he is still active as senior

scientist and project manager at NIZO food

research and manages flavour related

research projects for customers in a network all around the world.

He is also responsible for many scientific publications and

contributions at symposia.

Biographies

1. Janssens, L., De Pooter, H.L., Schamp, N.M. and

Vandamme, E.J. (1992). Production of flavours by

microorganisms. Process biochemistry 27, 192-215

2. Krings, U. and Berger, R.G. (1998). Biotechnological

production of flavours and fragances. Appl.

Microbiol. Biotechnol. 49:1-8

3. Bassett, D.E. Jr., Basrai, M.A., Connelly, C., Hyland,

K.M., Kitagawa, K., Mayer, M.L., Morrow, D.M., Page,

A.M., Resto, V.A., Skibbens and R.V., Hieter, P. (1996).

Exploiting the complete yeast genome sequence.

Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 6(6), 763-766

4. Daum, G. (2000). The yeast Saccharomyces

cerevisiae, a eukaryotic model for cell biology.

Microsc. Res. Tech. 51(6), 493–495

5. Kurtzman, C.P., Fell, J.W. and Boekhout, T. (2011). The

Yeasts, A Taxonomic Study. (5th ed.). Amsterdam,

The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publications

6. L. Hazelwood, C. de Jong, W. Engels and A. Gamero

Lluna; Welkom bij het NIZO Micro Dinner, VMT,

(2011), 26 , p 33-35

7. de Jong, C., Hazelwood, L.A., Dijkstra A. and Pepin, L.

Proceedings 13th Weurman Flavour Research

Symposium, in press

References

Figure 2 Heat map depicting some of the results ofscreening for flavour production. Colours indicate theamount of aromas with respect to the average for eachcompound. Red, high aroma production; green, lowaroma production; black, no difference

Figure 3 Microsystems employed for the in-product screening. From left to right, MicroVinification, MicroBeer,MicroCheese and MicroBread

Understanding the extrusion process

Extrusion cooking involves the application of

mechanical energy supplied by the shearing

and mixing action of the extruder screws.

During the process, a formula mix is transformed

from a powdery, free-flowing meal into a

dense, compact powder. As temperature and

pressure increases in the last section of the

extruder, the powder phase ‘melts’ to form what

is known as the fluid melt phase. In the last

section of the extruder, the water contained in

the melt is superheated and in the liquid phase.

Figure 1 is a schematic view of a single

screw extruder with its different zones. The first

section is the feed zone where the formula mix is

added to the extruder. This zone is characterised

by having deep channel screws that are

designed to convey. The next zone is the

compression zone, which has shorter pitch,

flighted screws and shallower channel depth.

The objective is to start applying mechanical

energy to the mix, thus initiating the cooking

process. In this zone, the material starts melting.

In the final zone, the molten materials become

a plastic-like, amorphous melt also called a

pseudo plastic, and here is where the highest

pressures and temperatures are achieved.

The screw elements have even shallower

channels and pump out the molten phase

through the die. Upon exiting the die, the

melt is suddenly exposed to the atmospheric

pressure, causing a drop in pressure (high

pressure in the extruder superheated water is

liquid) that changes the superheated water

into vapour resulting in what is known as expan -

sion (Figure 2, page 30).

A typical food formula may contain the

following category of ingredients: protein

sources (soy protein concentrate or isolate, or

whey protein isolate etc.), starch sources (wheat

flour, rice flour, corn, tapioca, or modified

starches), water, fats and oils, fibre (as part of

some ingredients) and minor ingredients like

vitamins and minerals. Each group of ingredi -

ents has an effect on the final product and

processing conditions. As ingredient formula -

tion is changed, one has to be aware that

processing conditions in the extruder will also

The extrusion process can involve simple formulations such as the ones used for

snack foods consisting of simple starch or very complex formulations as the ones

used in pet food diets which involve several ingredients. The latter are designed

specifically to meet the nutritional requirements of the target species. In contrast,

snack foods are designed to indulge the consumer. Not only does each ingredient in

the formula play an important role in the amount of nutrients it supplies, but each

also interacts with others during the process to produce the final product.

Depending on the processing conditions and the ingredients used, different

products can have an effect on the physical attributes (e.g. expansion) of the finished

product as well as organoleptic properties (e.g. texture, flavour, mouth feel etc.).

Ingredient functionality Eugenio Bortone

Senior Scientist, Extrusion Innovation Team, Frito-Lay North America


EXTRUSION

© 7

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Figure 1 Zones of a single screw extruder

have to change. And in some cases, a different

screw configuration is required to accommo -

date for drastic formula changes.

Proteins

Proteins are formed from chains of amino

acids and, depending on the source, may have

different sizes and are classified according to

their solubility.

� Water soluble: albumins

� Soluble in saline solutions: globulins

� Soluble in 40 per cent alcohol: gliadins (part

of the wheat gluten)

� Insoluble in 40 per cent alcohol: glutenin

(part of wheat gluten).

During the extrusion process, proteins will

form a disperse phase within the starch

matrix. Under the effect of high shear and

temperature, some proteins – in particular the

water-soluble like albumins – will denature

and coagulate. However, due to the shearing

action of the screws, the protein is macerated

into very small pieces.

Proteins from oilseeds – like soybean meal

and wheat (gluten) – form viscoelastic doughs as

they are hydrated with water, but as shear

increases by the action of the screws and other

particles rubbing against each other, the

proteins are also macerated into smaller

particles. Figure 3 (page 32) shows a protein

melt phase in the fluid state surrounding starch

granules that have not ruptured. In contrast,

proteins from muscle origin (fish meal, poultry

meal, etc.) are more resistant to the shearing

forces than the oilseed proteins, and can retain

the particle size they originally had when

entering the extruder.

In the extrusion process, the globular

proteins (soy, wheat gluten, etc.) when

processed in the presence of high moisture

(more than 35 per cent) and temperatures

exceed 140°C, pressure and high shear can be

dispersed to form a continuous melt. In this

fluid state, the protein flows like a liquid, but if

subjected to lower temperatures, the flow

becomes laminar and cross-linking occurs.

If the protein matrix is allowed to flow

continuously at low temperatures, it will form

stream lines (cross-bonding). Once it exits the

die, the water will evaporate leaving small voids

within the cross-linked structure. Therefore,

depending on the type of protein and the

process conditions (water, screw speed, screw

configuration), one can control the type of

structural integrity of the product. This is

of particular importance if the objective is to

change protein attributes like solubility and

overall physical integrity.

Proteins are denatured in the extruder, and

this is believed to improve their digestibility by

exposing the molecules to more enzyme-

access sites. The protein denaturation is usually

measured based on the protein solubility in

water or aqueous solutions. Lower solubility is

indicative of high shear process at which more

protein is denatured. However, some proteins

may not require high shear to be denatured or

have low solubility. An example of this is wheat

protein (gluten), which can be denatured at low

screw speeds.

Starch

Starches are a source of energy in aquatic

feeds, but also play an important role as natural

binders and density control agents. Starches are

found in cereal grains, potatoes and cassava.

Starch is physically present in cereals in


EXTRUSION

Figure 2 Expansion

‘‘During the extrusion process, proteins will form a disperse phase

within the starch matrix’’

small aggregates of polymer molecules known

as granules. There are two physical forms

of starch, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose

is a linear polymer of glucose units with one or

two branches. Amylopectin, a much larger

molecule than amylose, is a branched polymer

of glucose units.

In the extrusion process in the presence of

water, the starch granules first hydrate and swell

(Figure 4, page 32). In the compression zone, the

starch swells even more and the protein starts to

form a molten phase (Figure 5, page 33). As

more energy is imparted, the granules soften

and eventually rupture to form a continuous

melt fluid. If more shear is applied, the starch

molecules are macerated even further into

smaller chains of glucose units. This is known as

dextrinisation. Highly dextrinised starch will

tend to absorb water more readily and this can

be a problem in cereal snacks as it can cause

what is known as tooth packing or reduce bowl

life in breakfast cereals. Therefore, if a product is

made under high shear conditions, one can

expect high dextrinisation which in turn means

that the starch fraction can have high water

absorption capacity and high water solubility.

Based on the latter, one can discern the

difference from a cornflake made in an extruder

or a cornflake made in the traditional flaking

process. The first will be more soluble in milk

thus a shorter bowl life than the traditional

flaking process, which is exposed to much less

shear force and degree of dextrinisation.

Starch also plays an important role in snack

foods and foods to improve the texture, and

more so in formulations with high protein.

In high protein formulas, at least 10 per cent

starch is required to achieve some cross

sectional expansion. Starch also helps maintain

the integrity of the extrudate as it leaves the die

by forming a continuous phase with the protein.

Water

In the extrusion process, water is intrinsically

found in the ingredients or is added via steam

condensation in the preconditioner, or directly

into the extruder barrel. As water is added in the

extruder to levels greater than 10 per cent,

the biopolymers hydrate and move more freely.

At high levels, water acts as a lubricant and can

reduce the amount of mechanical energy input.

Water can be used to control the density of the

final product. Low water addition will result in

higher temperatures in the extruder as a result of

mechanical energy (friction with the screws,

barrel and particles) input. When water is added

at high levels, it acts as a lubricant, thus reducing

the amount of mechanical energy input.

At high moisture levels, the product exhibits

elastic recoil as it leaves the die. This is because

the extruded material is still pliable and

flexible to bounce back until it reaches the

glass transition temperature (Tg). At lower

moistures, the extruded material sets or

becomes glassy very quickly, resulting in larger

cells. The expansion resulting at low and high

water levels are shown in Figures 6 and 7 (page

33) respectively. Products made with excess

water addition (more than 30 per cent) will tend

Innovative extrusion processes without limits. Bühler is the global technology partner for companies producing breakfast cereals, snack foods, or food ingredients on a commercial scale. With its extensive extrusion know-how and its passion for customized solutions, Bühler is always in a position to generate added value and success for any product idea. Bühler offers an integral range of products and services for all process stages – from correct raw material handling, cooking and shaping through extrusion to drying of the extruded products. And this for all market segments – from breakfast cereals and snack foods to modified flours and starches, texturized proteins, or vitaminized rice. In short: extrusion processes without limits.

Innovations for a better world.

[email protected], www.buhlergroup.com/extrusion

newfoodVolume 16 | Issue 3 | 2013

EXTRUSION

‘‘Starches are a source of energy inaquatic feeds, but also play an

important role as natural binders and density control agents’’

to have higher density and overall smaller

dimensions (expansion coefficients) than

products made with low water addition.

Lipids

Similar to excess water, oils and fats act as

lubricants between the particles and the

screws of the extruder. Oil reduces the friction

between the particles in the mix, and between

the screw surfaces and the liner of the barrels.

If oil (i.e. vegetable) is added at levels greater

than two per cent of the total mix, it will cause

the starch granules to melt but they will not

disperse. This results in lower temperature of the

molten phase in the last section of the extruder,

but with little or no expansion as it exits the die.

In some food formulas with high protein

content and with intrinsic oil levels over two

per cent, products with very little expansion

can result. This can be a problem if the

product specification requires it to be expanded

with a particular cross sectional dimension. In

most cases, high protein diets require a

minimum of 10 per cent starch to ensure

adequate bulk density (g/l). Therefore, if oil is to

be added in the product to meet the energy

requirements, this must be done after the

extrusion process via a coating unit. In high fat

formulas, the screw configuration can be

changed to a more aggressive or higher energy

profile to increase the mechanical energy input

and ensure extrudate cross sectional and

longitudinal expansion.

Oil can be added in the extruder to control

product density. Therefore, by manipulating

oil addition, one can produce very dense or

high bulk density products with very unique

organoleptic attributes.

A concern with lipids addition in the

extruder is their oxidation, which may affect

the vitamin stability and other organoleptic

attributes of the food snack. There is no evidence

that lipid oxidation occurs in the extruder;

however, pro-oxidant materials can be released


EXTRUSION

Figure 3 Protein molten phase and swollen starch granules

Figure 4 Native starch and protein in the conveying or feed zone

‘‘Oil reduces the friction between theparticles in the mix, and between the screw surfaces and the liner

of the barrels’’

into the mix as a result of screw wear and this can

lead to oxidation. Also, it is possible that the air

cells formed during the expansion contribute to

oxidation process.

Fibre

Fibre is found in most cereal grains, and some

formulations may include bran. Like starch,

fibre is also a polymer of glucose units but with

a different linkage between the molecules.

This different link (β 1-4 vs. α 1-6 for starch) is

what makes fibre indigestible to most species

except bacteria which produce the enzyme β

amylase. Fibre does not affect the mechanical

energy input in the extruder, but it does not

expand very well. The bran particles have little

effect at low concentration (one to two per cent),

but as the levels increase to over six per cent, this

may reduce expansion. Therefore, formulas with

high fibre content may produce extruded

products with poor expansion, and different

organoleptic attributes.

Minerals

Minerals are not changed during the extrusion

process. However, some minerals may contri -

bute to increase the bubble formation

(nucleating sites) in the disperse melt fluid

phase. The smaller bubbles increase the

surface area and can be an advantage when

coating the snack food with oil flavour

slurry. Porous surfaces on the product are pre -

ferred in the newer vacuum type of coating

systems, to achieve better oil penetration and

reduce the oil migration from the snack to the

packaging material.

Conclusion

Formulas should be designed to perform under

an optimum set of processing parameters to

achieve the desired product attributes while

maximising its nutritional value and extruder

output. Subtle changes made to the formula

may require re-adjusting processing param-

eters or fine tuning the process. However,

major changes made in the formulation may

require re-optimisation of the process,

which may even include changing screw profile.

Not all snack formulations can be made with the

same screw configuration or the same set of

processing conditions.

EXTRUSION


Eugenio Bortone received his PhD in

Grain Science at Kansas State University.

He joined PepsiCo (FLNA) in 2000 as a

member of the Cheetos division. During his

tenure in PepsiCo Eugenio has held

positions in PepsiCo International and the

Global Nutrition Group. Earlier this year,

he rejoined FLNA to support the Extrusion Innovation Platforms.

During his 13 years with PepsiCo, Eugenio has received 16 patents

and has several other patents applications in process, all in

extrusion processing. He has received several awards that include:

PepsiCo Chairman’s award, FLNA R&D Creativity Award for his

invention of the Twisted Cheetos Apparatus, the Edison award, and he

has been inducted in the Patent Hall of Fame.

Biography

Figure 5 Starch and protein in the compression zone

Figure 7 Elastic expansion at high water levels

Figure 6 Expansion at low water levels

‘‘Minerals are not changed duringthe extrusion process’’

Challenges facing food manufacturers

Contamination of the factory environment is a

challenge facing all food manufacturers and

processors, in particular those producing RTE

foods. Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia

coli have been shown to be highly persistent in

the environment, on equipment and even on

food products themselves1. Some persistent

bacteria can produce biofilms and develop

higher tolerances to chemical disinfectants

or can be protected by small pores, crevices

and areas where chemical treatments cannot

reach. Cross contamination during production

represents a big challenge for manufacturers to

manage. This is particularly true for RTE foods

that will not be further processed before

consumption. Manufacturers are in need of

more effective disinfection tools to eliminate

environmental contamination during food

production. Ideally, new disinfection methods

should be effective at removing persistent

bacteria and treating hard-to-reach areas on

equipment and in the factory. Typically, deep

cleaning and disinfection are performed at the

end of production, but a new disinfection

method which could be used during production

to continuously control levels of bacteria would

greatly reduce the risk of cross contamination.

Environmental contamination also presents

a distinctly different set of challenges for the

manufacture of low water activity (aw) food

products. Manufacturers require dry cleaning

and disinfection methods for the factory and for

processing equipment. Introducing water into

the factory can create more favourable con -

Consumers expect that the food they consume is safe to eat. In addition, the

consumer also wants their food to have high nutritional value with minimal

preparation times, as evidenced by the growth in products such as convenience

ready-to-eat (RTE) foods and minimally processed fresh produce. In order to meet

these demands, food manufacturers are looking for new methods and technologies.

This article details some of the challenges facing food manufacturers and how cold

plasma technology could be used in the future to address some of these issues.

Cold atmospheric plasma – A new tool for foodmanufacturers

Danny Bayliss

New Technology Specialist, Department of Food Manufacturing Technologies, Campden BRI


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ditions for bacteria and can promote growth.

Over the past decade, there has been

recognition that low aw food products do not

support growth but bacteria are still able to

survive, and the presence of pathogens, even in

low numbers, can cause food poisoning out -

breaks. This means that it is important for food

manufacturers to have effective processes in

place to prevent cross contamination and

achieve the desired log reductions of low

aw products without affecting product quality

or functionality.

Another area which has its own distinct

challenges is the market for raw and minimally

processed fresh produce, which has grown

rapidly in recent decades as a result of changes

in consumer attitudes toward healthier eating.

The increased consumption of fresh produce

brings with it the risk of foodborne illnesses

due to the minimally processed nature of such

foods. The recent outbreak of E. coli O104:H4

in Germany (associated with sprouted seeds) in

2011 demonstrated risks not only to vulnerable

individuals but also healthy people, with over

3,700 cases of illness and 53 deaths and was one

of the worst recorded foodborne outbreaks2.

Thermal processing methods, although

good for microbial inactivation, are not usually

suitable for fresh produce because they can

degrade product quality and potentially key

nutrients which are desired by the consumer.

Minimal processing is used to replace thermal

methods. Such processes typically involve

washing, and may or may not include cutting,

disinfection, packing in modified atmosphere

and being kept under refrigeration in order to

maintain a suitable shelf life. Some fresh

produce is very delicate and may even be

damaged by such minimal processing. These

products present additional challenges for

maintaining food safety. New methods and

technologies are highly sought after for

inhibiting undesired microbial growth to

maintain the safety of produce. The treatments

should not only affect pathogenic bacteria but

also spoilage organisms as these can shorten the

shelf life of products. Extending product shelf

life would significantly reduce food wastage

and have economic benefits for producers and

retailers. Any new treatments should not affect

nutrient quality or the functional properties of

the food.

Food manufacturers and retailers are

not only concerned about producing safe

nutri tional food but also in improving the

sustainability of their manufacturing processes.

The use of fresh water is intensive for some food

processing operations and there is a desire for

companies to reduce their water consumption

and be more efficient with its use. This becomes

even more important as water supplies in

some areas become scarce and unpredictable.

In addition to being more energy efficient with

water, manufacturing companies must also

comply with wastewater discharge permits and

there are significant cost saving benefits

associated with reducing their organic (BOD and

COD), and suspended and dissolved solids

entering the sewers. Exceeding these limits can

result in costly charges for manufacturers.

For all the challenges discussed, new

methods and technologies are required in order

to give solutions for manufacturers. Cold plasma

has emerged as a new technology which has the

potential to tackle the challenges discussed.

Plasma introduction

Plasmas are referred to as the fourth state of

matter. Plasma is achieved when sufficient

energy (such as heat or electricity) is applied to a

gas. It is estimated that 99.9 per cent of the

universe is in a plasma state, however very few

natural plasmas are generated here on Earth,

with one such example being lightning. For the

generation of manmade plasmas described in

this article, electrical energy is always used.

Applying a voltage to a gas generates an

electric field that can accelerate any free

electrons in the gas. Accelerated electrons will

collide with neutral gas atoms, resulting in

excitation or ionisation. This ionisation will

release more free electrons to be accelerated,

causing an ‘avalanche effect’ generating a rich

abundance of highly reactive, short-lived

chemical species that are capable of inactivating

a wide range of microorganisms, including food

borne pathogens and spoilage organisms.

Typically, noble gases such as helium or

argon are used to generate plasma because

lower voltages are required. Other gases can be

added (such as oxygen or nitrogen) to pro-

vide the type of reaction chemistries required.

With the correct electrode configuration and

power supply, plasmas can also be generated

using air as the operating gas.

It was only 20 years ago that the potential of

atmospheric plasmas for inactivation of micro -

organisms was fully realised. Since this time,

there has been an exponential increase in the

number of publications reporting the inactiva -

tion of a variety of pathogens, viruses, fungi,

yeasts and moulds on a range of different

surfaces. Much of the early atmospheric plasma

research looked at inactivating pathogens on

heat sensitive abiotic materials but more

recently, research has focused on treating

food products.

A brief history

Plasmas have been described and studied since

the 17th and 18th centuries with the recognition

that the northern aurora, southern aurora and

lightning were in fact naturally occurring

plasmas. The development of energy storage

devices and vacuum systems in the 19th century

allowed significant understanding of plasma

discharges. By the beginning of the 20th

century, techniques for producing plasmas

were well-established, as were the means of

controlling them. It was further understood that

a partially ionised gas consisted of neutral,

positive and negative species. Much of this early

work involving plasmas was conducted at low

pressures as it was easier to generate and control

a plasma discharge at these pressures.

Today, plasma systems are already used for

many applications that affect our daily lives.

Examples include: computer chips, textiles and

polymers, treating artificial joints and arterial

stents for biocompatibility, plasma TVs,

fluorescent and high-intensity-discharge

lamps, plasma spray coatings for jet engines,

produc tion of nanoscale materials, plasma

remediation of greenhouse, toxic gases and the

destruction of hazardous wastes3.

Food industry benefits

The use of cold plasma has not yet been fully

realised in the food industry. However, it is

being increasingly recognised that the anti -

microbial properties of plasma systems could

be a useful tool in the food manufacturer’s

armoury in the fight against cross contamina -

tion, microbiological spoilage and reduced

shelf life. The most obvious application is the

disinfection of surfaces in processing equip -

ment, packaging, food contact surfaces and,

potentially, food itself.

Benefits of atmospheric pressure plasma

treatments are that they are a dry process,

operate at low temperatures, require low input

powers, can be built to adapt to current

processes and when the electrical supply is

switched off, all the reactive gas species return

back to their neutral ground state. The dominat -


PLASMA

ing reactive gas species can also be significantly

altered depending on the type of power supply,

the configuration of the electrodes and the type

of gas used. This means the technology has the

potential ability to tailor reaction chemistries for

specific applications.

Considering the benefits of this tech-

nology, atmospheric plasmas would be an

ideal tool for disinfecting processing equip-

ment and the environment of manufacturers

of low aw food products. Because it is a dry

process, requiring no liquids, it is an ideal

disinfection tool for use by manufacturers of low

aw products. And, as there is a reduced need

for the use of chemicals and water, there are cost

savings for manufacturers.

Because the plasma is in a gaseous state,

there is a greater chance that the reactive

gas species can inactivate bacteria in pores,

crevices or harder-to-reach areas of equipment

and surfaces. This offers significant advant-

ages over alternative techniques, such as UV

light where microbes can be protected by

‘shadowing’ effects.

A dry process also means that the

technology can be operated during food

production to treat problematic areas of the

factory, processing line or equipment to

maintain low bacterial levels. This would reduce

the chances of cross contamination and bacteria

attaching and developing into biofilms.

The non-thermal properties of plasma make

it potentially suitable for treating the surface of

delicate raw and fresh produce as well as other

foods, as long as the plasma reactive gas

itself does not damage, alter or degrade any key

food nutrients.

Over the past decade, research has been

focused on the potential for cold atmospheric

pressure plasma to be used for inactivating

pathogens and spoilage organisms on the

surface of food products. To date varying log

reductions have been achieved on the surfaces

of melons, mangoes, apples, strawberries,

tomatoes, lettuce, potatoes, cheese, almonds,

egg shells, ready-to-eat meats, bacon, chicken

and pork4.

In the treatment of strawberries, it has been

suggested that cold plasma can inactivate

spoilage organisms and extend the shelf life by

up to five days compared to control samples5.

Although the study was only preliminary, shelf

life extension of fresh produce, such as straw -

berries, could significantly reduce product waste

and therefore increase manufacturers’ and

retailers’ overall profitability as well as generat -

ing greater convenience for consumers.

Some plasma systems may not actually

be suitable for certain foods. It is therefore

essential to determine the best plasma systems

for treating the right food products. For the

process to become commercialised and more

widely used, it is important to characterise the

reactive chemistry of the plasma system in

question. Defining the plasma chemistry is

essential to understand how it interacts with the

food and whether the treatment impacts on

nutritional quality.

A greater understanding is also needed for

manipulating plasma parameters to change the

reaction chemistry. This could be used to

fine-tune the process to minimise or eliminate

any negative effects on food quality should

they arise.

Suitable plasma systems could be adapted

to current processing lines to treat foods.

In addition to adapting plasmas to processing

lines, plasmas could be used to treat foods after

they have been packaged. Treating foods

after they have been packaged could prevent

any re-contamination of the food product after

processing. Plasma devices have demonstrated

that packed foods could be treated in aerobic or

modified atmospheres to obtain specific

reaction chemistries for surface decontamina -

tion. However, further work is still needed on

packaged foods, not only to assess food quality

changes but also to ascertain the impacts on the

packaging material.

In addition to treating food contact

surfaces, equipment, packaging or food prod -

ucts, plasma also has potential applications for

use in treating liquids. There are several different

methods for generating plasmas in liquids.

Research has revealed that plasma treated

liquids are capable of inactivating micro -

organisms as well as degrading a wide range of

organic contaminants.

Plasma treatment of liquids could be used

alone or adapted to be used in combination

with other technologies to treat water effluents.

Cleaning water effluents provide a huge saving

for food manufacturers. If the plasma treatment

cleans up water effluent to a potable quality,

then food manufacturers could also use this

technology to reduce their use of fresh water –

representing a significant potential saving for

those wanting to reduce their water consump -

tion and be more efficient with its use.

Again, more research is needed for plasma-

treated liquids to ensure that the degradation of

organic contaminants does not produce any

toxic metabolites. The quality of water after

treatment also needs to be well characterised to

see if this technology is suitable for recycling

process water.

Conclusions

Cold atmospheric plasma offers many benefits

as a new technology for food manufacturers.

Its applications are many and varied, from

controlling environmental contamination and

cross contamination during food production,

through surface pasteurisation of foods to

cleaning water effluents. Further research is

needed to scale up the technology before it

is suitable for industrial processes. In order to

commercialise this technology for food treat -

ment, further research is needed to characterise

the reactive chemistry to understand the effects

on food quality.

Campden BRI is currently collaborating on a

plasma system with the University of Liverpool

which is available for research purposes.

A feasibility study using the technology for

surface disinfection is currently underway as

part of Campden BRI’s member subscription

funded research program (2013-2015). For more

information about this project, please visit

www.campdenbri.co.uk/new-technologies.php


PLASMA

Danny Bayliss is a new technology specialist at Campden BRI. He is

responsible for managing activities relating to new technologies for

the food industry (e.g. feasibility studies, scale up, validation, etc.), be

it in research projects or carrying out contract work and consultancy.

His current focus is on new technologies for food manufacturers to

maintain and improve food safety, quality and shelf life.

[email protected]

Biography

1. Keto-Timonen, R., Tolvanen, R., Lunden, J. &

Korkeala, H. 2007, "An 8-year surveillance of the

diversity and persistence of Listeria mono -

cytogenes in a chilled food processing plant

analyzed by amplified fragment length

polymorphism", Journal of Food Protection, 70, (8),

1866-1873

2. EFSA Journal, 2011. “Scientific opinion on the risk

posed by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli

(STEC) and other pathogenic bacteria in seeds and

sprouted seeds.” European Food Safety Authority.

9(11): 2424

3. National Research Council (U.S.). Plasma 2010

Committee (2007). “Plasma science: advancing

knowledge in the national interest”, National

Academies Press

4. Niemira, B.A. 2012, "Cold plasma decontamination

of foods", Annual Review of Food Science and

Technology, 3, 125-142

5. http://www.foodmanufacture.co.uk/Food-

Safety/Zapping-fruit-with-plasma-beams-could-

extend-shelf-life

References

More than 20,000 of the world’s top food science

and technology professionals, representing the

most prominent organisations in the global food

sector, will join the meeting in Chicago this

summer to learn about the most recent product,

ingredient, and technology developments, and

their potential business impact, as well as to

identify trends that will shape the industry.

Experts from industry, government agencies

and research institutions will provide their

unique insights during more than 100 educa -

tional sessions and 1,000 presentations covering

topics ranging from new health benefits, safety

and product innovations to the latest consumer

favourites, fears and trends.

The IFT Annual Meeting & Food Expo brings

together professionals involved in both the

science and the business of food – experts in

R&D, product development, and QA/QC, as

well as executive management, marketing,

new business development, and more – from

industry, academia, and government.

Food professionals will have the opportunity to:

� Gain technical and applied food

science knowledge

� Connect with the ‘who’s who’ in food science

� Identify new suppliers and meet with

current ones

� Discover the latest global trends

� See, smell, taste and experience the very

newest products and technologies.

The Annual Meeting Scientific

Program and more

Top professionals will come together during

IFT’s Annual Meeting to speak about the latest

scientific developments, the newest innova-

tions and the latest trends. The Annual

Meeting Scientific Program – IFT’s most compre -

hensive education program – will attract food

professionals for three intensive days of

knowledge sharing.

More than 11,000 individuals were eligible

to attend the 2012 Scientific Program, which

included more than 350 presenters, more than

100 education sessions and 1,400+ poster

presentations. They featured the very latest

research applications, highlighted new products

and technologies and facilitated idea exchanges

between colleagues from around the world.

News about these sessions reached more than

383 million people through IFT press releases

and media placements alone.

IFT’s 2013 Scientific Program will have

something for food professionals in virtually

every sector and at all levels of experience.

Attendees will be able to:

� Choose from a variety of topical tracks and

session formats, as well as access the online

program planner to search sessions by key

focus area and core science track, keyword,

division, session format, date, presenter,

and institution. Furthermore, visitors will be

able to use this tool to create a down -

loadable online itinerary that they can send

directly to their calendar

� Find sessions addressing the hottest areas in

the food industry, such as food safety,

product development, food health and

nutrition, environmental sustainability,

novel processing and packaging

� Take advantage of sessions focused on

dairy, produce, meats, and other topics

� Find professional and career development

offerings, unique activities for students and

new professionals, and special presenta -

tions on the Food Expo floor.

Short Courses

Short Courses have a proven record of success,

with 93 per cent of 417 attendees satisfied with

overall course quality at last year’s event. Short

Courses offer in-depth, practical education, with

a modest investment of time. Ten different Short

Courses, ranging in length from a half day to

two-and-a-half days, will be held at the Hilton

Chicago between 11 – 13 July 2013.

Scientific Program Tracks

The Annual Meeting Scientific Program is

organised around key industry focus areas and

core sciences that are the foundation of the food

science discipline. This track structure focuses on

the topics of greatest importance to food

professionals, and makes it easier for visitors to

find the sessions most relevant to their interests.

The 2013 tracks are listed below:

Key Focus Area Program Tracks

� Food Safety & Defense

� Food, Health & Nutrition

From 13 – 16 July 2013, the IFT Annual Meeting & Expo will be held at McCormick

Place South in Chicago, Illinois. Food professionals from more than 50 countries

around the world will be attending this year’s event, plus exhibitors from more than

30 countries will be showcasing the latest innovations.


ShowPREVIEW Date: 13 – 16 July 2013 · Location: Chicago, Illinois, USA

IFT Annual Meeting& Food Expo

Experience the only provider of the key technologies in protein determination:

∙ reliable and proven method for food declaration

∙ a flexible way for overnight operation without supervision

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All about protein determinationKjeldahl, Dumas and NIR

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� Food Processing & Packaging

� Product Development &

Ingredient Innovations

� Sustainability

� Public Policy, Food Laws & Regulations

Core Science Program Tracks

� Food Chemistry

� Food Microbiology

� Food Engineering

� Sensory Science

Additional Education

� Professional Development

� Teaching & Learning

Technical Field Trips

IFT’s Technical Field Trips will enable professions

to visit local businesses to gain an insider’s view

of the ways in which food science and tech -

nology are being applied.

IFT’s 6th Annual International Food

Nanoscience Conference

Between 12 – 13 July, expert speakers and

colleagues will come together at IFT’s 6th

Annual International Food Nanoscience

Conference. Attendees will gain the latest

insights into topics such as:

� Current and emerging nanoscience

applica tions for sustainability, nutrition,

flavours, food processing and engineering,

and other areas

� Evaluating the safety of nanomaterials

� Non-U.S. perspectives

on nanotechnology

� Consumer perceptions and education.

John DiLoreto, founder of NanoReg, will be

discussing Nanotechnology Applications and

Developments in Non-Food Sectors in his

keynote presentation, which will take place on

Friday 12 July 2013 from 1:00 – 2:15p.m.

IFT Food Expo

At the IFT Food Expo, food professionals will find

the industry’s largest collection of food

ingredients, equipment, processing, and pack -

aging suppliers, all under one roof. It’s the only

place where the latest global food trends

– and the products designed to meet them – are

on display.

For professionals involved in food science

and technology, the IFT Food Expo will provide a

place to see, touch, taste, and experience the

newest products, the latest trends, the hottest

tools, and most cutting-edge techniques…and

meet face-to-face with the companies that

provide them.

SHOW PREVIEW: IFT 2013

Hanna Instruments launches new mini titrator for dairy analysis

Hanna Instruments is pleased to announce therelease of a new mini automatic titrator designedspecifically for the dairy industry. The newtitrator, HI 84529, is designed for testing theacidity levels and pH in dairy products.

It features a high precision piston dosingsystem with dynamic dosing and compact, space-saving footprint. It also feature automatic stirrerspeed control, a graphic mode with exportabledata and a Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)feature which allows users to view calibration

data. Hanna Instruments manu factures a varietyof analytical instrumentation for the food andbeverage industry, including juice meters, dairymeters, wine meters and more.

Hanna’s new mini titrator is availablethrough any of our 40 international locations.These offices provide Hanna customers withlocal service, support and training and are partof Hanna’s goal to provide an exceptionalcustomer experience.

www.hannainst.com

®

[email protected]

Featuring

Introducing the SpectraTrend® HT,the newest innovation from the world’s true measure of color, HunterLab.

Special Interest Pavilions

The special interest pavilions will showcase

important and emerging industry trends,

delivering convenient one-stop shopping

for solutions.

Asia-Pac Pavilion, Booths 1652 – 2162

and 3254 – 3780

This new pavilion on the expo floor will offer a

comprehensive collection of new products,

ingredients and vendors from the Asia Pacific

region in one convenient location.

Food Safety & Quality Pavilion,

Booths 3811 – 4319

Food safety and quality is on the minds of

today’s consumers – and food manufacturers,

processors, and retailers know it. The Food

Safety & Quality Pavilion will showcase inno -

vative instruments, services, processing, and

packaging technologies to protect and ensure

the safety of the food supply.

Healthy Food Ingredients Pavilion,

Booths 1047 – 1556

Today’s consumers are more health conscious

than ever before – and they demand healthier

foods. The Healthy Food Ingredients Pavilion will

feature some of the latest and most innovative

options in the industry.

Organic Food Ingredients Pavilion,

Booths 3239 – 3743

The worldwide trend in organic products

continues. Attendees will be able to visit this

pavilion for the latest on organic ingredients.

Innova Market Insights ‘Taste the Trend’

Pavilion, Booth 1576

Innova Market Insights will wow visitors with its

Taste the Trend Pavilion at this year’s IFT Food

Expo in Chicago. Taste the Trend is the place for

hard-hitting data on new product trends. The

Pavilion has become a true visitor favourite for

both R&D and Marketing teams at the IFT Food

Expo and this year’s event will be no exception.

Mintel’s ‘New Products and Consumer

Insights’ Pavilion, Booth 2375

Market intelligence leader Mintel will continue

to evolve its presence at the IFT Food Expo. The

Mintel New Products and Consumer Insights


HunterLab announces release of SpectraTrend HT

HunterLab is pleased to announce the release ofits latest product innovation, the SpectraTrendHT. This new spectrophotometer is the onlynon-contact instrument to provide two criticalsensors: colour and height, in one compact andeasy-to-use design. The SpectraTrend HT is alsothe only non-contact spectrophotometer thatincludes an integrated sample detector, capableof discerning sample from background andensuring only measurement of the sample.HunterLab has equipped the SpectraTrend HTwith its exclusive ‘Rapidfire’ LED illumination,providing the capability to take up to fivemeasurements per second and resulting inprecise, consistent sample measurement, as wellas improved colour trending information.

The SpectraTrend HT is available in prod -uc tion line and lab bench-top configurations,with easy-to-read integrated display and control. Each SpectraTrend HT is also pro-vided with HunterLab’s renowned EasyMatchST software for operational control. Addition -ally, the SpectraTrend HT is designed for easy operational integration with existingplant PLCs.

Ruggedly built within a NEMA 4/IP56 designcasing, the SpectraTrend HT is ideally suited forthe demanding food production environment;whether on the line or in the lab, and will helpincrease product consistency while lowering thecost of non-conformance and off-quality.

www.hunterlab.com

Pavilion will feature main stage presentations

and the opportunity for attendees to interact

with some of the world’s most successful and

innovative products. On the second stage,

attendees will be able to attend small group

presentations as well as participate in ‘Ask the

Analyst’ sessions. Bringing research to life and

investigating trends, Mintel experts provide real

market examples and forecasts how the trends

will shape the future of the industry.

The 2013 pavilion will include a series of

essential presentations on the consumer trends

taking product development forward, with

insights on packaging, technology and flavour

drivers. The presentations will be illustrated with

new beverage concepts / tastings and more

than 200 innovative products from around

the globe.

This year’s display will feature in-depth

analysis on the issues driving the food and

beverage landscape, including strategies for

maximising sustainability and coping with

future sourcing challenges. Key presentations

will be supported with new product develop -

ment examples addressing the top 10 new

consumer trends driving the industry today.

The pavilion will be open to all visitors

throughout the IFT Food Expo. The Innova

Market Insights team of expert staff will be on

hand to guide visitors through the display and

offer their insights. A dedicated website will

contain the content from all the presentations

on display after the show.

Beacon Lecturers

The scientific program will include three Beacon

Lecturer sessions. These sessions will feature

interactive talks by high profile individuals who

have exemplary experience and knowledge

pertaining to cutting-edge and ‘game-changing’

information that impacts food science and

technology. Each session will include a 20-30

minute presentation followed by 10-15 minutes

of Q&A. This year’s Beacon Lecturers will include:

� Catherine Geslain-Lanéelle

Executive Director, European Food

Safety Authority

� David Robson

Head of Energy and Environmental

Foresight, Scottish Government, UK

� Mark J. Manary

Helene B. Roberson Professor of Pediatrics,

and Director, Global Harvest Alliance, Joint

Venture between St. Louis Children’s

Hospital, Wash. Univ. in St. Louis, and Donald

Danforth Plant Science Center.

Professional Development

Programming

New for 2013, the Learning Lab (Room S401ab)

will serve as the home for interactive pro -

fessional development sessions designed for

all levels across the industry. Topics such as

Managing Generational Clashes in the Work

Environment; Business Transformation-Creating

& Sustaining High Performance; and Communi -

cating to the Non-Technical Audience are all

designed to help attendees keep up with the

ever-changing business world.

New 30 minute ‘sprint’ sessions will offer

students, new professionals and anyone looking

to freshen up on presentation skills, resume

writing, networking skills and mentoring

practices, a fast-paced learning environment in

which participation is highly encouraged.

Attendees will be able to interact directly with

expert panellists and gain valuable tips in a more

individualised setting.

Teaching & Learning

New this year, IFT will be launching a robust

Teaching & Learning Program for academic

members and other educators who are

interested in teaching excellence, research and

extension / outreach. This brings several exciting

changes to benefit both intellectual and social

pursuits for food science educators.

The Teaching & Learning SPA

(Science Practice Application) Lounge

With the SPA Lounge, attendees interested in

teaching and learning will have a dedicated

place to socialise, network, and interact with

colleagues throughout the meeting.

The Fennema Lectureship & Workshop

This Beacon Lecture inspired general session

will be followed by a space-limited workshop.

Dr. Clyde Herreid will address the power of

different delivery formats for case studies,

problem based learning, and other active

learning teaching methodologies.

Events & Activities

With the variety of events and activities being

planned for the 2013 Annual Meeting & Food

Expo, attendees will be able to reconnect with

old friends as well as meet new people.

The social events and activities at this year’s

IFT Meeting will help attendees make and

maintain important professional connec-

tions, and honour recent contributions to the

advance ment of food science and technology.

From celebrations, networking functions,

volunteer activities and the industry’s leading

food science-specific recruiting events, there will

be a wide range of opportunities to connect

with colleagues.

Here are just a few of the activities att-

endees can expect to take advantage of at

the meeting:

� Celebrations and receptions

� Career Center Live Career Fair and

formal interviews

� Technical Field Trips

� IFT Cares! philanthropic event

� Student competitions, sessions, and

social events

� Activities for new professionals

� 5K Fun Run / Walk

� Family activities and tours.

Please visit www.am-fe.ift.org/cms

for more information



BUCHI launches Dumas to become only provider of all three key-technologies in protein-determination

BUCHI will launch the new Dumas instrumentDuMaster D-480 in September 2013. With theenlargement and completion of its portfolio,BUCHI is now the only provider of all the threekey-technologies – Dumas, Kjeldahl and NIR –in protein-determination. Whether it is theinspection of incoming or outgoing goods, at-line production or quality control for declarationpurposes, BUCHI’s new Master series withDuMaster D-480, KjelMaster K-375 andNIRMaster Pro IP65 covers them all.

There are many different factors to consider

in modern protein determination in food andfeed: consistence and variation of a samplematrix, random access versus batch processing,compliance with internal or official regula-tions, versatile use for other analytes, etc.BUCHI is the reliable partner who masters all three complementary technologies at thehighest quality level and values efficient andpersonalised service.

Experience the new Master series at the IFTat booth #200.

www.buchi.com

‘‘More than 11,000 individuals were eligible to attend the 2012

Scientific Program’’

SUPPLEMENT

Pesticides &Contaminants

42 Pesticidebiomonitoring:applications andlimitations for foodsafety risk assessmentCarl K. Winter, Department of Food Science andTechnology, University of California, Davis

47 Understanding foodfraud: new informationon how this practice isaffecting the globalfood supplyMarkus Lipp and Jeffrey Moore, US Pharmacopeial Convention

SPONSORS


© L

ight

sprin

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hutt

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ock.

com

The use of biomonitoring approaches as a tool

to estimate consumer exposure to pesticide

residues from foods has increased rapidly in the

past few years. Biomonitoring provides a non-

invasive method to document exposure to

pesticides in human populations and, when

used properly, has significant utility in the

assessment of the potential health risks

associated with such exposure.

While pesticide biomonitoring has been

conducted for decades, health and regulatory

agencies now appear to be placing a greater

emphasis on using such approaches. The US

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

for example, now includes pesticide biomonit -

oring in its National Health and Nutrition

Examination Survey. Data from biomonitor-

ing programs allow estimates of exposure

to pesticides that can be related to levels of

health concern identified from toxicological

studies. Exposure estimates resulting from

pesticide bio monitoring can also be combined

with epidemiological approaches. Biomonitor -

ing / epidemiological methods allow for the

differentiation of potential pesticide exposure

among specific members of a studied popu -

lation for which health and/or behavioural

measurements can be applied to determine the

relevance of such exposures on health and/or

behavioural outcomes. Several recent studies

have been published that examine the

relationship between pesticide exposure,

determined using biomonitoring, to health

and/or behavioural outcomes such as repro -

ductive effects, cognitive development and

Biomonitoring techniques have frequently been used to guide estimates of

consumer exposure to pesticides and to correlate exposure levels with potential

health and behavioural effects. The most common pesticide biomonitoring

approaches involve the non-invasive collection of urine and analysis of dialkyl

phosphate metabolites that provide indications of exposure to organophosphate

insecticides. While this approach is attractive and frequently used, it is limited by

several factors that compromise its utility for food safety risk assessment.

Carl K. Winter

Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis


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attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Such studies have generated significant public

and media attention, as has another pesticide

biomonitoring study demonstrating that

children consuming organic diets demonstrated

significantly lower exposure to pesticides.

Biomonitoring approaches have been

developed for several different categories of

pesticides, including chlorinated hydrocarbon

insecticides, N-methyl carbamate insecticides,

triazine herbicides, phenoxy herbicides,

bisdithiocarbamate fungicides and pyrethroid

insecticides. The vast majority of pesticide

biomonitoring activity, however, has involved a

single class of pesticides, the organophosphorus

insecticides (OPs). As a result, this paper will

primarily focus on OP biomonitoring.

The OPs are used widely throughout the

world and have agricultural, home and garden,

structural and public health uses. In contrast to

many other pesticide categories, OPs are known

for their relatively high acute toxicity. Many OPs

are potent neurotoxins and exert their toxicity in

mammalian systems (including humans) by

inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzymes in

the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Serious health effects, including death, have

frequently been documented among agri -

cultural employees (mixers, loaders, applicators,

field workers) exposed to excessive levels of OPs.

Symptoms of OP poisoning include muscle

weakness, fatigue, cramps, excessive sweating

and blurred vision.

The OP family includes several dozen

insecticides that differ in terms of their toxicity,

environmental behaviour and potency among

specific insects. Approximately 40 different

OPs are currently registered for use in the

US by the US Environmental Protection Agency.

They exist as esters of phosphoric, thio -

phosphoric, or dithiophosphoric acids and

typically contain O,O-dialkyl substitution with

the alkyl groups commonly representing methyl

or ethyl moieties.

Metabolism of OPs in humans is quite rapid

with most having half-lives shorter than 24

hours. A variety of analytical techniques have

been developed to identify OP metabolites from

biological samples such as blood, tears and

urine. In humans and in mammals, OPs are

metabolised through two primary pathways

that occur simultaneously. Many are oxidised

from the thion to oxon form; this is considered to

be a metabolic activation pathway that

increases the toxicity by producing a met-

abolite with a much greater affinity for the

acetylcholinesterase enzyme. The second

pathway is hydrolysis which results in the

production of metabolites collectively known as

dialkyl phosphates (DAPs) that include O-O-

dialkyl phosphates, O,S-dialkly thiophosphates,

and S,S-dialkyl dithiophosphates. Approxi -

mately 75 per cent of OPs are metabolised

to DAPs.

DAPs represent excellent biomonitoring

candidates as they are rapidly excreted in

human urine due to their high water solubility

and therefore provide an opportunity for

samples to be collected in a non-invasive

manner. Analysis of DAPs follows standard

laboratory procedures that frequently include

liquid-liquid extraction, derivatisation, and gas

chromatographic analysis using flame photo -

metric, flame ionisation, or mass spectrometric

detection or tandem mass spectrometry. Such

analytical techniques are extremely sensitive

with detection limits capable of reaching sub

μg/L (part per billion) levels.

Biomonitoring for OP exposure usually

involves the specific analysis of six DAPs

collected from human urine. Dimethyl sub -

stituted OPs such as azinphos methyl,

chlorpyrifos methyl, dimethoate, malathion,

methidathion, methyl parathion, phosmet, and

temephos result in the formation of dimethyl

phosphate and dimethyl thiophosphate

metabolites. Since dimethoate, malathion,

methidathion, and phosmet exist as dithio -

phosphates, they can also be hydrolysed to

produce dimethyldithio phosphate in the urine.

Similarly, diethyl substituted OPs such as

chlorpyrifos, diazinon, disulfoton, ethion,

parathion, phorate and sulfotep produce

diethyl phosphate and diethyl thiophosphate

metab olites while diethyldithio phosphate

can be detected in the urine of those exposed

to the dithiophosphates disulfoton, ethion,

and phorate.

For a few OPs, specific urinary metabolites

representing the remaining non-DAP part of

the molecule following hydrolysis may be

frequently detected for biomonitoring studies.

These include 3,5,6-trichloropyridinol pro-

duced from the metabolism of chlorpyrifos,

malathion dicarboxylic acid and isomers

of malathion monocarboxylic acid produced

from the metabolism of malathion, 2-isopropyl-

4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine produced from

the metabolism of diazinon, and p-nitrophenol

produced from the metabolism of methyl and

ethyl parathion.

Biomonitoring of urinary DAPs has fre -

quently been used in combination with

longitudinal and cross-sectional studies to

compare potential OP exposures among


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different geographical regions and among different population

subgroups such as children of farm worker families, school-aged

children consuming organic vs. conventional diets, and pregnant

women living in an agricultural community. Epidemiological studies

investigating factors such as ADHD, child cognitive development,

pervasive developmental disorders, and sperm quality have all relied

upon urinary DAP results to examine the relationship between DAP

excretion and health / behavioural endpoints. Analysis of non-

DAP urinary OP metabolites has also allowed for crude estimation of

exposure levels of consumers and agricultural workers to specific OPs

for which characteristic urinary metabolites exist.

While such applications of DAP biomonitoring are important in

allowing researchers to gain a better understanding of potential

health and behavioural effects that could be caused from dietary and

environmental exposure to OPs, it is critical to recognise that these

applications have significant limitations. Three key limitations are

presented below.

1. Detection of pesticide metabolites from urinary biomonitoring

programs is not sufficient to demonstrate human health impacts

from exposure to pesticides. Biomonitoring programs identifying

pesticide metabolites provide indicators of potential exposure

to pesticides but should not be considered as evidence that the

pesticides are causing harm. This is an important distinction as many

have been prone to interpret the detection of urinary pesticide

metabolites as a ‘smoking gun’ demonstrating harm. When research

was published demonstrating that children consuming organic food

diets had significantly lower levels of OP urinary metabolites than

when the same children consumed conventional diets, many

incorrectly raced to the conclusion that such work established that

organic diets were safer to consume than were conventional diets.

According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

“Just because we can detect levels of an environmental chemical in a

person’s blood or urine does not necessarily mean that the chemical will

cause effects or disease. Advances in analytical chemistry enable us to

measure low levels of environmental chemicals in people, but separate

studies of varying levels of exposure determine whether specific levels

cause health effects.”

Biomonitoring approaches examining toxicologically relevant

endpoints have been developed for OPs as human blood samples

can be used to determine plasma and serum acetylcholinesterase

levels. Such an approach is more invasive than collecting urine and

analysing for DAPs and is limited by considerable individual variability

in acetylcholinesterase levels. Programs have been developed to

establish baseline acetylcholinesterase levels in agricultural workers

potentially exposed to some of the more acutely toxic OPs with

subsequent tests performed to ensure that acetylcholinesterase

levels do not drop to levels of potential toxicological concern.

Unfortunately, such a program does not seem to be practical for

establishing consumer exposure to OPs.

2. Biomonitoring of urinary DAPs does not allow estimation of

exposures to specific OPs. Urinary DAPs are formed from the

hydrolysis of many different OPs and represent the dialkyl backbones

common to several OPs. As a result, it is not possible to predict which



pesticides the DAPs originated from or to

estimate exposures to specific OPs. This is a

critical limitation since OPs may differ dramat -

ically with respect to their toxicities. Consider

the OPs malathion and methyl parathion,

for example; both produce O,O-dimethyl

phosphate and O,S-dimethyl thiophosphate as

human urinary metabolites following exposure

to the parent compounds. Malathion is con -

sidered to be one of the least toxic OPs and the

US Environmental Protection Agency has

established an oral reference dose (representing

the maximum daily exposure considered to be

without risk) for malathion to be 20 μg/kg/day.

Methyl parathion, in contrast, is considerably

more toxic with an oral reference dose estab -

lished at 0.25 μg/kg/day, or 80 times lower.

The simple detection of dimethyl phosphate or

dimethyl thiophosphate would not allow the

determination of how much was produced from

exposure to malathion, methyl parathion, or

any other dimethyl substituted OP and its utility

for risk assessment is therefore quite limited.

Only in the case where metabolites were unique

to specific pesticides would it be possible to

make estimations as to the exposure to the

specific pesticides.

Nevertheless, many biomonitoring studies

have relied upon the determination of total

DAPs detected to represent a generic indicator

of OP exposure. This metric can then be used in

subsequent longitudinal or cross-sectional

studies to establish differences in OP exposure

among various population subgroups.

3. Urinary DAPs from consumers do not nec -

essarily indicate OP exposure. The hydrolysis

mechanism described for the biochemical

metabolism of OPs is not unique to mammalian

systems as significant research has demon -

strated that OPs are frequently broken down to

DAPs in the environment. In one study that

analysed fruits and vegetables for both

OPs and DAPs, 60 per cent of the samples

had a higher concentration of DAPs than

OPs, indicating considerable breakdown

of OPs in the environment prior to human

consumption opportunities.

The detection of urinary DAPs, therefore,

could result from either exposure to an OP, from

exposure to DAPs produced from OPs in the

environment, or both. These are important

distinctions since DAPs represent non-toxic

metabolites or breakdown products of OPs. The

origin of DAPs, therefore, represents a critical

toxicological consideration. It should be also

acknowledged that studies of consumer

exposure to OPs that rely upon total DAP levels

in the urine may considerably overestimate

actual OP exposure.

Conclusion

Biomonitoring represents an attractive method

to estimate consumer exposure to pesticide

residues from foods and other environ-

mental sources. The most commonly used

pesticide biomonitoring approach involves

non-invasive collection of human urine followed

by sensitive analysis of DAPs to provide crude

estimations of exposure to OP insecticides.

Data obtained using this biomonitoring

approach can be subsequently used in

longitudinal and cross-sectional studies to

identify population sub groups of greatest

exposure and to investigate whether pesticide

exposures may be correlated with health or

behavioural impacts such as ADHD, child

cognitive development, per vasive develop -

mental disorders and adverse sperm quality.

The proper interpretation of biomonitoring

results, either separate or when combined with

epidemiological studies, requires an under -

standing of some of the limitations of the

approaches used. The mere detection of urinary

DAP metabolites should not be considered

as an indication of health impacts. In addition,

DAPs may result from a wide variety of different

OPs that vary significantly with respect to

their individual toxicities, limiting the utility of

this approach in assessing dietary or environ -

mental exposure to specific OPs. Since

‘preformed’ DAPs may result from the

environmental degradation of OPs prior to

consumption opportunities, measurements of

total DAP levels may significantly overestimate

dietary exposure to OPs.

Such limitations, when combined with

epidemiological approaches, may significantly

influence the accuracy and sensitivity of the

correlations between exposure and potential

health effects. Epidemiological findings using

biomonitoring may still be useful in identifying

future studies that could more accurately

correlate exposure levels with specific

biochemical mechanisms but should not be

considered to represent cause and effect

relationships. Epidemiological findings should

also not be considered as substitutes for the

more traditional risk assessment methods

that more accurately define consumer exposure

levels to pesticide residues and relate such levels

to toxicological criteria. The best existing

evidence suggests that typical human dietary

exposure to pesticide residues in the US is at

levels of at least 10,000 times lower than levels,

when given on a daily basis to the most sensitive

animal species over their lifetimes that do not

show any noticeable signs of toxicity in the

animals. When this finding is coupled with

the well-established health benefits of

consuming a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and

whole grains, it appears that the limited

evidence of health concerns over pesticides in

the food supply generated from biomonitoring

approaches need to be considered in their

proper perspective.



Dr. Carl Winter is the Director of the FoodSafe

Program and Extension Food Toxicologist in

the Department of Food Science and

Technology at the University of California at

Davis. He holds a PhD in Agricultural and

Environmental Chemistry from the University

of California at Davis and has been a University

of California faculty member for more than 25 years. His research and

outreach work focus upon pesticide residues and naturally-occurring

toxins in foods, risk assessment and risk communication.

He has authored two books and more than 150 publications in the

scientific and lay literature. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Food

Technologists and the recipient of the NSF International Food Safety

Leadership Award for Education and Training (2009) and the Borlaug

CAST Communication Award (2012). He is currently a member of the

US Food and Drug Administration’s Food Advisory Committee.

Biography

• Barr, DB. Biomonitoring of exposure to pesticides.

Journal of Chemical Health & Safety 15:20-29, 2008

• Barr DB, Angerer J. Potential uses of biomonitoring

data: A case study using the organophosphorus

pesticides chlorpyrifos and malathion. Env Health

Perspect 114:1763-1769, 2006

• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

National Biomonitoring Program: Biomonitoring

Summary. http://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/

op-dpm_biomonitoringsummary.html (accessed

May 28, 2013)

• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

National Exposure Report: Frequently Asked

Questions. http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/

faq.html (accessed May 28, 2013).

• Lu C, Toepel K, Irish R, Fenske RA, Barr DB, Bravo R.

Organic diets significantly lower children’s dietary

exposure to organophosphorus pesticides. Env.

Health Perspect 114:260-263, 2006

• Sudakin DL, Stone DL. Dialkyl phosphates as

biomarkers of organophosphates: The current

divide between epidemiology and clinical

toxicology. Clin Toxicol 49:771-781, 2011

• Winter CK. Pesticide residues in imported, organic,

and “suspect” fruits and vegetables. J Agric Food

Chem 60:4425-4429, 2012

References

‘‘Many biomonitoring studies haverelied upon the determination of totalDAPs detected to represent a generic

indicator of OP exposure’’

To begin to define this problem – with an

ultimate goal of advancing the safety of the food

supply – the non-profit, scientific US Pharma -

copeial Convention (USP) developed a Food

Fraud Database in April 2012. At that time, the

searchable database compiled roughly 1,300

records including scholarly research articles and

media reports of food fraud available in the

public domain. In January 2013, USP published

its first update to the database, adding an

additional 800 records – largely published in

2011 and 2012. With that update, the number of

records of food fraud captured in the database

increased by 60 per cent – and USP helped shed

new light on particular foods vulnerable to

fraud, adulterants found in these foods, scientific

methods used to uncover fraud and more.

This information helps paint a better picture of

the threat food fraud poses to the food supply.

USP intends the database to be a tool for

food manufacturers, regulators, scientists and

others worldwide – offering, for the first time,

one location where any interested party can

readily find previously unconnected information

on the topic.

USP and the role of standards

in addressing contamination

and adulteration

USP is an independent organisation with more

than 190 years of history that sets standards to

Though the term may be relatively new, so-called ‘food fraud’ is by no means a

modern-day creation. In fact, known episodes of the intentional, fraudulent

replacement of high-value ingredients with inexpensive ones go back centuries,

from the adulteration of wine with lead salts in ancient Rome to instances of lower-

quality oils being substituted for olive oil throughout history. Likely the most

infamous example of the latter in recent times involved denatured rapeseed oil

intended for industrial use that was sold as olive oil in Spain in 1981 – a tragedy that

caused hundreds of deaths. Horsemeat sold as beef throughout Europe, while

fortunately not resulting in a similarly catastrophic health impact, offered a renewed

spotlight on the practice of food fraud in 2013. However, beyond the handful of

examples that have been well-publicised and the general sense that this is a long-

standing problem, not much about food fraud is understood on a broad level.

Understanding food fraud:new information on how this practice is affecting theglobal food supply

Markus Lipp and Jeffrey Moore

US Pharmacopeial Convention



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help ensure the identity, quality and purity of

food ingredients, dietary supplements and

pharmaceuticals. USP’s food ingredient stand -

ards are published in the Food Chemicals Codex

(FCC). FCC is a compendium of more than 1,200

food ingredients, including binders, colours,

flavours, preservatives and processing aids.

Its scope is broad – any food ingredient legally

marketed anywhere in the world is eligible to be

included in the compendium.

FCC provides standards for the identity,

quality and purity of food ingredients along with

reference standards for determination of

conformity to the specifications provided

therein. On a practical level, these standards

can serve as a basis for agreements between

buyers (manufacturers) and sellers (suppliers)

about the expected quality of an ingredient.

By providing all parties with a single, independ -

ent reference point to ensure the expectations

of all are met, FCC can help preserve resources

and promote quality.

FCC standards have specific value in

addressing the threats posed by both

contamination and food fraud (including

adulteration). While both contamination

and adulteration may result in an unsafe

product, these are distinct threats in many

ways. Contamination and adulteration both

may involve the presence of a substance that is

not intended to be in a product. The difference

is that contamination is unintentional. It may

result from natural causes (e.g., heavy metals of

the soil that are taken up by plants) or causes

implicit in the process (e.g., pesticide residues).

These scenarios are often referred to as

technically unavoidable. Contamination can

also occur as a consequence of some sort of

shortcoming or lapse in quality control. Con -

tamination is, for the most part, predictable, and

risks from contamination are generally easier to

manage or limit because they involve hazards

that manufacturers are aware they need to

carefully control. FCC standards are a key tool

to help ensure the quality and purity of food

ingredients, including testing for the presence of

expected contamination as described above.

Adulteration, on the other hand, is inten -

tional and driven by economic motiva tions.

Specific to adulteration and food fraud, FCC

standards play a valuable role. Periodic checks

using these standards can guard against

unknown, substandard or adulterated sub -

stances entering the supply chain, and USP is

continuously evaluating its food (and other)

standards to ensure they are up-to-date,

utilising modern technology and accounting for

threats such as intentional manipulation of food

ingredients. The USP Food Fraud Database is

a complement to USP’s standards-setting

activities for food ingredients.

Food fraud: drivers and risks

Food fraud is a collective term for the deliberate

substitution, addition, tampering or mis -

representation of food, food ingredients or food

packaging, or false or misleading statements

made about a product for economic gain.

A more specific type of fraud, intentional or

economically motivated adulteration of food

ingredients, has been defined by USP as the

fraudulent addition of non-authentic sub -

stances or removal or replacement of authentic

substances without the purchaser’s knowledge

for economic gain of the seller.

Food fraud is traditionally thought of as an

economic issue rather than a public health

threat. However, food fraud presents unique

risks because of the deceptive nature of the

activity – the intention to trick, in contrast to

more frequently reported food risks such as

microbial contamination. The latter is a well-

known problem that food manufacturers

recognise must be controlled in their operations.

In the case of food fraud, adulterants used

are often unexpected, unconventional and

designed to bypass traditional testing employed

by the food industry and regulators. Melamine

(an industrial chemical not intended for

consumption), for example, was considered

neither a potential contaminant nor an adult -

erant in the food supply before 2007 and 2008,

when pet food in the United States and other

countries and milk products in China were

subject to adulteration to boost apparent

protein content, respectively. It is not a natural

food component, and therefore no one sus -

pected it was something to screen for in foods.

As such, testing for melamine was not part of

standard operating procedures for food

manufacturers or regulators prior to 2007/08.

Regardless of such challenges, manufacturers

are responsible for delivering a safe product to

consumers, and this responsibility extends

to both unintentional contamination and inten -

tional adulteration.

From a business perspective, food fraud

hurts legitimate producers in a number of ways.

As manufacturers look to source the least-

expensive ingredients to maintain or lower their

own costs, offers of what appear to be

equivalent ingredients at lower prices will

understandably be attractive. Ethical suppliers

providing quality products will be undercut in

such scenarios, giving criminals a competitive

advantage and even potentially driving ethical

players out of the market. Manufacturers who

unknowingly purchase these ingredients may

be negatively affected, including (but not

limited to) the possibility of being subject to a

product recall if adulteration is discovered. The

immediate financial costs of a recall are steep,

but even more catastrophic from a business



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perspective is the potential long-term damage

to a brand once it is associated with food safety

problems – turning customers away in the short-

term and in some cases permanently.

Though a problem throughout history,

modern trends may make food fraud an even

more relevant concern today. As manufacturers

continually innovate with natural, functional

and other ‘designer’ ingredients, the number of

high-value food components that command

premium prices is growing. Higher-priced

ingredients are generally prime targets for fraud,

as there is a clear economic benefit to the

criminal. Coupled with the rapid globalisation of

the industry, which results in long and changing

supply chains that require ever more sophisti -

cated oversight and management, economically

motivated adulteration becomes especially

worrisome and continuing vigilance is essential.

In this global environment, many appr -

oaches to achieving a safe food chain are

currently utilised by the food industry –

including ISO 22000, the Global Food Safety

Initiative and the British Retail Consortium.

However, all food safety and quality systems rely

on the ability to predict and manage reasonably

foreseeable risks. In the case of economically

motivated adulteration, when an unknown

ingredient is introduced somewhere in the

supply chain, many of these systems could be

rendered ineffective. This is an area where FCC

standards, coupled with information available in

the USP Food Fraud Database, can play an

important role.

Analyses of food fraud database records

Following compilation of the initial records in

the USP Food Fraud Database, analyses of these

records by USP food scientists was published on

5 April 2012 in the Journal of Food Science. This

research revealed that milk, edible oils and

spices were among the top categories where

food fraud occurred as documented in scholarly

reports published by scientists around the

world. USP conducted additional analyses of the

new records added in January 2013, which

showed similar trends for 2011 and 2012, with

those three categories representing more than

50 per cent of the records in the database in this

time period. The 2011/12 records added seafood

(fish, shrimp), clouding agents and lemon juice

as categories vulnerable to food fraud.

Milk, vegetable oils and spices: In three

areas of on-going concern, the database

indicates watered-down and urea adulterated

fluid milk in India, dilution of milk powder with

fillers such as maltodextrin in South America and

replacement of milk fat with vegetable oil in

South America. In the category of oils, olive oil

replaced with other, less-expensive vegetable

oils was pervasive, and so-called ‘gutter oil’

(waste oil repurposed as cooking oil) was

documented in China. With regard to spices, the

database shows examples of the dilution or

replacement of spices with less-expensive

spices or fillers.

Seafood: With USD 80 billion in seafood

sold in the US each year and more than 80 per

cent of fish in the country imported, seafood is

big business – and fraud is a significant problem.

Examples of seafood fraud documented in the

database include sale of the fish escolar, often

fraudulently mislabelled as white tuna or

butterfish. Escolar is banned in Italy and Japan,

and other countries have issued advisories on

the trade and consumption of this fish. Escolar

has a high content of waxy esters that is likely to

cause a special form of food poisoning called

gempylotoxism or gempylid fish poisoning.

Another example of seafood fraud included in

the database involves puffer fish, with

documented incidents in the US of the fish

being mislabelled as monkfish to evade import

and other restrictions. Puffer fish has caused


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tetrodotoxin poisonings in the US and else -

where. Seafood is an example where food

safety controls are species-specific, making

the replacement of one fish with another

especially troublesome.

Clouding agents: Considered the 2011

equivalent to the melamine scandal involving

Chinese milk products from a few years ago,

numerous database records document the

plasticiser Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)

and other related phthalates as having been

fraudulently added as clouding agents in place

of the more expensive palm oil or other allowed

food ingredients in fruit juices, jams and other

products. The scope of this fraud was vast: 877

food products from 315 companies were

involved; 206 products were exported to as

many as 22 countries; and there were roughly

4,000 potential victims in Taiwan. Safety

concerns surrounding DEHP include cancer and

the improper reproductive organ development

in children. DEHP may be used in food contact

materials (e.g., seals, packaging), however the

amount allowed to migrate into the food is

tightly regulated in some countries as to not

exceed approximately 1.5 ppm; levels in

reported examples of food fraud were found

from 2-34 and 8,700 ppm in food and supple -

ment products, respectively. The fraudu lent

replacement of clouding agents may have

been on-going for years, but as with other

food frauds, it is often difficult to detect fraud

when no immediate illness occurs. However,

as illustrated in this episode, severe health

repercussions may still result from consumer

consumption of an undetected harmful adulter -

ant over an extended period.

A collaborative road ahead

The USP Food Fraud Database is a dynamic tool

for all parties in the supply chain as they grapple

with the threats posed by food fraud. USP plans

to continually update the database with timely,

new reports as well as older reports that it may

have missed in its initial research. The intention is

for this database to be useful to parties globally,

with records documenting food fraud around

the world. USP is seeking food adulteration

experts from around the world to contribute to

the database to help improve its breadth and

utility to users. To be considered for inclusion,

proposed entries must include a reference

(scholarly, media or government authority) to

substantiate the adulteration issue. New entries

can be submitted to www.foodfraud.org, where

the full database is also available for anyone to

use in efforts to maintain and advance a safe

food supply.


Markus Lipp, PhD, is the Senior Director for

Food Standards at the US Pharmacopeia, a

not-for-profit, science-based organisation

that sets public standards for medicines,

dietary supplements, and food ingredients.

In this role, Dr. Lipp is responsible for the FoodChemicals Codex. Prior to this position,

Dr. Lipp worked as the Director for Science and Research at the

International Bottled Water Association and as the Global Lead for

Detection Methods and Reference Materials relevant to genetically

modified organisms at Monsanto Co.’s headquarters in St. Louis, MO.

Furthermore, his experiences include working for Unilever at their

Dutch research facility and for the Joint Research Centre of the

European Commission at its facility in Italy. Both position focused on

ensuring food authenticity and safety, including the presence of

genetically modified organisms in food. Dr. Lipp holds a PhD in

analytical chemistry from the University of Karlsruhe, Germany.

Jeffrey C. Moore, PhD, is a senior scientific

liaison for the Food Chemicals Codex at the

US Pharmacopeia (USP), a not-for-profit,

science-based organisation that sets public

standards for medicines, dietary supple -

ments, and food ingredients. Dr. Moore joined

USP in 2007 and since then, has made

significant advances in developing new standards to guard against

food fraud in his role as the lead scientific liaison to USP's Expert Panel

on Food Ingredient Intentional Adulterants. He is also USP's

scientific representative to the Codex Committee on Food Additives.

Jeff has more than eight years of experience in food science with an

emphasis in food fraud detection methods, functional food

chemistry, analytical method development and validation, and

frozen food research and development. He has authored more than

15 manuscripts in peer reviewed food science journals. Prior to USP,

Jeff worked for Nestlé. Jeff holds a PhD in food science from the

University of Maryland.

Biographies

Introduction

In consideration of Western diets being high in

calories, fat and sodium, coupled with the

growing issues of obesity and cardiovascular

disease, there has been increasing government

pressure on their constituent populations to

consume lower fat and lower sodium foods.

Such health and nutrition issues are complex

and while many consumers are interested in the

relationships between food and health, often

the available information is confusing and

conflicting, so Western diets still tend to be rich

in energy but nutrient poor1. While there isn’t

universal agreement on the need to reduce

saturated fats or salt in our diet2,3, cheese

manufacturers should be mindful of health

advisory guidelines and government regula -

tions that can restrict use of cheese, as well as

being aware of consumer lifestyles that drive

food purchases.

While cheeses with some lowering of fat

content (~25 per cent) are available, and have

some acceptance from consumers, when fat

levels are lowered further it impairs cheese

flavour, texture and performance such that they

do not have widespread acceptability. There has

been no successful replacement for the

contribution of fat to the characteristic flavour

and texture of aged cheese, nor have we been

able to fully counteract the effect of differences

in cheese composition (especially moisture and

salt) that result when low fat cheese is made.

Some soft cheeses such as mozzarella cheese

and processed cheese products with large fat

reductions (including some considered to be

fat-free) are commercially available but for

Health regulators seek to reduce dietary fat intake and sodium intake by stipulating

that cheeses should be made with lower fat and lower salt contents. However, both

fat and salt contribute to cheese flavour, and fat especially impacts cheese

appearance, texture and melting. Cheese is adversely affected by fat and salt

reductions, and such cheeses have not been well accepted by consumers.

Reducing fat and sodium in cheese

Donald J. McMahon

Western Dairy Center, Utah State University


CHEESE PROCESSING©

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hard and semi-hard cheeses, the consumer

must be willing to accept big differences in

flavour, texture and functional properties to

obtain a cheese with fat reductions of

50 per cent or more4.

Likewise, small reductions (10 to 25

per cent) in salt content of cheese are accept-

able to consumers, but some saltiness is an

expected part of cheese flavour5. As salt content

is reduced further, consumer liking for cheese

drops off. When cheese is consumed as part

of a meal, such as on a pizza, consumers are not

as critical of a salt reduction but if enough

saltiness is removed, then their liking for the

product will drop. Therefore, if a large sodium

reduction is to be achieved then the saltiness of

the food has to be maintained through

something other than sodium.

As well as its direct influence on cheese

flavour, salting of cheese plays a variety of roles

important in cheese manufacture and aging. On

a physical aspect, for most cheeses (except when

calcium content is lowered), adding salt

promotes whey expulsion from the cheese and

aids in surface rind formation, both of which are

important in allowing the cheese to have its

expected characteristics. Salt content in cheese

can also be critical from a microbiological

aspect. Adding salt can be essential to restricting

the growth of unwanted bacteria in cheese curd,

and the salt concentration in cheese helps

control metabolism and survival of desirable

bacteria such as the starter bacteria, as well as

secondary organisms that may grow and create

flavours during storage.

There is a similarity in lower fat and salt

cheeses in that lower fat cheeses are made with

higher moisture to prevent excessive hardness

and consequently have lower salt-in-moisture

(S/M) content. When looking at the impact of

salt on cheese microflora, what is important is

S/M rather than total salt, and it is not practical

(or desirable if the low fat cheese is being

marketed to consumers whose chooses are

influenced by health messages) to add more salt

so the lower fat cheese has the same S/M as its

full fat counterpart.

Colour of lower fat cheese

Appearance and colour of cheese is important to

consumer acceptability and consumers typically

do not like cheese with colour defects. When

more than 50 per cent of fat is removed from

cheese, it become less opaque, and even

translucent if the calcium content is also

reduced. For example, non-fat mozzarella

cheese made using direct acidification is very

trans lucent after salting and cooling6. Inter -

estingly, when such cheese is heated, it

temporarily regains opacity7 as hydrophobic

interactions cause the protein matrix to become

more coarse8. And for low fat cheeses that has

been coloured with annatto, unless a whitening

agent is added the cheese develops a dark

orange colour that is unappealing to consumers

(Figure 1) and also influences their perception of

cheese flavour9.

Low fat cheese texture

The main texture defects ascribed to low fat

semi-hard cheese are excessive firmness, being


CHEESE PROCESSING

Figure 1 Change in appearance of cheddar cheesefrom opaque to translucent when the fat content isreduced from 33 per cent (full fat) to six per cent (low fat) for uncoloured cheese or cheese colouredwith annatto

Figure 2 Consumer liking scores for cheddar cheeses made with salt levels from 0.75 per cent (low salt) to 1.8 per cent (normal salt) and presented either cold (blue) or hot (red) in a flour tortilla. Based on a nine pointhedonic scale where a score of 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = light moderately

Figure 3 Liking scores by consumers on a regular (blue) or sodium-restricted (red) diet for cheddar cheeses madewith 1.7 per cent salt levels with potassium substitution of 0 per cent, 25 per cent and 50 per cent as well as a cheesewith only 0.7 per cent salt. Based on a nine point hedonic scale where a score of 4 = dislike slightly, 5 = neither likenor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = light moderately

engineering for a better world

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fracturable and springy, having a chewy mouth feel and decreased

meltability. When cheese is cold, the solid fat particles exert a

reinforcing effect on the protein matrix thus increasing the hardness

of the cheese10. Less dispersed fat means fewer interruptions and less

interference of long range interactions between protein strands.

When the cheese is being chewed, the fat particles provide weak

points within the protein network, allowing it to be fractured into

micro-scale particles and formed into a smooth mass11. Softening of

the fat particles as the cheese is warmed further helps in the

formation of this smooth mass in which individual particles are less

detectable during chewing.

Changes in cheese texture changes during storage (such as

decreased firmness, fracture stress and strain, and increased melting)

occur more slowly in lower fat cheeses than they do in full fat cheese,

even though the higher moisture and lower salt content of low fat

cheese would be expected to promote more chemical changes

within the cheese. Low fat cheese can be manufactured so as to have

similar initial chewing properties as full fat cheese, but they do not

develop the same extent of breakdown during chewing that is

characteristic of aged cheese11.

Low fat cheese melting

When cheese is heated, release of fat from within the cheese

lubricates the cheese surface as well as inhibits moisture loss during

baking. Low fat cheeses generally lack melting and stretching

characteristics unless their calcium content is reduced12 and the

cheese surface is protected from dehydration during heating. They

also brown and scorch excessively. Spraying oil on the cheese can

prevent surface dehydration or low fat cheese can be manufactured

so as to contain fat that is easily expressed onto the cheese surface

during baking13.

Low fat cheese flavour

When comparing the flavour of full fat and low fat cheeses, it is

important to realise that differences in flavour are related to both the

balance of flavour-active compounds present in the cheese as well as

differences in volatile compound release14. The same flavour-active

compounds are found in both cheeses although their relative

amounts changes. However, for some compounds the sensory

threshold level can decrease 100 fold in non-fat systems so they are


CHEESE PROCESSING

© gcpics / Shutterstock.com

more apparent in low fat cheeses. When fat

content is lowered, there is an increase in whey

flavour and a drop in milk fat flavour (obviously)

and in aged cheese related flavours such as

sulphur and brothy flavour.

In low fat cheddar cheeses, both rosy and

burnt off-flavours are commonly present

and can start at a low intensity within two weeks

of manufacture and increase in intensity during

storage14. Rosy flavour in low fat cheese has been

associated with phenyl acetaldehyde levels15

while the burnt-brothy flavour (reminiscent of

the flavour of burned sugar) has been attributed

to an increase in furanone compounds in low fat

cheese with the largest increase being homo -

furaneol along with furaneol and sotolone14.

These differences are thought to arise from the

altered microbiology of low fat cheeses with

their lower S/M content.

Salt and cheese flavour

Even a small decrease in salt content can reduce

consumer liking of cheese. When cheddar

cheese is made with reductions in salt content,

the highest consumer liking scores are obtained

when the cheese contains about 1.8 per cent

salt. Liking for the cheese trends downward

with even 15 per cent reduction in salt, and

significantly drops for cheese containing only

1.2 per cent salt (Figure 2, page 52). Similar

observations have been made with mozzarella

pizza cheese. A challenge for cheese companies

is that the variation in salt content when making

cheddar-type cheeses can be quite large and

even in a well-controlled process, salt content

can vary up and down by 0.4 per cent salt. So for

a cheese with a target salt level of 1.8 per cent, as

well as having some cheeses that have too much

salt (which does not seem to be an issue for

flavour liking), there will be some cheeses with

insufficient salt (1.4 per cent or less) that will

affect flavour development during aging.

However, if a lower target is used, such as 1.4 per

cent salt for cheese, the lower end of the range

will now be at a level where consumer liking

rapidly drops. If potassium chloride is used to

maintain the saltiness of reduced sodium

cheeses, there is increased bitterness in the

cheese (Figure 3, page 52), although the overall

consumer liking for the cheese does not seem to

be affected (Figure 4), especially if they have a

sodium-restricted diet.

Lower fat cheese microbiology

While fat content is not thought to directly

influence the survival or growth of lactic acid

bacteria (LAB), there is a large difference in

microbial populations during aging of low fat

compared to full fat cheddar cheese. The

common pattern in full fat cheddar cheese is for

countable starter culture populations to

decrease during the first few months of storage,

while nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB)

grow to high numbers and eventually dominate

after four to six months (Figure 5). However, in

low fat cheese it is more typical to have the

starter culture remain at high levels and for

the NSLAB population to rapidly increase


CHEESE PROCESSING

Figure 4 Sensory profile scores for bitter (blue), sulphur (red), brothy (green) and salty (purple) flavour attributes inthree month old cheddar cheeses made with 1.7 per cent salt levels with 0 per cent, 25 per cent and 50 per centpotassium substitution

Figure 5 Changes in starter culture (circle, with solidtrend line) and nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (trianglewith dashed trend line) in cheddar cheese containing1.7 per cent sodium chloride during nine monthsstorage at 6°C

© nrt / Shutterstock.com

within the first two months. This lack of die-off of

the starter culture and fast growth of NSLAB to

levels tenfold higher than in full fat cheese is

attributed in part to lower S/M content of low fat

cheese and also to its higher moisture content.

Salt and microbial populations

A reduction in S/M content of cheese allows

longer survival of starter culture Lactococci

whether it is in full fat cheese or low fat cheese.

At less than 3.7 per cent S/M, starter culture

levels remain 100-fold higher after nine months

of aging in cheddar cheese. When potassium is

substituted for 25 per cent or 50 per cent of the

sodium in cheddar cheese there are some

differences in the cheese microflora in that the

lactococcal starter culture stays as the dominant

bacteria for longer. For cheese containing 1.7 per

cent salt and made with 25 per cent potassium

replacement, it takes a month longer for NSLAB

to dominate, and with 50 per cent potassium

about two months longer (Figure 6). If no

substitution is made and the cheese is made

using only 0.7 per cent salt then it can take up to

nine months before the NSLAB are dominant

(Figure 7).

There has been concern expressed that

lowering the salt content of cheese could

present a food safety hazard by allowing

growth of pathogenic bacteria. This could be an

issue for soft cheeses, but does not seem to be a

problem in semi-hard cheeses. When cheddar

cheese was contaminated with Listeria or

Salmonella, there was a similar reduction in

numbers during storage for cheese containing

only 0.7 per cent salt to that with the normal

amount of salt16,17.

Conclusions

Dynamics of cheese aging involving bacterial

microflora and production of taste, flavour and

aroma components are impacted by changes in

salt concentrations in both lower fat and sodium

cheeses. With less salt, the starter cultures stay at

higher numbers and NSLAB multiply more

rapidly, although the consequence of this is not

well understood. Virtually the same flavour

compounds are present in both full fat and low

fat cheese and it is the balance of these com -

pounds, their concentration, matrix release and

threshold levels that governs their sensory

flavour profile. Saltiness is an expected part of

cheese flavour, and even a 15 per cent reduction

of salt content in cheddar cheese will lower the

overall consumer liking of the cheese, with it

being more evident to untrained consumers

when a 30 per cent reduction is made.

The saltiness of cheese can be retained by

substituting with potassium chloride, and

although the potassium imparts some bitter -

ness to the cheese this does not appear to affect

consumer liking. There are still questions

regarding colour and mouth feel texture of low

fat cheeses that need to be resolved.

Acknowledgments

This paper is based on work performed in

collaboration with other researchers and

students at the Western Dairy Center (C. Oberg,

C. Brothersen, B. Ganasen, D. Irish and R.

Wadhwani) and with researchers at the

Southeast Dairy Foods Research Center at

North Carolina State University (M. Drake and

A. E. Foegeding).

CHEESE PROCESSING


For 30 years, Professor Donald McMahon, PhD, has pursued a

better understanding of the chemistry and technology underlying

conversion of milk into high quality dairy foods with enhanced

nutritional properties. He has published over 100 papers on milk

proteins, cheese, ultra-high temperature processed milk and other

dairy products. [email protected]

Biography

1. Miller, G.D., Drewnowski, A., King, J., Gibney, M. and

Clemens, R. (2010), Nutrient profiling: Global

approaches, policies, and perspectives. Nutrition Today

45, 6–12

2. Alderman, M.H. (2010), Reducing dietary sodium: the

case for caution. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 303, 448–449

3. Siri-Tarino, P.W., Sun, Q., Hu, F.B. and Krauss, R.M. (2010),

Saturated fat, carbohydrate, and cardiovascular

disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91, 502–509

4. Johnson, M.E., Kapoor, R., McMahon, D.J., McCoy, D.R.

and Narasimmon, R.G. (2009), Reduction of sodium and

fat levels in natural and processed cheeses: scientific

and technological aspects. Comprehensive Rev. Food

Sci. Safety, 8, 252–268.

5. Lawrence, G., Salles, C., Septier, C., Busch, J. and

Thomas-Danguin, T. (2009), Odour-taste interactions: A

way to enhance saliness in low salt content solutions,

Food Quality Preferences 20, 241–248

6. Paulson, B.M., McMahon, D.J. and Oberg, C.J. (1998),

Influence of salt on appearance, functionality, and

protein arrangements in nonfat mozzarella cheese. J.

Dairy Sci. 81, 2053-2064

7. Dave, R.I., D.J. McMahon, J.R. Broadbent and C.J. Oberg

(2001), Reversibility of the temperature-dependent

opacity of nonfat mozzarella cheese. J. Dairy Sci.

84:2364-2371

8. Pastorino, A.J., R.I. Dave, C.J. Oberg, and D.J. McMahon

(2002), Temperature effect on structure-opacity

relationships of nonfat mozzarella cheese. J. Dairy Sci.

85:2106-2113.

9. Wadhwani, R. and D. J. McMahon (2012), Color of low-

fat cheese influences flavor perception and consumer

liking. J. Dairy Sci. 95 :2336–2346

10. Rogers, N. R., D. J. McMahon, C. R. Daubert, T. K. Berry

and E. A. Foegeding. 2010. Rheological properties and

microstructure of Cheddar cheese made with different

fat contents. J. Dairy Sci. 93:4565-4576

11. Rogers, N.R., Drake, M.A., Daubert, C.R., McMahon, D.J.,

Bletsch, T.K. and Foegeding, E.A. (2009), The effect of

aging on low, reduced, and full fat cheddar cheese

texture. J. Dairy Sci. 92, 4756–4772

12. McMahon, D.J., Paulson, B.M. and Oberg, C.J. (2005),

Influence of calcium, pH and moisture on protein

matrix structure and functionality in direct acidified

nonfat mozzarella cheese. J. Dairy Sci. 88, 3754-3763

13. Wadhwani, R., W.R. McManus and D.J. McMahon (2011),

Improvement in melting and baking properties of low

fat Mozzarella cheese. J. Dairy Sci.

94 :1713–1723

14. Drake, M.A., Miracle, R.E., and McMahon, D.J. (2010),

Impact of fat reduction on flavour and flavour

chemistry of Cheddar cheeses. J. Dairy Sci. In press

15. Carunchia-Whetstine, M.E., Cadwallader, K.R. and

Drake, M.A. (2005), Characterization of rosey/

floral flavors in cheddar cheese. J. Ag. Food Chem.

53:3126-313

16. Shrestha, S., J.A. Grieder, D.J. McMahon and B.A.

Nummer (2011), Survival of Listeria monocytogenes

introduced as a post-aging contaminant during

storage of low-salt Cheddar cheese at 4, 10, and 21°C. J.

Dairy Sci. 94 :4329–4335

17. Shrestha, S., J.A. Grieder, D.J. McMahon and B.A.

Nummer (2011), Survival of Salmonella serovars

introduced as a post-aging contaminant during

storage of low-salt Cheddar cheese at 4, 10, and 21°C. J.

Food Sci. 76:M616-M621

References

Figure 6 Changes in starter culture (circle, with solidtrend line) and nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (trianglewith dashed trend line) in cheddar cheese containingonly 1.7 per cent salt consisting of a 50:50 mixture ofsodium chloride and potassium chloride during ninemonths storage at 6°C

Figure 7 Changes in starter culture (circle, with solidtrend line) and nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (trianglewith dashed trend line) in cheddar cheese containingonly 0.7 per cent sodium chloride during 9 monthsstorage at 6°C

The list of hygienic requirements for belts

is definitively quite long. Belt suppliers are

requested to fulfil these requirements ensuring

the highest hygiene standard possible to ensure

that food processors can produce safe food

when belts are used for conveying purposes

with direct contact to the food product.

The term ‘belt hygiene’ is a general term

when it comes to belts being used in food

plants. What does hygiene actually mean in

relation to conveyor belts? It means that:

� All surfaces of a conveyor belt should be

accessible for cleaning. The design of the

conveyor frame should not prevent a

thorough belt cleaning

� All belt surfaces should be cleanable to a

microbial level so that bacteria population

doesn’t get an accelerational growth

push by the belt surface being scratched or

having crevices

� There is no possibility of cross contamina -

tion risk occurring through the belt itself.

The food product touches the belt surface

and should not get contaminated by

remaining debris that is sticking in hinges,

crevices or cuts from the previous manu -

facturing shift

� There is theoretically no risk of foreign body

contamination by broken belt pieces that

can get into the food processing chain.

Four belt types and their pros and cons

The following section is a hygienic assessment

of the most common conveyor belt tech nol -

ogies used in direct contact with food products:

� Traditional friction driven flat belts

� Modular plastic belts

� Homogenous friction driven plastic belts

� Homogeneous positive driven

plastic belts.

Food manufacturers use all four of these belt

types. Each type have their own specific advant -

ages, like low investment costs, transfers,

belt strength, application requirements (e.g.

drainage, temperature ranges, troughing, etc.

However, a sanitary and hygienic production

process is key to produce safe food and main-

tain brand name and consumer confidence.

Since conveyor belts are in direct contact with

food products, hygienic features should never

be compromised and food manufacturers

should at all times be aware of hygiene risks.

For each conveyor belt type, this article elabor -

ates on advantages as well as things to be on

the lookout for.

Traditional flat belt

(driven by pre-tension / friction)

For many years, there has been some com -

placency about the contamination risk inherent

in traditional flat belts. Traditional flat belts are

manufactured from different layers of fabric and

coating materials. Theoretically, the surface of a

flat belt is easy to clean. However, through use,

the surface of the flat belt becomes scratched,

cracks will develop and sometimes extend deep

into the fabric. As a result of this wear, in

combination with the stretching which occurs

when fitting the belts onto the conveyor with

pre-tension, the surface structure can consist of

a multitude of cracks. Fluids and product residue

are able to penetrate the belt and encourage the

growth of microorganisms. Because many flat

belts still have open-sided belt edges, con -

tamina tion can occur through the open-sided

belt edges. This allows bacteria to easily enter

the various fabric and reinforcement layers,

posing a serious contamination risk. The

EHEDG therefore recommends sealing the belt

edges at all times.

Conclusion for flat belts

Flat belts still have their place in the industrial

chain of conveying food products. They should

be checked for any surface damages regularly

and should be replaced as soon as scratches or

crevices occur.

Modular plastic belts (positive driven)

Modular plastic belts (MPB) have been used in all

kinds of food processing applications for more

than 40 years with major pushes experienced in

Conveyor belts are an essential component of industrial food manufacturing. They

can be found in almost every part of the production process – from the receiving area

of raw products / live animals up to the area where finished products are packaged.

Belts must be easy to clean if they are to satisfy a food manufacturing company’s

stringent hygiene requirements. They also have to fulfil a long list of technical

application specific requirements. This article mainly focuses on the hygienic aspects

of belt conveying technologies.

Conveyor belts in the food manufacturingenvironment

Roger Scheffler

EHEDG Member


EHEDG: CONVEYOR BELTS

the 1990s. There are belts successfully installed

in the market that run in hygienically sensitive

applications, like ready-to-eat processing, raw

meat processing, and ham processing areas.

MPB provide various processing benefits such as

reduced maintenance, durability, longer

lifetime, belt strength, etc.

But modular plastic belts are not the easiest

belts types to clean. However, with the right

hygienic conveyor design and the appropriate

cleaning focus, it is indeed possible to get them

thoroughly clean. Modular plastic belt suppliers

have heavily invested in hygienic design

improvements, hence better cleanability of their

products over the past few years.

For hygienically sensitive, direct food con -

tact applications, food processors should ensure

their MPB have the following hygienic features:

� Reduced amount of hinges

� Greater hinge opening as belts go around

the sprocket

� Good exposure of the belt inside and rods

(Pin less type of belt available too)

� Long modules eliminating gaps or seams

where possible

� Hygienic sprocket designs facilitating

cleaning access.

By comparison, there is much less risk through

hidden scratches and crevices as they occur with

traditional flat belts. Modular plastic belts are

manufactured from moulded, hard plastic

modules that have much higher cut resistant

properties than flat belts. Even if there is a

scratch on the top surface, there is no risk that

fluids can ingress into the belt because it is a full

plastic component.

The hinge areas form the largest hygienic

risks in MPB. If these areas aren’t cleaned

well, there is always the risk of debris remaining

in the hinges after cleaning. Specific clean-

ing focus is therefore recommended when

cleaning the hinges.

Clean in Place (CIP) systems (spray bar

solutions) may be a good option to improve the

cleaning results of MPBs. There are specific CIP

systems available (mainly offered by MPB

suppliers) that are specifically designed to clean

hinge areas and belts insides at the same time.

Modular belts function in low tension mode

with catenary sags along the conveyor. This is a

huge advantage as it allows for hygienic features

in conveyor frames like belt lifters or swivel idle

ends, facilitating effective and efficient cleaning

without de-tensioning the belt.

Conclusion for modular belts

The major reason why modular plastic belts

are so popular in the food conveying business

is still their reliability and functionality.

Aspects like minimal maintenance, minimal

unexpected downtime and easy handling

are major drivers. With the right hygienic

design features in both belt and conveyor, and



From left to right, flat belt in good condition, bad condition and with open edges

EHEDG doc 13 recommends sealing the belt edges

EHEDG doc 13 recommends using swivel mounted rollers

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All to improve your food safety and reduce your cleaning costs

the appropriate cleaning focus, they can be

cleaned thoroughly and well.

Homogenous plastic belts

(driven by pretension / friction)

In the 1980s, homogenous friction driven belts

entered the market, representing a huge step

forward in the belt evolution regarding

cleanability. They have mainly been used in

sausage processing since then, but they never

really could conquer the market widely. This belt

is easy to clean with smooth surfaces inside and

out, with no fabrics and no hinges.

The issue with this belt is its material

elasticity. The plastic material elongates con -

siderably under thermal and pre-tension

influences. It has to be repeatedly re-tensioned

because the elongation often results in belt

slipping, and consequential process downtime.

Conclusion for friction driven

homogenous plastic belts

There are still some applications where this belt

can be used in order to increase the hygiene

level of the food processing machinery. But

aspects like ambient temperatures and belt load

should be taken into account to avoid costly

maintenance and process issues.

Homogenous plastic belts

(positive driven)

The belting industry recognised the elongation

problems of these pretension solutions.

The industry felt obliged to develop new belt

solutions considering the homogenous base

as being the most hygienic. This resulted in

a positive-drive conveyor belt made from a

homogenous synthetic material with a drive

characteristic on the belt inside. This belt

combines the positive properties of a traditional

belt (easy-to-clean surface) with those of a

modular belt (positive-drive, no belt tensioning

required). A non-tensioned conveyor belt has

beneficial implications for hygiene standards in

a food processing plant. There are generally

several conveyor belts in use in different

areas and departments of a decent sized food

plant, and a hundred or more may be installed in

major food factories. Two-shift working means

that there is limited time available for cleaning of

all the machinery. This is where the homogen -

ous positive driven belt technology can offer a

major benefit in terms of sanitation efficiency.

These belts can be simply and easily lifted

up to gain access to the interior of the conveyor.

In addition, the belt surface is easy to clean

which can help to reduce cleaning time

considerably. The hygienic belt characteristics

produce additional benefits in that product

residues can be easily and safely removed from

any place on the belt. Energy savings due to

reduced water consumption are a welcome

side effect.

Conclusion for homogenous positive

driven plastic belts

For many hygienic sensitive applications, this is

the state-of-the-art belt technology. It not only

helps to raise the hygiene level of the food

processing machinery, but it can also help to

reduce the time for sanitation and water usage.

However, since the material is not as cut resistant

as modular plastic belts, users should be careful

with applications where mechanical impact by

sharp items is expected to happen.

Summary

As food safety continues to be a focus issue in

the food processing industry, the belting

manufacturing companies are requested to

develop hygienic belt solutions and services

ensuring safe conveyance of food products.

The EHEDG plays an important role with

regards to belt hygiene. They promote hygiene

during the processing and packing of food

products. The guidelines on conveyor systems,

to be published later in 2013, will be another

import ant step towards promoting safe food by

improving hygienic engineering and sanitary

design in food conveying and manufacturing.



Roger Scheffler has spent over 17 years in

mechanical engineering. For the past five

years, he has focused on hygienic conveyor

design for the food processing industry.

Roger now works as a Food Sanitation

Consultant / Specialist at Commercial Food

Sanitation L.L.C. As such, he is charged with

sanitation and food safety consulting to food processors across

Europe. Roger is a member of the EHEDG, and a proactive participant

in three of EHEDG´s subgroups, namely conveyor systems, fish

processing and meat hygiene.

Biography

Homogenous plastic belts (driven by pretension / friction)

Homogenous plastic belts can be easily lifted for gaining access to the interior of the conveyor

For these reasons, Barilla put forth a specific

project aimed at increasing the widespread use

of sustainable cropping systems. Analysis

was based on a holistic approach, taking into

consideration economic, agronomic, food safety

and environmental indicators. The project

focused on identifying potential improvements

of the most diffused cropping systems for the

cultivation of durum wheat in Italy, while

maintaining high levels of quality and health

standards. The project has demonstrated that

environmentally friendly practices are also often

economically advantageous for farmers.

The Barilla Group is one of the largest

Italian food manufacturers, a leader in the pasta

market, European leader in ready-made sauces

and Italian leader in bakery products. Engaged

in all the categories that underpin the Mediterr -

anean dietary model, Barilla provides products

for daily use, seeking excellence in taste and

paying constant attention to ensuring a

balanced diet. Over 1,000 products, suitable for

different times throughout the day, are sold

daily. Being a family company imposes a long-

term logic on the business, where today’s work is

based on yesterday’s and becomes the building

block for tomorrow’s, constituting almost a

generational pact not only for its owners, but

also for its workers and the territories the

company operates in. Fifty million people

choose its products every day in over 100

countries. Being in the service of our customers

carries a series of responsibilities. The paradoxes

linked to food in contemporary society help us

to appreciate why a company that operates in

the food sector can and must now make its

resources and skills available to take part, in

proportion to its size and possibilities, in solving

global problems where food and nutrition play

an increasingly determinant role. With over 130

years of experience behind it, the company has

decided to offer the public consumption choices

that are compatible with the wellbeing of each

individual, of society at large, and of the planet,

unstintingly pursuing this goal day after day.

The study

The life cycle of a product – from field to fork, from

raw materials to consumption – is a complex

story with many players and protagonists.

Seed producers, farmers and breeders are

the primary economic players that have always

supplied the raw materials. The processing

industry follows, mills and plants that process

raw materials into food products, ensuring

their quality, adequate health and nutrit-

ional properties.

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies

carried out by Barilla have demonstrated that

the farming phase of the raw materials used

bears the greatest environmental impact. More

Barilla has released its study on the environmental impacts of pasta conducted with

the life cycle assessment methodology through the publication of the Environmental

Product Declaration. If we don’t consider the home cooking phase, which does not

fall under company dominion, durum wheat cultivation is responsible for more than

80 per cent of the ecological footprint, approximately 60 per cent of the carbon

footprint and almost the entirety of the water footprint.

Barillaactivities insustainableagriculture

Luca RuiniHealth, Safety, Environment and Energy Director and BCFN Expert, Barilla G. e. R. Fratelli S.p.A.

Cesare Ronchi

Senior Purchasing Manager, Responsible for Sustainable Agriculture Project, Barilla G. e. R. Fratelli S.p.A.


SUSTAINABILITY

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specifically, the major impacts linked with

farming activities are derived from mechanical

operations (working the soil) and the use of

nitrogenous fertilisers. The nitrous oxide (N2O),

produced during the bacterial reactions that

take place in the soil, have a potential green -

house gas effect approximately 300 times

greater than that of CO2. From 2009, Barilla, with

the support of the Università Cattolica di

Piacenza, has promoted a multidisciplinary

study, which started with our principal raw

material, durum wheat, and focuses equal

attention on economic, production, agronomic,

environmental and food safety aspects. This

study aims to identify sustainable farming

methods to roll-out to Italian production areas

and which will also improve the quality and yield

of raw materials. A number of farming methods

were analysed based on alternating durum

wheat crops with other herbaceous crops that

are commonly used in other regions throughout

Italy in a four year cycle. Farming methods and

related costs were reviewed for each system,

with particular focus on crop rotation, tillage,

fertilisers, pesticides and related yields.

This assessment was developed across

three macro areas: Northern Italy (the

Lombardy-Veneto flat plains and the Emilia

Romagna region); Central Italy (Tuscany, the

Marches and Umbria regions) and Southern and

Insular Italy (Puglia, Basilicata and Sicily).

The indicators

The indicators used to quantify the different

cropping system impacts were divided

into environmental indicators (carbon foot-

print, water footprint and ecological footprint),

agronomic indicators (NUE), food safety indi -

cators (DON index) and economic indicators

(Net income).

Carbon footprint, also known as ‘global

warming potential’ (GWP), expresses the

total amount of greenhouse gases (GHG)

produced to the system and is usually

expressed in kilo grams of CO2-equivalent. It is

regulated at an international level by the

documents Green house gas protocol and PAS

2050. Concerning the carbon footprint of

products, an ISO regulation (ISO 14067) is

under development. There are also several

protocols for the calculation of greenhouse

gas emissions for a specific product. Since the

present study deals with pasta production,

Barilla certifies the environmental performances

of most of its products with the Swedish

EPDTM system. The product category rules

(PCRs) of pasta, as well as those of other

products, are subjected to an open consulta-

tion before being published on the website of

the organisation.

� Water footprint measures the water con -

sumption of a system in terms of volume of

water evapotranspirated by plants, con -

sumed or polluted

� Ecological footprint is a measure of how

much biologically productive land and

water surface an activity requires to

produce all the resources it consumes and

to absorb the waste it generates. It is

measured in global hectares (gha)

� NUE is the Nitrogen Use Efficiency: it is

measured in terms of kilograms or product

per kilogram, of nitrogen given to the crop

through fertilisation

� The DON Index expresses the risk of

molecules toxic to human health originated

by the proliferation of pathogenic fungi

Fusarium Head Blight (FHB), producers of

secondary metabolites called mycotoxins.

These mycotoxins can be present in

different quantities of crop yields obtained.

It depends on the choices made and on the

seasonal cultivation during the crop cycle.

The development of these fungi depends

on meteorological factors, along with

specific factors linked with production unit,

such as varietal susceptibility, the rotation of

crops and the tillage of soil. DON content in

wheat for human consumption is limited

by law

� Net Income is the difference between

direct costs of cultivation (in field activities

and technical tools) and the gross market -

able production.

Agricultural practices

Agricultural practices can influence the

environmental, economic and food safety

performances of cultivation. In particular, this

study contemplates the main practices of crop

rotation, use of fertilisers, tillage, seeding

and weed and pest management. Selecting

appro priate crop rotation is a key issue for the

sustainability of a farming system. When

cultivating durum wheat, it is best to avoid

cereals as the precession crop because the

cultural residues of such crops are a favourable

habitat for the fungi that propagate micotoxyn

DON. Cultivation of a legume crop is recomm -

ended whenever possible insofar as it is able to

fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and,

therefore, allow reduction of additional fertilisa -

tion required for crop growth of the following

year. Italian farmers rarely plan rotations

for upcoming years in advance, which could

allow a reduction in costs and better fertilisa-

tion planning.

Tillage is another important aspect both for

the environmental and economic impacts,

which are mainly linked to diesel fuel use.

The hilly central regions of Italy have a tradition

of plowing yearly, which increases the risk of

erosion and costs due to fuel. Plowing, how-

ever, is not necessary for all cases and minimal

or no tillage could be a valid solution to reduce


SUSTAINABILITY©

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environmental impact and increase profit-

ability. In areas with a high risk of mycotoxins,

such as Northern Italy, this solution cannot

be implemented because plowing helps re-

duce mycotoxins.

The use of fertilisers is another key issue,

given the high impact on both the production

and use phase. Nitrogen fertilisation causes

the emission of the greenhouse gas N2O, and

so certain factors must be contemplated such

as the timing of treatments, the quantity of

nitrogen distributed in fields and excessive

and often unnecessary fertilisation during

pre-sowing.

Seeding can indirectly influence the

indicators considered because seeding time,

rate and variety can affect the yield, which is the

parameter by which the impacts of one hectare

are divided by and hence ‘diluted’. This same

reason also makes it important to undertake

prompt and effective management of weeds

and pests for sustainable crop production.

The results

In Northern Italy, no significant differences

emerged between the various farming systems

that could justify radical changes in current

manufacturing methods, although important

areas for improvement were identified. The

differences that came to light in Central Italy

were significantly greater: moving from one-

crop cereals, which is widespread in this

geographic area, to crop rotation methods

amongst those observed, can achieve astonish -

ing results with up to a 55 per cent fall in

greenhouse gas emissions (equal to approxi -

mately 390 kilograms of CO2 equivalent per ton

of durum wheat grown) and a significant

increase in gross profit. Similarly, important

environmental and financial benefits could be

obtained in Southern Italy.

The project has demonstrated the import -

ance of an integrated approach to study the

sustainability of a cropping system. We must

bear in mind that agriculture is primarily an

economic activity and we risk walking the line of

counter-productivity when merely focusing on

environmental and food safety issues. However,

the study shows that environmentally friendly

practices are also often economically advant -

ageous because they greatly increase the

efficiency of technical tool usage. Imple -

mentation of dicotyledons into a cereal-only

rotation allows a reduction of environmental

impacts, a reduction of DON risk and an increase

in net income.

The project has also highlighted some key

points on the sustainability of durum wheat

cultivation. These results were summarised in a

document, called the Handbook for sustain-

able cultivation of quality durum wheat in

Italy, which was distributed to farmers nation -

wide. This document is intended to serve as tool

to disseminate knowledge and practical

suggestions. It contains several guidelines

concerning issues of crop rotation, soil

tillage, nitrogen fertilisation, sowing and weed

and pest management.

Such sustainable agricultural techniques

were further tested last year by a network of 13

farms. The results were very positive. By

choosing optimal crop rotations, farmers

obtained an increase in yield (up to 20 per cent)

and a reduction in carbon footprint (up to 36 per

cent) and in direct costs of production (up to 31

per cent).

This year, 100 farms are participating in this

project. The objective for Barilla is in the next few

years to buy an ever increasing amount of

durum wheat grown according to the indenti -

fied sustainable farming techniques. The project

is going be extended to other countries and to

other strategic raw materials such as soft wheat,

rye and tomatoes.

SUSTAINABILITY

“Extrusion is a process in which a material is forced

to flow through a die orifice,” Plattner explains.

“This can occur under relatively mild conditions,

for example in the production of traditional pasta

in which the thermal inputs are limited, to

applications with more severe conditions such as

in the production of expanded corn snacks.

Extrusion cooking can be a complex process, in

that the forced flow through a die occurs under

elevated temperature and pressure. The rotating

screw of a cooking extruder creates mechanical

shear, which when coupled with additional

heating of the barrel, causes the food material to

plasticise and melt. As it exits through the die, the

product expands which creates a unique cellular

structure and texture. The physical aspects of heat

transfer, mass transfer and residence time impact

the final product quality.”

Cooking extruders can be used to manu -

facture a wide range of products, ranging from

simple expanded snacks to highly processed

meat substitutes. One of the more important

aspects of extrusion technology is its ability

to help create products with nutritional

fortification and dietary supplementation.

“Extrusion can indeed offer many benefits as a

production method for these food products, as

elevated temperature and pressure allows for

the destruction of anti-nutritional components,”

Plattner agrees. “In products like corn-soy

blends, which are used by relief organisations as

a food supply, extrusion inactivates trypsin

inhibitors which could otherwise create health

issues in children. In rice analogues, extrusion

can be used to embed vitamins and conse -

quently stop them from separating from the rice

grains. This will typically utilise broken rice which

would otherwise be discarded or sold at lower

prices. The broken rice is ground into rice flour

and used to produce a value-added product.

Extrusion processing offers the option of

reforming the rice flour into a precooked

product that can be shaped and have a similar

texture to a cooked rice kernel. In this process,

we can add different vitamins, minerals, beta-

carotenes and other potential functional

ingredients inside the rice. This fortification of

rice analogues allows consumers to benefit

without making major changes in their dietary

habits. Additionally, extrusion can be used in

preparing protein-enhanced products for those

who have a protein deficiency. For example,

a lentil analogue can be prepared from a

combination of soy and wheat flour. This gives

enhanced protein content to the consumer in a

form that they more readily recognise as a staple

part of their diet.”

So how does extrusion compare to batch

processing? “In the world of food processing, a

food product is considered unique because of

what it’s made from and the process by which it

is made,” Plattner explains. “If either of these

change, then the final product will be changed

as well. The change may enhance the product’s

characteristics or it may take something away

from what the consumer expects. Extrusion can

offer some advantages over conventional

batch processing, although the products are

typically quite different from one another.

Extrusion processing usually shines in its ability

to handle non-traditional ingredients. For

example, when making breadcrumbs, the

traditional process of bread breaking relies on

the development of wheat gluten to set the

structure of the bread prior to milling into

crumbs. When a non-traditional product is

required, such as gluten-free breading, there

are limits to the ingredients that can be

utilised. Extrusion works quite well in these

applica tions, since it relies on the cooking and

expansion of starch to set the structure, many

non-traditional ingredients such as rice, corn

and sorghum can be utilised.”

Cutting costs and maintaining quality are

two drivers for food manufacturers across all

areas of business. Extrusion can be cost-effective

because it typically shortens the processing time

for making a product. “While a traditional batch-

cooked cereal line may require several hours to

make a product, extruded cereals can be

produced in much shorter periods of time,”

Plattner says. “Extrusion also requires much less

energy, water addition and has less waste, or by-

product, streams than conventional batch

processes. It also allows more flexibility in terms

of ingredient selection, product changeover and

range and can be started and stopped with

much less product waste.”

Wenger Manufacturing Inc. has a long-

standing reputation for meeting industry

demand with their products, starting with the

design of a machine to blend molasses with dry

feedstuffs which produced pellets back in

1948. “While we have always been recognised

for our robust and innovative designs, Wenger

Manufacturing Inc. has focused recent efforts on

the development of specialised equipment for

industry-specific requirements,” Plattner reveals.

“In 2010 alone, we introduced more than 20 new

equipment designs and were awarded 11

patents. These new developments included an

enhanced sanitary dryer, thermal twin extruder,

high intensity preconditioner and updated

control systems to incorporate product tracking

and monitoring of critical processing variables.

One of the more recent additions to the Wenger

group includes Source Technology, which has

developed several on-line analysers which can

monitor bulk density, temperature and product

colour. These devices can be outfitted with NIR

technology as well as video technology to

carefully monitor important product attributes.

This enables these product attributes to be

measured without the need for human contact,

which is critical from a food safety perspective.”

Founded in Kansas, USA, in 1935 by two brothers who designed the first extrusion

cooking system, Wenger Manufacturing now offers a range of premium single-screw

extruders, twin-screw extruders, dryers/coolers, flavour coating and enrobing

systems and control systems. The basic technology used in the first extrusion

cooking systems is still used in commercial extruders today. Brian Plattner, Process

Engineering Manager at Wenger Manufacturing Inc., takes a closer look at extrusion

and its benefits for the food industry.


An interview with Brian Plattner, Process Engineering Manager, Wenger Manufacturing Inc.

In a nutshell

What will tomorrow bring

wenger.com

BELGIUM TAIWAN BRASIL CHINA TURKEY INDIA

INNOVATION DISTINGUISHES BETWEEN A LEADER AND A FOLLOWER. —Steve Jobs

Turning ideas into opportunities.PROGRESSIVE FOOD PROCESSING

How are you going to navigate the ever-changing dietary landscape?

Today’s dietary demands are literally all over the board. While some consum-ers are demanding nutritious foods that are quick and easy to prepare, others desire protein-rich food that fits a low-carb or vegetarian lifestyle. Still others are simply looking for enough affordable food to feed a growing population. Yet, Wenger has been addressing challenges like these for decades. Wenger was the first, for example, to develop extrusion processes for high-protein foods, meat extenders and meat substitutes made from soy proteins. And we were the first to develop quick-cooking extruded and fortified rice, utilizing broken grain and lower-cost cereal blends to feed hungry nations. Now, we partner with food companies to develop the processes and products they re-quire to meet world consumer’s specific nutrition demands. Within our world-renowned Technical Center, we provide unmatched expertise for development challenges, whether it be for foods that are ready-to-eat, gluten-free, protein enhanced, heart healthy or have a low-glycemic index. And the list goes on.

Contact us now. With new concepts and fresh initiatives, we’re ready to help you meet the ever-changing requirements of the food industry.

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